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A mathematical model is proposed that evaluates acoustic propagation of turbulent boundary layer waves on top of a cavity enclosing a microphone. The goal is to optimize these cavity geometries to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of acoustic measurements. This model predicts the attenuation of the turbulent boundary layer fluctuations propagating within the cavity for a given wind tunnel speed, porous surface resistance and cavity geometry. Duct acoustics predict that the spatial wave numbers of the turbulent boundary layer pressure fluctuations are shorter than the acoustic wavelength and are therefore evanescent in the cavity. These cavities are also covered with a porous material such as a metallic mesh or kevlar, to attenuate hydrodynamic fluctuations through the cavity. This model supports the investigation of 3D cylindrical cavities and incorporates both soft and hard cavity walls. Good agreement was found with experimental data., Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects, Wind Energy

A lattice-Boltzmann Very Large Eddy simulation of a multi-orifice acoustic liner, grazed by a turbulent flow at Mach number equal to 0:3 and a planar acoustic wave with amplitude equal to 130 dB and frequency equal to 1800 Hz, is carried out. The geometry of the liner replicates the experiments carried out in the Grazing Flow Impedance Tube (GFIT) facility at NASA Langley. It is found that the impedance, obtained from numerical simulations using the Dean’s method, is a function of the orifice location. This is attributed to two phenomena: the interaction between the wake behind the upstream orifices and the downstream ones; and the interaction between the flow fields in the cavity induced by the ejected vortices. Results show that, for the investigated configuration, two vortical structures are generated in the orifice: one, formed along the downstream inner wall of the orifice, weakly penetrates into the cavity; the second, formed at the bottom downstream corner of the orifice, is ejected into the cavity up to three orifice diameters. The direction along which the latter is ejected varies with the orifice location. The ejected vortices are characterized by an annular vortex and a trailing vortex similarly to what found for synthetic jets. In the cavity, large scale vortical structures are found. On the face sheet, it is found that the turbulent wakes behind the upstream orifices increases the vertical velocity component within the orifices. These findings suggest that local measurement techniques, such as the Dean’s method, might be affected by the sampling location in realistic configurations., Wind Energy

This experimental study focuses on the aerodynamic interaction effects that occur between an over-the-wing (OTW) propeller and a wing boundary-layer. An OTW propeller is positioned above the hinge-line of a wing featuring a plain flap. The measurements are carried out with and without axial pressure gradients by deflecting the flap and by extending the wing in streamwise direction to simulate a flat-plate configuration, respectively. Wing pressure taps and phase-free particle-image-velocimetry (PIV) are used to quantify the time-averaged interaction effects, while embedded microphones and phase-locked PIV are used to analyze unsteady interaction effects. Results show that the propeller generates an adverse pressure gradient on the wing surface which increases linearly with thrust and decreases as the blade tipclearance is increased. The pressure gradient is partially caused by the slipstream contraction, which creates a streamwise velocity deficit near the wall immediately behind the propeller disk. Moreover, the rotation of the propeller blades generates pressure fluctuations on the surface, the amplitude of which exceeds both the pressure fluctuations produced by the tip-vortices and the time-averaged pressure effect of the slipstream. Consequently, the propeller triggers flow separation when the flap is deflected. A parametric study of different propeller locations indicates that increasing the tip-clearance is not an effective way to mitigate flow separation. However, displacing the propeller half a radius upstream induces a Coanda effect which allows the flow to remain attached., Flight Performance and Propulsion, Wind Energy

This manuscript presents a rod-linear cascade model for emulating rotor-stator interaction noise. The model is intended as a test platform for studying noise mitigation techniques for a turbofan fan stage, while it also extends the classical rod-airfoil configuration by considering a row of blades based on realistic geometrical details. The rod-linear cascade model consists of a rod positioned upstream of a 7-blade linear cascade, such that the rod wake impinges onto the central blade. The rod is scaled to obtain a fundamental shedding frequency equal to the first blade passing frequency of the NASA-Glenn Source Diagnostics Test (SDT)fan stage at approach condition. The cascade blade profile is also based on the OGV of the SDT sampled at 90% of the radial span. Subsequently, numerical simulations are performed using lattice-Boltzmann Method on a computational setup comprised of a contraction and a test section enclosing the rod-linear cascade model. The integral length scales of the rod wake and the mean loading of the central blade have been found to be in good agreement with the trends observed in the SDT fan stage. The primary noise sources are localized at the central blade leading edge, although noise propagation to the far-field is influenced by additional diffraction by the other blades. Furthermore, the acoustic-blade row interaction causes intense pressure fluctuation within the inter-blade channels, including in those that are not directly affected by the rod wake., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Wind Energy

A numerical investigation on jet-installation noise is performed using a software based on the Lattice-Boltzmann Method. A flat plate is placed in the irrotational hydrodynamic field of the jet, i.e. outside of the plume, resulting in noise increase due to the scattering of instability waves at the plate trailing edge. The configuration adopted in this work replicates the one used for a benchmark study at NASA Glenn, against which the numerical results are validated. Far-field noise spectra from the isolated and installed jet cases, obtained through the Ffowcs-Williams Hawkings analogy, are compared at different polar angles. The results show a low-frequency noise amplification, occurring mainly in the directions normal to the plate and upstream of the jet axis. It is also shown that strong pressure fluctuations are generated at the trailing-edge of the plate and then propagate to the far-field as acoustic waves. The effects of the plate geometry (length and radial position) and jet flow characteristics (velocity and temperature) on the installation noise are also addressed. Pressure fluctuations on the plate are also computed and correlated to the overall far-field results, showing that, in the installed case, the surface dipoles are the dominant sources at low frequencies, Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Wind Energy

The effect of sinusoidal serrations applied to the leading-edge of the vanes of a realistic fan stage is investigated using high-fidelity numerical simulations. The CFD solver PowerFLOW based on a hybrid lattice-Boltzmann/very-large-eddy-simulation model is used to compute the unsteady flow and radiated noise of the 22-in source diagnostic test fan rig of the NASA Glenn Research Center. A computational model validated for three different geometries of the outlet guide vanes with straight leading edge is used. A subset of validation results is reported to prove the capability of the solver to accurately predict the influence of the stator geometry on the far-field noise. Different sinusoidal leading edge serrations are investigated for a radial and a swept stator and the same rotor and operating conditions. The influence of the serrations on the acoustic far-field and noise power level is reported in relation to the statistical properties of the velocity fluctuations in the wake of the rotor. Some noise reductions are obtained when the undulation amplitude and wavelength are large enough compared to the integral scales of the impinging turbulence fluctuations., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Wind Energy

This study investigated how embedding microphones in different cavity geometries reduce the measured turbulent boundary layer pressure fluctuations at the microphones. The cavity geometries were systematically varied using a design of experiments (DOE) methodology. This approach tested different cavity depths, diameters, chamfers, and opening sizes as well as the effect of a fine mesh covering. The resulting wind-tunnel test data was analyzed using a generalized additive statistical model (GAM). This approach quantified the relative effect of these parameters on the response variables of interest while accounting for non-linear frequency dependence. This experimental investigation showed that a mesh reduces the boundary layer noise by 8 dB. It was also shown that reducing the cavity area from the wall to the base of the microphone reduces the measured boundary layer spectral energy. Additionally, the model quantified the complex interactions between the mesh and area as well as the change in area., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects, Wind Energy

A study of the aerodynamic performance of a NACA 643418 airfoil with trailing edge serrations is presented. For the prediction of the changes in lift due to the serration installation, an empirical law is derived that can be extended to typical cambered airfoils for wind turbine applications. The law is deduced from 2D and 3D Reynolds‐averaged Navier–Stokes simulations (RANS) of the flow over the airfoil. Lift and drag together with the changes in the wake flow due to the presence of the serrated edges are investigated. An additional study of the sensitivity of the results at Rec = 3·106 with respect to the turbulence modeling is carried out by using three different RANS models: Spalart–Allmaras, k‐omega SST, and Transition SST. Results show that the changes in lift due to trailing‐edge extensions are approximated by the effect of a split plate with reduced length., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Wind Energy

The effects of a finite, spanwise-periodic array of cylindrical roughness elements on boundary layer transition over a NACA 0012 airfoil are investigated at a chord-based Reynolds number of 1.44×105 by using hotwire anemometry and infrared thermography. Both the number and the spanwise spacing of roughness elements in the array are varied in order to study their effect on the wake flow topology. Spanwise interaction between the roughness elements has an effect on the connection and the merging of neighbouring low-speed regions, which results in the formation of merged low-speed blobs (MLSs) that modify the spatial distribution and the amplitudes of the velocity streaks. When the spanwise distance between adjacent roughness elements equals 1.5 times the cylinder diameter, the transition location moves rapidly upstream. In this case, the two neighbouring low-speed regions overlap with each other in the near wake of the roughness, leading to the maximum growth in the velocity streak amplitude and the velocity fluctuations. The number of roughness elements affects the total number of MLSs within the boundary layer. For a single MLS behind a pair of cylinders, the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability dominates the growth of velocity fluctuations around the three-dimensional shear layers. When three cylinders are placed in the array, two MLSs appear in the near wake, which coalesce in to one low-speed blob downstream before the onset of transition, revealing the importance of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Wind Energy

This manuscript describes an aeroacoustic computational study on the impingement of a tractor-propeller slipstream on the leading edge of a pylon. Both the flow and acoustic fields are studied for two pylon leading edges: a solid and a flow-permeable one. The computational set-up replicates experiments performed at Delft University of Technology. Computational results are validated against measurements. It is found that the installation of the flow-permeable leading-edge insert generates a thicker boundary layer on the retreating blade side of the pylon. This is caused by an aerodynamic asymmetry induced by the helicoidal motion of the propeller wake, which promotes a flow motion through the cavity from the advancing to the retreating blade side of the pylon. The flow-permeable leading-edge insert mitigates the amplitude of the surface pressure fluctuations only on the pylon-retreating blade side towards the trailing edge, thus reducing structure-borne noise. Furthermore, it causes a reduction of the near-field noise only for receiver angles oriented in the upstream direction at the pylon-retreating blade side. In this range of receiver angles, it is found that the flow-permeable leading-edge insert reduces the amplitude of the tonal peaks for the third and fourth blade passage frequency, but strongly increases the broadband noise for frequencies higher that the seventh blade passage frequency., Wind Energy

This study focuses on an active strategy for unsteady-load control by means of a trailing-edge flap. Experiments on a 2D pitching and heaving NACA 0018 airfoil with an actuated trailing-edge flap are performed at a reduced frequency κ = 0.1 in a free-stream flow with Re = 1.3 × 105. The model is equipped with 24 differential pressure transducers to provide with the time-resolved distribution of the pressure difference between pressure and suction sides. Results show that an actuated flap significantly decreases the magnitude of unsteady loads. A reduced order model of the flap effect on the loads is proposed. The loads are estimated by adding the contribution of the clean wing with the flap one. This model can be applied to unsteady loads for both attached flow and dynamic stall conditions, constituting an effective control strategy for dynamic loads, if the airfoil transition location is properly controlled., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Wind Energy

Acoustic liners are widely used as noise suppression devices, for example in aircraft engines. The effectiveness of the liners is measured through the impedance. In the present study, using a lattice-Boltzmann solver, the response of two liner geometries to grazing acoustic waves is examined. The two geometries have porosity equal to 0.99% and 6.89%, respectively. Impedance is computed using the traditional in-situ method. The results from the simulation are validated against previous experimental data, DNS data and predictions from semi-empirical models. Results show agreement with these reference data, allowing to use the computational setup for further analysis with a realistic liner configuration in the presence of a grazing flow., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Wind Energy, Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects

Trailing-edge serrations are add ons retrofitted to wind-turbine blades to mitigate turbulent boundary-layer trailing-edge noise. This manuscript studies the physical mechanisms behind the noise reduction by investigating the far-field noise and the hydrodynamic flow field. A conventional sawtooth and a combed-sawtooth trailing-edge serration are studied. Combed-sawtooth serrations are obtained by filling the empty space between the teeth with combs (i.e. solid filaments). Both serration geometries are retrofitted to a NACA 0018 aerofoil at zero degree angle of attack. Computations are carried out by solving the explicit, transient, compressible lattice Boltzmann equation, while the acoustic far field is obtained by means of the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings analogy. The numerical results are validated against experiments. It is confirmed that the combed-sawtooth serrations reduce noise more than the conventional sawtooth ones for the low- and mid-frequency range. It is found that the presence of combs affects the intensity of the scattered noise but not the frequency range of noise reduction. For both configurations, the intensity of the surface pressure fluctuations decreases from the root to the tip, and noise sources are mainly located at the serrations root for the low- and mid-frequency range. The presence of the filaments generates a more uniform distribution of the noise sources along the edges with respect to the conventional serration. The installation of combs mitigates the interaction between the two sides of the aerofoil at the trailing edge and the generation of a turbulent wake in the empty space between teeth. As a result, the inward (i.e. from the serration edge to the centreline) and outward (i.e. from the serration centreline to the edge) flow motions, due to the presence of the teeth, are mitigated. It is found that the installation of serrations affects the surface pressure fluctuations integral parameters. Both the spanwise correlation length, Wind Energy

Swirl-recovery vanes (SRVs) enhance propulsive efficiency by converting the rotational kinetic energy in a propeller slipstream into additional thrust. This paper discusses the aerodynamic and aeroacoustic impact of the installation of a set of SRVs downstream of a single-rotating propeller. Experiments were carried out in a large low-speed wind tunnel, while simulations were performed by solving the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations. Favorable comparisons between the experimental and numerical slipstream data validated the simulations, which predicted a maximum propulsive-efficiency increase of 0.7% with the current design of the SRVs. This can be improved further by optimizing the SRVs' pitch distribution. The upstream effect of the SRVs on the time-averaged propeller performance was negligible. Yet, small but systematic unsteady propeller loads were measured with a peak-to-peak amplitude of at most 2% of the time-averaged loading, occurring at a frequency corresponding to the five SRV passages during one revolution. The downstream interaction was one order of magnitude stronger, with unsteady loading on the SRVs with a peak-to-peak amplitude of about 20% of the time-averaged load. The interaction mechanisms caused an increase of the tonal noise levels of 3 to 7 dB, with the noise penalty decreasing with increasing propeller thrust setting., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Flight Performance and Propulsion, Wind Energy

The momentum transferred to the fluid by a running propeller contains not only the desired axial component but also a rotational component that does not contribute to the propeller thrust. By introducing a set of swirl-recovery vanes (SRVs) downstream of the propeller, part of the rotational flow in the slipstream can be redirected into the streamwise direction, thereby producing extra thrust and enhancing the propulsive efficiency. The current study presents the development, application, and experimental validation of a low-order SRV design tool. The design method combines a short computational time with a detailed vane-shape representation. The procedure is presented together with a test example, consisting of a set of SRVs designed and manufactured for operation with a six-bladed propeller operating at thrust coefficient of CT;P _ 0.32. Results from the computations are subsequently validated by a wind-tunnel experiment with the propeller–SRV model. The SRVs were shown to provide extra thrust at all the considered propeller operating conditions. Because the installation of the SRVs does not lead to an increase in power consumption, it is thus shown that SRVs have the potential to increase the propulsive efficiency during all phases of the flight., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Flight Performance and Propulsion, Aerospace Engineering, Wind Energy

The turbulent flow over a NACA 0018 airfoil with porous trailing edge inserts and the resulting scattered turbulent-boundary-layer trailing edge noise are studied to investigate the effect of the cross-flow through the material. The experiments are performed at a chord-based Reynolds number of 2.63×105 and an angle of attack of 0°. Two different porous inserts, covering 20% of the chord, are manufactured with the same metal foam (cell diameter of 800 µm and permeability of 27×10-10 m2). In order to assess the effect of the flow permeability on the far-field noise open and closed inserts are used. In the first ones the cellular structure is kept open, in the second ones the symmetry plane is filled with adherent material to impede flow communication between the two sides. The fully permeable trailing edge insert reduces noise intensity up to 11 dB for Strouhal number based on the chord lower than 16 while a noise increase is measured at higher frequencies. The non-permeable insert, on the other hand, does not show noise reduction with respect to the solid trailing edge below that Strouhal number but only noise increase at higher frequencies, confirming that flow permeability through the insert is necessary to achieve noise attenuation. The intensity of the noise increase is similar to that of the fully permeable insert thus suggesting that it is generated by the rough surface. The analysis of the mean flow field shows that only minor differences are present between the open and closed porous inserts. However, evidence of cross-flow through the material is found in the analysis of turbulent statistics., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects, Wind Energy

Microphone arrays are useful measurement devices for estimating the location and strength of sound sources. Numerous comparative studies have been conducted regarding the performance of acoustic imaging methods in the past, but literature lacks of a systematic investigation on the role of the hardware on the measurements. This research focuses on the performance differences between two 63-microphone arrays: one with digital MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) microphones and the other with analog condenser microphones. Both systems are used on an aeroacoustic experiment performed in an anechoic open-jet wind tunnel featuring two airfoils (NACA 0012 and NACA 0018) equipped with trailing-edge serrations. Whereas both arrays provided similar frequency spectra when analyzing trailing-edge noise emissions (which are in agreement with previous research), the analog array seems to offer source maps of higher quality with a higher dynamic range (lower sidelobe level). Moreover, the results of the digital array featuring trailing-edge serrations show a noise increase at the higher frequencies (4 kHz) with respect to the straight-edge case, which is not expected from the findings of previous experimental research. The results of the analog array do not present such behavior. This manuscript is the result of a collaboration project between the University of Twente (UTwente) and Delft University of Technology (TU Delft)., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects, Wind Energy

The power spectral density and coherence of temporal pressure fluctuations are obtained from low-repetition-rate tomographic PIV measurements. This is achieved by extension of recent single-snapshot pressure evaluation techniques based upon the Taylor’s hypothesis (TH) of frozen turbulence and vortex-in-cell (VIC) simulation. Finite time marching of the measured instantaneous velocity fields is performed using TH and VIC. Pressure is calculated from the resulting velocity time series. Because of the theoretical limitations, the finite time marching can be performed until the measured flow structures are convected out of the measurement volume. This provides a lower limit of resolvable frequency range. An upper limit is given by the spatial resolution of the measurements. Finite time-marching approaches are applied to low-repetition-rate tomographic PIV data of the flow past a straight trailing edge at 10 m/s. Reference results of the power spectral density and coherence are obtained from surface pressure transducers. In addition, the results are compared to state-of-the-art experimental data obtained from time-resolved tomographic PIV performed at 10 kHz. The time-resolved approach suffers from low spatial resolution and limited maximum acquisition frequency because of hardware limitations. Additionally, these approaches strongly depend upon the time kernel length chosen for pressure evaluation. On the other hand, the finite time-marching approaches make use of low-repetition-rate tomographic PIV measurements that offer higher spatial resolution. Consequently, increased accuracy of the power spectral density and coherence of pressure fluctuations are obtained in the high-frequency range, in comparison to the time-resolved measurements. The approaches based on TH and VIC are found to perform similarly in the high-frequency range. At lower frequencies, TH is found to underestimate coherence and intensity of the pressure fluctuations in comparison to time-resolved P, Aerodynamics, Wind Energy, Aerodynamics, Wind Energy & Propulsion

The analysis of the unsteady flow field of an axisymmetric subsonic jet at Reynolds numbers between 5,000 and 20,000 and computation of its unsteady pressure field is carried out from single snapshots of tomographic PIV measurements (acquisition rate 0.8 Hz). This is achieved by a recently developed pressure-evaluation technique based upon the vortex-in-cell (VIC) methodology. The technique allows for a finite time-marching of the instantaneous 3D velocity fields obtained from low-repetition PIV systems. A time series of velocity fields in 3D is obtained, which is integrated into unsteady pressure by use of the Navier-Stokes momentum equation. Despite the limitations in the finite-time marching of the measured structures due to the size of the acquired tomographic volume, spectra of pressure fluctuations can be extracted in a frequency range between 800Hz and 20kHz. Fair agreement was found between the experimentally computed pressure spectra and the respective values found in literature. Further work is dedicated to exploit the full potential of the technique by attempting a sound pressure level integration of the noise sources from the unsteady fields., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Wind Energy, Aerodynamics

An experimental analysis was performed of the unsteady aerodynamic loading caused by the impingement of a propeller slipstream on a downstream lifting surface. When installed on an aircraft, this unsteady loading results in vibrations that are transmitted to the fuselage and are perceived inside the cabin as structure-borne noise. A pylon-mounted tractor-propeller configuration was installed in a low-speed wind tunnel at Delft University of Technology. Surface-microphone and particle-image-velocimetry measurements were taken to quantify the pressure fluctuations on the pylon and visualize the impingement phenomena. It was confirmed that the propeller tip vortex is the dominant source of pressure fluctuations on the pylon. Along the path of the tip vortex on the pylon, a periodic pressure response occurs with strong harmonics. The amplitude of the pressure fluctuations increases with increasing thrust setting, whereas the unsteady lift coefficient displays a nonmonotonic dependency on the propeller thrust. The lowest integral unsteady loads were obtained for cases with approximately integer ratios between the pylon chord and the wavelength of the perturbation associated with the propeller tip vortices. This implies that structure-borne-noise reductions might be obtained by matching the pylon chord with an integer multiple of the axial separation between the propeller tip vortices., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Flight Performance and Propulsion, Wind Energy

A 3D stall-cell flow-field has been studied in a 4.8 aspect-ratio wing obtained by linear extrusion of a laminar NACA64-418 airfoil profile. The span-wise change in the velocity and pressure distribution along the wing has been quantified with respect to the development of cellular structures from 8◦ to 20◦ angle of attack. Oil-flow visualizations help localizing the regular cellular pattern in function of the angle of attack. Multi-plane stereoscopic PIV measurements obtained by traversing the entire setup along the wing span show that the flow separation is not spanwise uniform. The combination of different stereoscopic fields into a 3D volume of velocity data allows studying the global effect of the stall-cell pattern on the wing flow. Integration of the experimentally computed pressure gradient from the Navier–Stokes equation is employed to compute the span-wise distribution of the mean surface pressure. Comparison of the results with the ones obtained from pressure taps installed in the wing evidences a span-wise periodic loading on the wing. The periodic loading has maxima confined in the stream-wise direction between the location of the highest airfoil curvature and the one of the airfoil flow separation. Estimation of the periodic loading is found within 2–6 % of the sectional wing lift., Wind Energy

Trailing edge serrations have been proven to work as a passive noise reduction device. Nevertheless, they have also previously been found to increase noise in a particular frequency range, argued in earlier research to be due to the misalignment of the serrations with the direction of the flow in the wake. It emerges as a high-frequency noise increase in a broadband region of the spectrum. This study investigates the effect of serration-flow misalignment on the noise emissions using acoustic beamforming, and finds a correlation with observations made on the flow using particle image velocimetry (PIV). The hydrodynamic source of the noise increase is hereby identified, and a Strouhal number relation for the high-frequency noise increase is proposed, Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects, Wind Energy

Advanced propellers promise significant fuel-burn savings compared to turbofans. When installed on the fuselage in a pusher configuration, the propeller interacts with the wake of the supporting pylon. This paper presents an experimental analysis of the aerodynamic and aeroacoustic characteristics of this pylon–propeller interaction. An isolated propeller was operated in undisturbed flow and in the wake of an upstream pylon at the large low-speed facility of the German–Dutch wind tunnels (DNW-LLF). Measurements of the pylon-wake characteristics showed that the wake width and velocity deficit decreased with increasing thrust due to the suction of the propeller. The installation of the pylon led to a tonal noise penalty of up to 24 dB, resulting from the periodic blade-loading fluctuations caused by the wake encounter. The noise penalty peaked in the upstream direction and became increasingly prominent with decreasing propeller thrust setting, due to the associated reduction of the steady blade loads. The integral propeller performance was not significantly altered by the pylon-wake encounter process. However, at sideslip angles of ±6°, the effective advance ratio of the propeller was modified by the circumferential velocity components induced by the pylon tip vortex. The propeller performance improved when the direction of rotation of the propeller was opposite to that of the pylon tip vortex. Under this condition, a reduction was measured in the noise emissions due to a favorable superposition of the angular-inflow and pylon-wake effects., Flight Performance and Propulsion, Wind Energy, Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects

The relation between the far-field noise and the flow field, in presence of serrated and combed-serrated trailing edge, is studied to explain the associated noise reduction mechanisms. Both serration geometries are retrofitted to a NACA 0018 wing. Computations are carried out by solving the fully explicit, transient, compressible Lattice Boltzmann equation , while the acoustic far-field is obtained by means of the Ffowcs-Williams and Hawking integral solution. A link between the far-field noise and the relevant flow parameters that contribute to noise generation is proposed. It is confirmed that the intensity of the surface pressure fluctuations varies in the streamwise direction, and that most of the low-frequency noise is generated at the root of the serrations. It is concluded that the additional noise reduction achieved by the use of combs is due to the mitigation of the outward flow motion at the root. Furthermore, it is shown that the edge-oriented correlation length and the convection velocity of the surface pressure fluctuations are the two statistical flow parameters that influence both the intensity and the frequency range of noise reduction. It is found that a larger edge-oriented correlation length contributes to noise reduction, by generating destructive interference between the pressure waves scattered along the slanted edge., Wind Energy, Aerodynamics

Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects, Wind Energy, Novel Aerospace Materials

A fast, linear scaling vortex method is presented to study inviscid incompressible flow problems involving one or more actuator disks. Building upon previous efforts that were limited to axi-symmetric flow cases, the proposed methodology is able to handle arbitrary configurations with no symmetry constraints. Applications include the conceptual study of wake interaction mechanisms in wind farms, and the correction of wind tunnel blockage effects in test sections of arbitrary shape. Actuator disks represent wind turbines through the shedding of a deformable vortex wake, discretized with a plaid of triangular distributed dipole singularities. An iterative method is adopted to align the wake with the local flow field, which is reconstructed from the vorticity field with a Green function approach. Interactions are computed with a Fast Multipole Method (FMM), effectively overcoming the quadratic scaling of computational time associated with traditional panel methods. When compared to direct computation, the use of an FMM algorithm reduced solution time by a factor 30 when studying the wake of a single actuator disk with 60000 panels. In the same case, the mass flux of the actuator streamtube was conserved to 0:002%. Finally, the presence of round and square impermeable walls around the actuator is considered to demonstrate the code applicability to wind tunnel wall interference correction problems., Wind Energy

Flight Performance and Propulsion, Aerospace Engineering, Wind Energy

The broadband noise generated by the scattering of turbulent flow at the trailing edge of a NACA 0018 airfoil with trailing edge serrations is investigated, varying both the airfoil angle of attack and serration flap angle. Acoustic emissions from the trailing edge are measured using a microphone array. The noise level is observed to be higher than that of the airfoil without serrations at frequencies beyond a crossover value. The latter is found to scale with a characteristic Strouhal number based upon the boundary layer thickness and the freestream velocity. A satisfactory collapse of the results under varying angles of attack and freestream velocities is observed. The modifications of the hydrodynamic behavior and the noise increase are linked by high-speed observations conducted with particle image velocimetry. An increase in the energy of turbulent fluctuations is also observed at the expected crossover frequency. The dominant cause of the increased noise is thereby identified at the pressure side edge of the serrations at a given flap angle., Aerodynamics, Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects, Wind Energy, Aerodynamics, Wind Energy & Propulsion

Flight Performance and Propulsion, Wind Energy

Trailing-edge serrations are passive noise reduction add-ons widely used in wind-turbine applications. This study presents acoustic beamforming results of microphone array measurements of a cambered airfoil (DU96-W-180) in a closed-section wind-tunnel at a Reynolds number of industrial interest. Two different serration geometries with different lengths were tested and compared with the straight-edge baseline airfoil. The serrations were set at a flap angle of 6 degrees. Several flow velocities and angles of attack were tested at three chord-based Reynolds numbers ranging from 5105 to 1.5106. A phased microphone array was used to obtain source maps of the trailing-edge noise; Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) was employed to obtain information about the turbulent boundary layer approaching the trailing edge; further, a numerical simulation using the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) was performed for comparison. Far-field noise from the experimental data and computations shows a satisfactory agreement. Noise reductions of several dB were obtained, especially at lower frequencies. An increase in high-frequency noise is observed after a crossover frequency, which is assumed to be due to the set flap angle., Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects, Wind Energy, Aerodynamics

Flight Performance and Propulsion, Wind Energy

Wind Energy, Aerodynamics, Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects

Flow augmentation consists in modifying mass flow across the actuation plane of a rotor to enhance energy extraction or propulsive efficiency. The talk sketches the distinction between passive and active rotor augmentation strategies. Power coefficient trends are compared analytically while numerical results illustrate differences in flow topology. Rotors are stylized as actuator disks that exert homogeneous normal forces on the steady flow of inviscid fluids to highlight the distinctive features of each augmentation principle. Passive augmentation principles have been well documented because they guide the design of ducted, shrouded and diffuser-augmented wind turbines1-6. These axisymmetric bodies decrease average static pressures on the rotor plane to increase mass flux and power coefficient. Rotor-body interactions are dominated by conservative forces5,7: the bodies don’t exchange energy with the fluid but act as augmenting devices and affect global energy balance by changing rotor state. Virtual work arguments show that bodies exert streamwise forces4,6 that can be related with the power coefficient through the law of de Vries1,6. Active flow augmentation is a rather recent theoretical concept8. Its simplest energy extraction embodiment consists of an upstream actuator that accelerates flow onto a downstream actuator. This augmentation strategy is coined as active because the upstream actuator injects (spends) energy into the flow for the downstream actuator to extract (produce) energy from a greater mass flux than if it were alone. The interaction mechanism depends on the action of non-conservative forces and actuators interact exclusively through changes in total flow enthalpy when they are sufficiently far apart. No pressure interactions occur in this asymptotic case and a closed solution exists together with an analytical power coefficient law. Parallels can be drawn with wake ingestion propeller setups9 but no practical energy extraction realizations have, Wind Energy

Far-field noise and flow field over a novel curved trailing-edge serration (named as iron-shaped serration) are investigated. Spectra of the far-field broadband noise, directivity plots and the flow-field over the iron-shaped serration are obtained from numerical computations performed using a compressible Lattice-Boltzmann solver. The new design is compared to a conventional trailing-edge serration with a triangular geometry. Both serration geometries were retrofitted to a NACA 0018 airfoil at zero degree angle of attack. The iron-shaped geometry is found to reduce far-field broadband noise of approximately 2 dB more than the conventional sawtooth serration for chord-based Strouhal numbers Stc<15. At higher frequencies, the far-field broadband noise for the two serration geometries has comparable intensity. Near-wall velocity distribution and surface pressure fluctuations show that their intensity and spectra are independent on the serration geometry, but a function of the streamwise location. It is found that the larger noise reduction achieved by the iron-shaped trailing-edge serration is due to the mitigation of the scattered noise at the root. This effect is obtained by mitigating the interaction between the two sides of the serration, by delaying toward the tip both the outward (i.e., the tendency of the flow to deviate from the centerline to the edge of the serration) and the downward (i.e., the tendency of the flow to merge between the upper and bottom side of the serration) flow motions present at the root of the sawtooth., Wind Energy, Aerodynamics

The far-field noise and flow field of a novel curved trailing-edge serration (i.e. iron-shaped) are investigated. Spectra of the far-field broadband noise, directivity plots and the flow-field over the iron-shaped serration are obtained from numerical computations performed using a compressible Lattice-Boltzmann solver. The new design is compared to a conventional trailing-edge serration with a triangular geometry retrofitted to a NACA 0018 airfoil at zero degree angle of attack. The iron-shaped geometry is found to reduce far-field broadband noise of approximately 2 dB more than the conventional sawtooth serration for chord-based Strouhal numbers Stc < 15. It is found that the larger noise reduction achieved by the iron-shaped trailing-edge serration is due to the mitigation of the scattered noise at the root, effect obtained by mitigating the interaction between the two sides of the serration, by delaying toward the tip both the outward and the downward flow motions present at the root., Wind Energy, Aerodynamics