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This essay argues that delimiting the settler colonial analytic to colonial legacies in the "Anglo-world" risks disavowing its congruent relationship with other colonial ideologies such as those of the Spanish imperial world. In examining Alexis de Tocqueville's comparisons of Anglo- and Spanish American colonization alongside Latin American writers like Lorenzo de Zavala and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, it shows how they occupied a common discursive terrain in grappling with the prospects for democracy in the new world. For Tocqueville, the failure of Spanish American democracy compared to the United States stems from the different systems of land colonization at work in each context. Sarmiento and Zavala provide different accounts of American colonization that exhibit both intersections with and departures from Tocqueville. Bringing these writers together shows how settler colonial ideologies and imaginaries in the Americas circulated in a shared hemispheric space and reciprocally shaped one another in contingent ways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective/context: This article shows the internal dynamics of a distinct frontier region along the eastern plains of the New Kingdom of Granada during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The foundation of cities, the creation of governorships, their constant shifts and jurisdictional disputes, the exploitation of indigenous labor, security, and the imperial expansion were highly complex issues that today allow analyzing the territorialization of the Spanish Empire on a local scale in which multiple negotiations took place between the central power of the Audiencia at the Reign's capital and the rulers and settlers in the frontier. Methodology: By comparing and contrasting rarely explored sources, such as the capitulations of governorships and the reports of royal officials and Jesuit missionaries on indigenous slavery and settlement, the article shows how the plain's provinces were politically and administratively constructed over this period. Originality: the research delves into the complexities of provincial formation in a frontier area, expanding in detail the procedures for the settlement of the Llanos' governorships, a topic little studied in the literature dedicated to the imperial past in the New Kingdom of Granada. Conclusions: The dynamism and mobility that occurred in the plains piedmont, influenced by phenomena such as indigenous slavery, jurisdictional instability and fear of possible invasions by foreign powers, reveal the local construction of the Empire and the relationships between different managing levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Larq Journal for Philosophy, Linguistics & Social Sciences is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The use of 3D visualization technologies offers a unique opportunity to reconstruct historical cities that no longer exist or have been substantially modified. In this paper, we use the oldest preserved map of the city of San Cristóbal de La Laguna, created in 1588 by the engineer Leonardo Torriani, as the basis for its 3D virtual recreation. This map shows the first non-fortified Spanish colonial city whose plan provided a model for the colonial cities in America. These distinct features made San Cristóbal de La Laguna a UNESCO world heritage site. In our work, we present a map-based workflow for 3D reconstruction that balances fidelity to the original map with the integration of other historical sources and the current status of the city. This leads to the development of several 3D models from those distinct sources whose integration provides the 3D reconstruction of the city in the 16th century. The results of this project can be applied to other similar maps that were created in Europe at that time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Human Review is the property of Eagora Science and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article examines Spanish colonial discourse on Morocco during the Rif War from the perspective of gender. It focuses on the most reactionary sections of the Army of Africa, which later revolted against the Second Spanish Republic. The image of the Rifian man in this colonial setting is analysed as playing a decisive role in the shaping of Spanish masculinity, which was built through dialogue with this representation of the other's manhood. This male archetype was especially relevant in the culture of the Africanist soldiers who would later have such a huge impact on the history of Spain. This article reflects on the complexities and ambiguities of the colonial relationship and aims to contribute to the discussion on the exceptionality of Spanish colonialism as compared with other European empires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although studies of warfare are now common in Maya archaeology, much remains to be learned about strategy, tactics, and various other practical factors in the process of making war. An emphasis on the concrete and practical is necessary to both acknowledge agency and understand how conflict relates to the human experience. Through an examination of documentary and archaeological data in a comparative framework, I elaborate on practices of Maya fortification construction and how the creation of a martial landscape ties into relations of power during the Late Postclassic/Early Spanish Colonial period (a.d. 1200–1600). During this period, in the region of Mensabak, Chiapas, Mexico, Maya peoples fortified a peninsula according to principles of defense-in-depth. In other words, they created layers of fortification to slow and stall an attack. My analysis reveals how the creation of a martial landscape shaped local culture by incorporating elements of sacred geography and ritual landscape to perpetuate social inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, virus infections in grapevines are of concern due to the potential for economic loss. Although the grape industry in Mexico is relatively small and focused mainly on the local market, production dates back to the time of the Spanish colonization. This manuscript discusses the findings on grapevine viruses in Mexico. Nine viruses have been identified in the last fifty years, including grapevine red blotch virus (GRBV), grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 (GLRaV-3), grapevine fanleaf virus (GFLV), and grapevine virus A (GVA). Important information is provided about these viruses and viral pathogens that have not yet been reported in Mexico, but represent an ongoing threat to plant health and grapevine production in other viticultural regions of the world. Strategies for virus control in vineyards are described. The information discussed here should be shared with growers and stakeholders to prevent future negative impacts on the Mexican grapevine industry and to save ancient grapevine accessions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historically, Iberian horse breeds were considered the height of perfection, but with the development of the Thoroughbred (the embodiment of enlightened modernity), they increasingly were aligned with Spanish obsolescence. However, this dichotomy is too simple and often incorrect. As this paper illustrates, the Spanish Pure Breed itself is the outcome of a major modernization effort in the sixteenth century, linked to the Spanish colonial empire’s own early modernity. Furthermore, “modernizing” attempts continue to shape the breed as breeders and breed organizations attempt to meet the demands of the sport horse market, emulating the success of the modern sport horse breeds. Thus, as this paper argues, within complex temporal interactions between older and newer forms of modernity, the resurgence of older, presumably superseded, projects presents a kind of queer subversion of the temporal narratives of progress, modernity, and modernization. This subversion is instantiated in the present moment by the traditional Iberian horse (as the product and icon of an older form of modernity). As a natureculture, this older modernity reverberates not only as a cultural investment but also as a “natural” resurgence of genetic diversity and multiplicity. This article theorizes the marginalized early modernities of Spain and Portugal in their baroque colonial multiplicities, and thereby rewrites the way European modernity has been understood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Cultural Studies / Kültür Araştırmaları Dergisi is the property of Journal of Cultural Studies / Kultur Arastirmalari Dergisi and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Librosdelacorte.es is the property of Instituto Universitario "La Corte en Europa" - IULCE and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article explores how the involvement of US citizens in projects of political revolution across the Caribbean threatened the geostrategic and economic interests of the United States in the region. In 1822, a revolutionary expedition led by a veteran of the Napoleonic wars, Henri Louis Villaume de Ducoudray-Holstein, departed from the Atlantic seaboard to overthrow Spanish rule in Puerto Rico and to establish the so-called Republic of Boricua. The republican utopia nonetheless collapsed after Curaçao's Dutch authorities arrested the expedition's leaders. This article assesses the expedition's geopolitical ramifications, highlighting how it exacerbated tensions between the US and the Spanish Empire. It also underscores the predicament of US officials, both in Washington and across the Caribbean, who sought to defend US geostrategic goals and the Union's maritime trade, even while policing US participation to illicit activities in the Revolutionary Caribbean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article describes the significance of religion for the form and composition of Spanish-American cities. The cities were politically shaped by new government techniques and the exercise of royal rule, which were organized around elaborate ceremonial regimens centered on the figure of the Spanish king and Catholic religious rituals. The Catholic presence was also evident in the physical presence of numerous cathedrals, churches, monasteries, and chapels in the cities of the Spanish Empire. Participation in religious rituals and ceremonies was of great importance for the legitimacy of royal rule. The cities of Spanish America developed a new epistemology that connected them with new understandings of antiquity and granted them authority. The new cities were considered modern and were supposed to be geographically located near navigable waters and possess urban architectural splendor. The dominance of Catholicism in the cities and towns of the Spanish Empire was also evident in the daily Mass celebrations and the church bells that called the faithful to the rituals. The religious rituals and ceremonies were performed both in the buildings of worship and in the squares and streets of the cities and towns. The cities of Spanish America acquired a history, mythology, and religious authority in the Catholic world through religious ceremonies, the cult of city patron saints, the promotion of city saints in Rome, and the production of pious people worthy of beatification. This article deals with the significance of squares and street names in the cities of the Spanish colonial empire. The central squares were surrounded by a network of streets that extended from the central plaza. With the growth of the cities, new smaller squares emerged and the streets were given names that reflected the various economic and commercial activities of the city. In addition, streets were named after religious and secular institutions to emphasize the connection to the Catholic Church and the Spanish monarchy. In the 16th and 17th centuries, many Spanish Habsburg subjects were canonized in Rome to legitimize the power and influence of the Spanish monarchy. Candidates for canonization were also proposed in the cities of the New World Empire to strengthen the connection to the Catholic Church and Rome. Cathedrals often favored the worship of saints associated with the monarchy, the origins of the city, or the founding of their cathedral chapter. The cult of patron saints was an important religious currency used by cities in competition for primacy and religious power among the cities in the empire. In Puebla de los Angeles, founded in 1531 in New Spain, the Archangel Michael became closely associated with the bishopric of Puebla a hundred years later, after the Archangel appeared to the Indian Diego Lázaro in a city under his jurisdiction in 1631. The decision of the Bishop of Puebla, Gutierrez Bernardo de Quiroz (1626-1638), to build a sanctuary to mark this miracle led to a lasting cult of the saint in Puebla. The city's connection to the Archangel dated back to the first bishop of Tlaxcala, Julián Garcés (1525-1542), when the [Extracted from the article]

This article argues that the centuries-long history of mercury-gold amalgamation is crucial to contemporary debates surrounding global mercury pollution from artisanal and small-scale gold mining. Drawing on historical findings that examine Spanish colonial and Indigenous metallurgical knowledge as well as ethnographic and scientific research, we resituate the history of mercury amalgamation in Latin America, focusing on the Colombian Andes and the Peruvian Amazon – two regions where mercury pollution from artisanal and small-scale gold mining provokes international concern. We identify the policy pitfalls caused by overlooking the untold histories of the amalgamation process along with the European contribution to global mercury emissions rooted in these histories. By critically examining the curation of presentist narratives in UNESCO's memorialisation of Almadén's mercury mines as a World Heritage Site, narratives that also underpin initiatives by the United Nations to bring about a "mercury-free world," we demonstrate how such ahistorical framings contribute to the criminalisation of artisanal and small-scale gold miners, not only in Perú and Colombia but also worldwide. Our findings present an important first step in highlighting the histories of mercury and gold in the hands of artisanal and small-scale gold miners in Latin America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Spanish colonial era, ships frequently transported mercury across the Atlantic to the New World to be used in gold mining. As many of those eventually sank, shipwrecks may represent a local source of mercury contamination in the marine environment. In this context, evaluating mercury contamination in coastal sediments and mercury magnification in marine food webs is crucial for understanding mercury dynamics and estimating exposure to marine life in locations where shipwrecks occurred. This study investigated mercury concentration present in coastal sediments and biota from three distinct groups: macroalgae (Asparagopsis armata and Ulva lactuca), gastropods (Littorina striata and Patella candei gomesii) and crustaceans (Palaemon elegans and Pachygrapsus marmoratus) collected in the Azores Archipelago, Portugal (one site near a 16th-century shipwreck and others in locations further away). Mercury analyses indicated that the sediments and species from the shipwreck area had significantly higher mercury levels than the other areas. Fine sediments showed values above those established in sediment quality guidelines; however, considering the mercury concentration of the total sediment fraction, adverse biological effects are not expected to occur. Moreover, increased mercury concentration from primary producers to consumers reinforced the biomagnification potential of this metal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Namibian Studies is the property of Otjivanda Presse Essen and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper explores the Dominican missionaries' unsuccessful but interesting project of purchasing and transporting children from China to the Philippines in the mid-nineteenth century set against the broader economic development and the 'labour question' in the Philippines during that period. Using primary sources from Philippine and Spanish archives, it aims to examine why and how the Dominicans conceived this project; identify the actors, institutions and processes that should have been involved in its execution; determine the factors that prevented its implementation; and discuss some events that happened as a consequence of the failed project. Ultimately, the analysis intends to demonstrate that through this undertaking the Dominicans attempted to address not only religious but also economic concerns--specifically related to labour--in the Spanish colony at the time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fishing on the coasts of Berbería has been vital for the supply of the population of the Canary Islands since the 15th century. Canarian fishermen complained about the abuses of Portuguese warships, and Andalusian fishermen contributed to the growth of fishing in the area. Genoese and Flemish merchants benefited from this business, but there were risks such as shipwrecks and acts of piracy. Despite the obstacles, Canarian fishermen continued to supply the population of the Canary Islands. The article describes the working conditions and life of fishermen in the Canary Islands during the 17th and 18th centuries, highlighting the constant dangers they faced and the difference in food between poor fishermen and the more powerful ones. It also mentions King Carlos III's attempt to establish a settlement for Canarian fishermen on the African coast, but it was rejected by the Sultan of Morocco. The usefulness of fishing permits granted to Spaniards is questioned due to the lack of security in the area. The article also highlights the neglect of the Canary Islands in subsequent agreements and the lack of changes in relationships until the Africa War of 1859-1860. The occupation of Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña was an excuse for Spanish colonial occupation in Africa and to protect Canarian fishermen. [Extracted from the article]

This paper aims to describe 23 years of chavismo in Venezuela, placing this period in continuity with 500 years of history spanning the injustices and inequality of Spanish colonialism all the way to the depravities of modern day capitalism. The regime led by Chávez, with his great promises and ambitious plans both on the national and international fields, the political and economic strategies of said regime, the ideological pillars of his political discourse which centered around the proposal of a "Socialism of the 21st century", its achievements, paradoxes and deficiencies, the deplorable control exerted over information through the media, the arbitrary assistencialist and clientelist decisions of the regime; each of these is brought to the table by this article in order to weave a complex overview of the time period. There was a turning point with the death of Chávez when Maduro ascended to the Venezuelan presidency, in which the deterioration that was already in motion extended and grew until it resulted in complete and utter disaster, a period of upheaval marked by corruption and unchecked currency inflation. Spoliation and negligence, improvisation and ineptitude have affected the daily life in the country, and the staggering currency devaluation, lack of resources, hunger and repression have resulted in what is considered the greatest exodus in Western history in the last 50 years by UNHCR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The historical formation of the border inhabited by the Aymara communities of the Tarapacá region in northern Chile has been configured with culturally diverse territorialities. Since Spanish colonization and later by the nascent republics, borders have marked the dynamics of the population. However, its inhabitants maintain practices based on ancestral mobility related to other historical spatial divisions as part of their territoriality, an aspect expressly protected in current law. The objective of this work is to relate the configuration of the border area from the Aymara cosmopraxis, assuming this reality from the concept of territoriality that regulates crossborder indigenous communities in the international legal structure. From genealogy as an analysis strategy, complemented through legal dogmatics, it is proposed that the State acts by homogenizing the cross-border space, which places it in an area of legal non-compliance. Cases are considered from the beginning of the 21st century to 2023. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent scholarship details how consistently Indigenous leaders engaged the Spanish colonial legal apparatus to contest injustices. Such self-advocacy typically centered around particular communities and emphasized the king's paternalistic duties. In the eighteenth century, however, a growing number of Indigenous leaders gained access to higher education and participated in the era's debates over imperial reform. This essay highlights two educated Indigenous petitioners, from Mexico and Peru, who invoked the language of the Hispanic Enlightenment and proposed measures to improve the material and spiritual welfare of America's native population writ large. Their efforts can be considered early expressions of a pan-Indigenous consciousness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When Chile started its emancipation process from the Spanish empire (1810-1814), the Royal Navy was the only formal representation of the United Kingdom in South America’s west coast. During those years only two British warships arrived at Valparaíso. The analysis of the correspondence exchanged by Captain Charles Fleming and Commodore James Hillyar with the British, Spanish, and Chilean authorities reveals they were carrying out missions of a military and strategic nature, linked to the international conflicts in which England was engaged. However, both officers became directly involved in internal political affairs between Spain and its colonies, causing divergent effects among the opposing players. The examination of such correspondence allows identifying, in official sources from decision-making authorities, the initial British interests in that distant colony. This study argues that, even though the British governments favoured a balance of power and non-intervention policy towards the European powers, during the analysed period the Royal Navy’s actions in Chile reveals an erratic policy concerning Spain and its South American possessions. Even more, those events are evidence that the prevailing British geostrategic and security interests were beyond the economic and commercial benefits which British subjects were looking for in the emerging republic; and concludes that both naval officers interventions gave rise to the first perception of Great Britain’s future influence in Chile’s emancipation struggle, inspiring the mutual representation which would dominate the bilateral relation between British and Chilean authorities during the first decades of the nineteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

James Joyce visited Galway and the Aran Islands in 1912 and took advantage of the occasion to write two articles in Italian that he published in Il Piccolo della Sera in 1912. I analyse the vision that Joyce conveyed of the Spanish Armada both in these articles and later in Ulysses (1922) and in Finnegans Wake (1939). Joyce’s knowledge of the 1588-Armada episode and of the shipwrecks of several Spanish vessels in the vicinity of Galway are the result of both the propagandistic narration usually provided by pro-British historiography and by his presumed readings on the history of the city and the nearby Aran Islands. In such writings, Joyce may have intended, on the one hand, to reflect his tacit acceptance of the imperialism exercised by post-Victorian Britain over Ireland, fully convinced that the decline of the Spanish Empire had begun with the Armada’s defeat against Elizabethan England in 1588. He believed this event gave rise to the birth of the British Empire. On the other hand, Joyce reflects in them his only moderate Irish pride for the supposed humanitarian actions of the population of Galway (the birthplace of Nora), a city he described both as “Spanish” and as sympathetic towards the Armada castaways in Ireland. Joyce’s employment of the Irish chapter of the Gran Armada’s historical episode contributes with a relevant insight about his perception of British imperialism in Ireland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The monograph aims to provide a more consistent and comprehensive theory of the history of the abolition and eradication of the slave trade in Spain's Atlantic empire. It charts British ideological, political, and diplomatic influence on the construction of anti-slave trade discourses and policies in Spain and stresses the multiplicity of abolitionist and anti-abolitionist ideas between 1802 and 1867. History "is, at last, impossible".[1] No single narrative, study, research, or reconstruction of events can capture the complexity of human existence. [Extracted from the article]

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Copyright of Araucaria is the property of Araucaria-Revista Iberoamericana de Filosofia, Politica y Humanidades and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Araucaria is the property of Araucaria-Revista Iberoamericana de Filosofia, Politica y Humanidades and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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Copyright of INTRECCI d'Arte is the property of Universita di Bologna, Dipartimento delle Arti visive, performative e mediali, Alma Mater Studiorum and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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The mass movement of raw material in the eighteenth century determined industrial, agricultural, social, and visual environments. Using the global supply chain as an organizing principle, this essay examines how four raw materials shaped and were shaped by politics and society. Each of the four elements—silver, seeds, mother-of-pearl, and sugar—is addressed at one stage of its international circulation. Brittany Luberda begins by analyzing labor practices in the extraction of silver from the mines of Potosí during the Spanish colonization of present-day Bolivia. Sophie Tunney traces a material's journey across the sea, revealing the complexities of transporting living plants and the politics of French colonies. Cynthia Kok shows how mother-of-pearl shells, by-products of the pearl trade, were transformed by Netherlandish craftspeople into objects of value by adapting their existing expertise. Sarah Cohen then examines how two silver sugar casters made in the form of enslaved people were used to visualize the coerced labor that produced a sweet commodity for the global economy. Presented in a format that reflects the movement of a material from its excavation and transportation through to its manipulation and reception, we offer a model for investigating the life cycle of eighteenth-century material culture, which was itself multi-layered, interactive, and entangled with colonialist ambition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Spanish archival record is, perhaps unsurprisingly, relatively silent about the lives, experiences, and interactions of women in colonial San Luis and Apalachee. The gendered silence in the colonial archive is in part due to the lack of baptismal, marriage, and death records from Apalachee—in other words, the documents in which women are most likely to appear in Spanish colonial archives are missing for Apalachee. The archaeological and material records tell a different story. The ongoing archaeological excavations in Mission San Luis have uncovered a wealth of artifacts to help us reconstruct everyday life in the southern town. Although the European sites have been far more explored than the Apalachee ones, the archaeological findings help fill out, as well as complicate, a historical narrative focused on Spanish men. Correcting a male-centered focus requires not only writing stories of and about women, but also questioning the narratives and limitations produced by androcentric and un-gendered constructions of the past. This essay combines both historical documents and archaeological findings to offer a gendered reading of San Luis, its structures, and its everyday operations. It centers the life and experiences of women to explore the everyday contours of power in this early southern town. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This article analyzes the business organisation and activities of Genoese naval entrepreneurs who managed galleys for the Spanish Empire in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. While conventional narratives of business history begin with the Industrial Revolution and focus on the rise of the modern corporation, this article brings to the fore early modern entrepreneurs from Italy and shows how they led family-controlled firms running permanent navies in the Mediterranean. By using private ledgers and merchant correspondence, the paper aims to understand how these naval entrepreneurs governed their affairs and managed resources internationally. We find that delegation (through family ties, hierarchy, and networks) was the main solution chosen to deal with distant commodity, labour, and capital markets. We retrace the different forms this delegation took and explain its determinants considering alternative options and providing comparative insights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This article examines the earliest extant translations from Chinese in the period of the first systematic encounters between Chinese and Europeans in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It argues that agents of the Spanish and Portuguese empires in the context of early modern colonialism devised practical and effective social and linguistic approaches for translating Chinese. The article investigates three such approaches: the use of Chinese interpreters who learned European languages; the use of oral translation in the collaboration between Chinese and European interpreters; and the use of Europeans fluent in Chinese translating themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]