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We designed nine polymorphic markers for the squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis), an arboreal marsupial in eastern Australia. These markers will assist in the management of isolated populations and the evaluation of wildlife corridors.

Roads and traffic reduce landscape connectivity and increase rates of mortality for many species of wildlife. Species that glide from tree to tree may be strongly affected by roads and traffic if the size of the gap between trees exceeds their gliding capability. Not only are wide roads likely to reduce crossing rates, but mortality may also be increased if gliders that do cross have poor landing opportunities. The road-crossing behavior of 47 squirrel gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis) was investigated in southeast Australia using radio-tracking. The proportion of gliders crossing one or both roadways of a freeway where trees were present or absent from the center median was compared to that at single-lane country roads (control). The proportion of gliders crossing the road at control sites (77%) was similar to the proportion that crossed one or both roadways at the freeway with trees in the median (67%), whereas only a single male (6%) crossed the freeway where trees were absent from the median. The frequency of crossing for each individual was also similar at control sites and freeway sites with trees in the median. The almost complete lack of crossing at sites where trees were absent from the median was attributed to the wider gap in canopy (50 – 64 m vs. 5 – 13 m at sites with trees in the median). This suggests that traffic volume, up to 5,000 vehicles per day on each roadway, and the other characteristics of the freeway that the authors studied are not in themselves complete deterrents to road crossing by squirrel gliders. This study demonstrates that retaining and facilitating the growth of tall trees in the center median of two-way roads may mitigate the barrier effect of roads on gliders, thus contributing positively to mobility and potentially to connectivity. This information will be essential for the assessment of road impacts on gliding species using population viability models.

Gummivory, a rare dietary habit among modern primates, has figured prominently in interpretations of the earliest primates (plesiadapiforms) largely on the basis of a morphological analogy with sugar gliders, and it has also been proposed as a key adaptation pertaining to early strepsirrhines (Adapis, Leptadapis) and the origins of the toothcomb, partly by analogy with marmosets. In reexamining these hypotheses, it is important to consider the following: distinguish gum-gouging from gum-gleaning; assess adaptive compromise and preadaptation; examine system-wide linkages between gum harvesting and collateral behaviors relating to diet; reevaluate the morphological correspondence between purported analogs; empirically evaluate tooth wear, perhaps the most direct morphological signal of gouging behavior. A distinction is drawn between facultative gummivory as part of a species’ Adaptive Profile and obligate gummivory as an Adaptive Specialization, and the testability of both notions. Using marmosets as the most stringent morphological and behavioral model of an obligate modern primate gummivore – exhibiting a distinctive functional suite of features and evidence of heavy upper and lower anterior tooth wear – none of the test cases present cogent examples of gum-gouging adaptation. The sugar glider Petaurus breviceps also differs from marmosets in tooth morphology and wear; they appear to be gum-gleaners. The derived “gracilization” of upper incisors in all strepsirrhines living and extinct, possibly indicative of an obligatorily folivorous ancestry, may have been ­preadaptive to a shift from harvesting to socio-sexual biological roles in anterior tooth use, presaging the toothcomb’s evolution as a grooming adaptation. The procumbent, often styliform, large lower incisors of many plesiadapiforms may have served as precision probes and pincers for these primitive face-feeding primates that likely lacked the advanced hand–eye coordination of euprimates. Working with the uppers in beak-like fashion, they would probably have been well suited to harvesting and ingesting small seeds, a prelude to the full-blown coevolutionary relationship established between euprimates and angiosperms as the latter evolved a diverse array of larger and more fleshy fruits. Then non-tarsiiform primates, with more discriminating eyes, touch-sensitive prehensile hands, mobile athletic bodies, and more versatile front teeth, could reinvent themselves as a unique mammalian guild of obligate arboreal frugivores and folivores.

Roads and traffic are prominent components of most landscapes throughout the world, and their negative effects on the natural environment can extend for hundreds or thousands of meters beyond the road. These effects include mortality of wildlife due to collisions with vehicles, pollution of soil and air, modification of wildlife behavior in response to noise, creation of barriers to wildlife movement, and establishment of dispersal conduits for some plant and animal species. In southeast Australia, much of the remaining habitat for the squirrel glider, Petaurus norfolcensis, is located in narrow strips of Eucalyptus woodland that is adjacent to roads and streams, as well as in small patches of woodland vegetation that is farther from roads. We evaluated the effect of traffic volume on squirrel gliders by estimating apparent annual survival rates of adults along the Hume Freeway and nearby low-traffic-volume roads. We surveyed populations of squirrel gliders by trapping them over 2.5 years, and combined these data with prior information on apparent survival rates in populations located away from freeways to model the ratio of apparent annual survival rates in both site types. The apparent annual survival rate of adult squirrel gliders living along the Hume Freeway was estimated to be approximately 60% lower than for squirrel gliders living near local roads. The cause of the reduced apparent survival rate may be due to higher rates of mortality and/or higher emigration rates adjacent to the Hume Freeway compared with populations near smaller country roads. Management options for population persistence will be influenced by which of these factors is the primary cause of a reduced apparent survival rate. © 2010 by the author(s).

Sugar gliders, Petaurus breviceps (average body mass: 120 g) like other small wild mammals must cope with seasonal changes in food availability and weather and therefore thermoregulatory and energetic challenges. To determine whether free-ranging sugar gliders, an arboreal marsupial, seasonally adjust their energy expenditure and water use, we quantified field metabolic rates (FMR) and water flux at a seasonal cool-temperate site in eastern Australia. Thirty six male and female sugar gliders were labelled with doubly labelled water for this purpose in spring, summer and autumn. The mean FMR was 159 ± 6 kJ d − 1 (spring), 155 ± 8 kJ d − 1 (summer), and 152 ± 20 kJ d − 1 (autumn) and the mean FMR for the three seasons combined was 158 ± 5 kJ d − 1 (equivalent to 1.33 kJ g − 1 d − 1 or 780 kJ kg − 0. 75 d − 1 ). The mean total body water was 83 ± 2 g, equal to 68.5% of body weight. Mean water flux was 29 ± 1 mL day − 1 . Season, ambient temperature or sex did not affect any of the measured and estimated physiological variables, but body mass and total body water differed significantly between sexes and among seasons. Our study is the first to provide evidence for a constant FMR in a small mammal in three different seasons and despite different thermal conditions. This suggests that seasonal changes in climate are compensated for by behavioural and physiological adjustments such as huddling and torpor known to be employed extensively by sugar gliders in the wild.

Locomotor features shared by arboreal marsupials and primates are frequently cited as a functional complex that evolved in the context of a "fine branch niche." Adaptation to a fine branch niche cannot be understood without considering that small and large arboreal mammals may differ in their biomechanical response to a given branch size. We tested the effects of substrate diameter and orientation on quadrupedal kinematics in a small arboreal marsupial (the sugar glider, Petaurus breviceps). P. breviceps individuals were filmed moving across a flat horizontal surface and on horizontal, inclining and declining poles of diameter 2.5, 1.0, and 0.5cm. Gait frequencies, limb phases, speeds and duty factors were compared across substrate conditions. P. breviceps had a clear preference for lateral sequence/diagonal couplets gaits, regardless of substrate type, diameter or orientation. Limb phase was significantly influenced by substrate type (higher limb phases on poles vs. the flat surface) and by orientation (higher limb phases on inclined vs. horizontal poles), but was not influenced by pole diameter. Speed was lowest on declines, and duty factors (at a given speed) were highest on the flat board, smallest pole, and on declines. P. breviceps exhibited some parallels, but also some departures from the characteristic patterns of other arboreal marsupials and primates. Notably, limb phase values, on average, remained lower in P. breviceps than those recorded for primates or other arboreal marsupials. We suggest that arboreal mammals of different body sizes may use dissimilar, but apparently equally successful strategies for navigating a "fine branch niche."

The glider genus Petaurus comprises a group of arboreal and nocturnal marsupial species from New Guinea and Australia. Molecular data were generated in order to examine phylogenetic relationships among species within the genus and explore the time-scale of diversification and biogeographic history of the genus in Australia and New Guinea. All known species and subspecies of Petaurus (with the exception of P. biacensis) were sequenced for two mitochondrial genes (ND2 and ND4) and one nuclear marker (omega-globin gene). Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the monophyly of the genus relative to other petaurids and showed a sister relationship of P. australis to the rest of Petaurus. The analyses revealed that currently recognised species of Petaurus formed distinct mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) clades. Considerable mtDNA diversity and seven distinct clades were identified within the species P. breviceps, with the distribution of each clade showing no correspondence with the distributional limits of known subspecies. Molecular dating analyses using BEAST suggested an early to mid-Miocene origin (18-24 mya) for the genus. Ancestral area reconstructions, using BayesTraits, did not resolve the location for the centre of origin of Petaurus, but provided evidence for at least one dispersal event from New Guinea to Australia that led to the evolution of extant Australian populations of P. breviceps, P. norfolcensis and P. gracilis. The timing of this dispersal event appears to pre-date the Pleistocene, adding to the growing number of studies that suggest faunal connections occurred between Australia and New Guinea in the Late Miocene to Pliocene period.

Sugar Gliders (Petaurus breviceps) re‐entrain faster after 8‐h delay shifts of an LD 12:12 and an LD 8:16 (31–56:0.3 lux each) than after 8‐h advance shifts of these Zeitgeber cycles. In order to test whether this asymmetric re‐entrainment behavior is related to, or even caused by the phase response characteristics of the circadian system, the phase response of the activity rhythm to short and long light pulses was studied. Short light pulses (15 min of 31–56 lux against a background intensity of 0.3 lux) caused only relatively small delay shifts when applied around the onset, and more pronounced advance shifts when given at the end of the activity time (α). Onset and end of activity shifted by different amounts. Long light pulses produced by 8‐h advances and delays of one single lighttime of an LD 12:12 elicited pronounced phase delays when applied at the beginning of the activity time, but only minor phase advances when given at the posterior part of α. These results indicate that in Petaurus b...

Early developmental and demographic events in many marsupials occur in the mother's pouch out of animal managers' sight. Because pouch examination is perceived as being stressful both to animal and handler, the pouch has proven to be a formidable physical and psychological barrier to the study of early life history events in marsupials in zoos. Demographic and developmental data such as litter size at birth, secondary sex ratios, infant mortality rates, and early rates of growth and development, normally considered essential information for the development of breeding programs, are therefore essentially unavailable for most zoo populations of marsupials. Here we describe a technique for the safe and non-stressful examination of the pouches of small (< 2 kg) marsupials that enables the capture of such data. The technique, involving the use of transparent plastic tubes of slightly different diameters for restraining the animals and an otoscope for examining the pouch and its contents, has been very successfully applied to life history studies of four species at the National Zoological Park: Pseudocheirus peregrinus, Petaurus breviceps, Philander opossum, and Chironectes minimus.

Parastrongyloides trichosuri is a nematode parasite of the Australian brush-tailed possums that can be propagated through many generations in vitro. This makes P. trichosuri uniquely suited for genetic investigations, including those involving transgenesis. However, an obstacle to its use as an experimental model has been the fact that its host is limited to Australia and New Zealand and that it cannot be exported because of its status as a protected species or agricultural pest, respectively. In previous studies, conventional laboratory animals such as rats, mice, rabbits, ferrets, and chickens have failed to support infections. In the present study, gerbils and short-tailed opossums proved similarly refractory to infection. In contrast, the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps, family Petauridae) proved to be a good host for P. trichosuri. Patent infections resulted using as few as 6 infective larvae (L3i) and as many as 2,000 L3i. Large numbers of L3i (1,000-2,000) produced patent infections of much shorter duration than those seen when 100 L3i were initially given to the sugar glider. In one case, an infection initiated with 100 L3i was patent for over 1 yr. Parastrongyloides trichosuri is easily cryopreserved using a method developed for Strongyloides stercoralis. Thus, we have identified an experimental host for P. trichosuri that will make it possible to conduct research on this parasite in laboratories outside the endemic sites.

SUMMARYGliding has often been discussed in the literature as a possible precursor to powered flight in vertebrates, but few studies exist on the mechanics of gliding in living animals. In this study I analyzed the 3D kinematics of sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) during short glides in an enclosed space. Short segments of the glide were captured on video, and the positions of marked anatomical landmarks were used to compute linear distances and angles, as well as whole body velocities and accelerations. From the whole body accelerations I estimated the aerodynamic forces generated by the animals. I computed the correlations between movements of the limbs and body rotations to examine the control of orientation during flight. Finally, I compared these results to those of my earlier study on the similarly sized and distantly related southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans). The sugar gliders in this study accelerated downward slightly (1.0±0.5 m s–2), and also accelerated forward (2.1±0.6 m s–2) in all but one trial, indicating that the body weight was not fully supported by aerodynamic forces and that some of the lift produced forward acceleration rather than just balancing body weight. The gliders used high angles of attack (44.15±3.12°), far higher than the angles at which airplane wings would stall, yet generated higher lift coefficients (1.48±0.18) than would be expected for a stalled wing. Movements of the limbs were strongly correlated with body rotations,suggesting that sugar gliders make extensive use of limb movements to control their orientation during gliding flight. In addition, among individuals,different limb movements were associated with a given body rotation,suggesting that individual variation exists in the control of body rotations. Under similar conditions, flying squirrels generated higher lift coefficients and lower drag coefficients than sugar gliders, yet had only marginally shallower glides. Flying squirrels have a number of morphological specializations not shared by sugar gliders that may help to explain their greater lift generating performance.

Nest boxes are frequently installed in Australia to provide shelter sites for arboreal mammals. Little is known about the temperatures that may be experienced inside nest boxes or the factors that may influence those temperatures. I established paired nest boxes on the south-east and north-west sides of trees at two locations in south-east Queensland to investigate the influence of nest box aspect on nest box temperature. Squirrel gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis) occupied boxes at both locations. I recorded temperatures over a 1-month period in two summers. Temperature varied by up to 20°C within a 24-h period and some nest boxes experienced temperatures above 40°C. There was no significant difference in maximum temperature with nest box aspect but south-east boxes could be 1°C cooler during hot weather. Nest box construction material, colour (brown or green) and volume (0.008 m3 or 0.025 m3) had variable influences on temperature. Nest box installations for non-flying mammals should place nest boxes to minimise extreme temperatures. Further studies are required to determine whether temperature limits the effectiveness of nest boxes at some locations.

The squirrel glider Petaurus norfolcensis is listed as a vulnerable species across New South Wales. The population in the Wagga Wagga Local Government Area was considered to be at a higher level of threat (i.e. in immediate danger of extinction) and was classified as an endangered population in 2000. The determination to list this population was made largely on the basis of limited point locality records of the species and an assessment of the extent of habitat clearing. This decision to designate the population as endangered was valid at the time and we do not dispute the fact that squirrel gliders within the Wagga LGA are at serious risk of extinction. However, recent surveys have revealed that the species is more widespread across the South West Slopes Bioregion of NSW than initially recognised. Despite this situation, the future conservation status of the squirrel glider is still uncertain due to extensive historic clearing and fragmentation of habitat as well as ongoing incremental loss and degradation of key resources. The new information about the distribution of squirrel gliders raises questions about the most effective approach, including the spatial scale, at which to manage and recover widespread but vulnerable species. We recommend that a landscape-scale approach that incorporates metapopulation theory be adopted to define and manage disjunct populations. There are likely to be numerous disjunct populations across the south-west slopes that are as equally endangered as the population(s) in the Wagga LGA. Therefore, a necessary first step in recovering squirrel gliders is to develop habitat models that describe and predict the occurrence of the species and delineate population boundaries. Other critical steps include: (i) reducing threats; (ii) maintaining a perpetual supply of key resources; and (iii) undertaking strategically located revegetation programs to increase total habitat and link isolated populations. Finally, the need to test and potentially revise the feedback process under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 is also recommended.

Two very similar arboreal marsupials occur in subtropical eastern Australia: the sugar glider Petaurus breviceps, and the squirrel glider P. norfolcensis. Both are dependent on forest and do not occur once tree cover has been removed. Maps of the pre-European and recent extent of rainforest in south east Queensland were compiled from a range of sources and compared with past (1820-1974) and recent (1975-1996) site records of the two glider species, also drawn from a range of sources. P. breviceps occurred commonly in rainforest and related vegetation types in both historical and recent times, while P. norfolcensis occurred mainly in drier forest types. Interspecific competition is a likely cause of these broad habitat differences between the two glider species, with squirrel gliders being competitively superior, but exhibiting a narrower range of preferred habitats. Rainforest has been cleared from large areas, especially in the lowlands, and this would have reduced sugar glider numbers. However, the species is still present in small rainforest patches, such as riparian strips within drier lowland forests, and appears secure in upland rainforest reserves. The squirrel glider, a nationally more threatened species, would have been less affected by historical deforestation but now faces contemporary clearing of lowland eucalypt associations. It may experience a rapid decline within the urbanising south-east Queensland lowlands unless substantially more remnant vegetation is protected than seems likely under current vegetation management legislation.

Torpor was investigated in free-ranging tawny frogmouths (Podargus strigoides: Caprimulgiformes) and sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps: Marsupialia) near Armidale, NSW, Australia. Both nocturnal species entered torpor regularly. Torpor was most frequent in June/July/August (frogmouth: 50.4%; sugar glider: 22.3%), the three coldest months of the year. Both species entered torpor preferably during their normal activity phase. While sugar gliders extended torpor into the rest phase, frogmouths always aroused before sunrise, but often commenced a second torpor bout around dawn. Low Ta was the main stimulus for the expression of torpor, but for sugar gliders rainfall was also important. It appears that inclement weather conditions not only increase thermoregulatory costs, but more importantly, prevent successful foraging in both species. Therefore, torpor cannot balance the daily energy budget, but is nevertheless important to stretch body energy reserves, which can be replenished only irregularly.

The primary aim of this study was to investigate the ecology of the squirrel glider in a region where the potential habitat of the species exists in fragmented landscape. Aspects of the population ecology of the glider within the south east Queensland region were studied through a trapping program spanning 27 sites, each site representing a particular size category of bushland remnant, and located in a specific altitude category. Four size classes of bushland remnant: 10-20 ha, 50-120 ha, 200-1000 ha, and >2000 ha; and three altitude categories: 0-60 m, 80-300 m and >300 m; were chosen. The habitat requirements of the squirrel glider within the region were investigated. These included the vegetation communities that supported squirrel gliders, nest and retreat trees, the minimum area of bushland remnant, and altitudinal restrictions. Diet of the squirrel glider in south east Queensland was determined through faecal analysis of samples from 59 gliders from 13 of the study sites. Each of the study sites was situated in eucalypt open forest or woodland, although the vegetation communities varied among sites. A total of 171 captures of squirrel gliders was made which represented 91 individuals in 15 of the study sites. Three sugar gliders were captured in three of the study sites. Male squirrel gliders (140-260 g, mean 197 g) weighed significantly more than females (130-225 g, mean 177 g). The squirrel glider sex ratio fluctuated between male and female biased, but overall was not significantly different from parity. Births in squirrel gliders occurred in almost all months of the year over the 2.5 year trapping program, with a mean litter size of 1.6 and a natality rate of 1.8 young per year. Squirrel gliders showed a negative association with plant species that occurred in high rainfall areas, in or near rainforest, or along creeks and drainlines. Conversely, squirrel glider numbers were positively associated with plant species that are typical of drier open forest and woodland. The vegetation communities in which squirrel gliders were detected varied but usually contained one or more species of iron-barked eucalypts (E. crebra, E. melanophloia, or E. fibrosa) and / or Corymbia maculata often with some other eucalypt species. Stags (standing, dead trees) and iron-barked eucalypts were the preferred tree types used for nesting or refuge sites by squirrel gliders in the south east Queensland study area and are an important component of their habitat in the region. Squirrel gliders were found in all the size categories of remnant area provided that the habitat was suitable, although higher densities of gliders occurred in bushland remnants that were greater than 200 ha in size. No gliders were detected at altitudes higher than 240 m above sea level suggesting that only low altitude remnants are suitable for squirrel gliders. The diet of the squirrel glider in south east Queensland consisted of invertebrates, nectar and pollen, and tree and insect exudates. Lepidoptera and Coleoptera (adult and larvae) made up the bulk of the insect component in the diet. Termites were also present in 18% of the 56 faecal samples. Eucalypt flowers were heavily used for pollen and nectar, with Acacia and Banksia also common pollen types. Exudates were used in most seasons although the relative contribution to the diet was hard to infer from faecal analysis alone. Feeding observations of five individual gliders during summer 1996 indicated that, in this season, invertebrate foraging was the primary feeding activity (74.5% of time) while feeding at flowers and exudates totalled 14.5% and 11.0% of the feeding times respectively. This diet was in broad terms, similar to the diet of the squirrel glider in other areas of their distribution and similar to the other petaurid gliders and Leadbeater’s Possum, although there exists a spatial and temporal variation in the exact composition of the broad dietary items between species, locations and seasons. A comparison of the records of sugar gliders and squirrel gliders according to the distribution of rainforest in the south east Queensland region showed that sugar gliders occurred commonly in closed forest complexes. Conversely, the squirrel glider occurred mainly in non-rainforest bushland areas. It is argued that this partitioning of habitat is, at least partly, a consequence of interspecific competition between the congeneric glider species. Many aspects of the local ecology and the biogeographical distribution of sugar and squirrel gliders are consistent with the hypothesis that there is asymmetrical competition between the two species in which the squirrel glider is competitively dominant to the sugar glider. The dry eucalypt forests and woodlands that provide the habitat for squirrel gliders throughout their distribution, including the south east Queensland study region, have been dramatically reduced in area in the last 200 years. Dry eucalypt forests now represent less than 50% of existing vegetation in the south east Queensland area in which they survive only in a fragmented landscape with few large areas remaining. This habitat type, particularly at low altitudes, is also highly threatened because of its position in the landscape. There are two aspects to the management of the remaining habitat of the squirrel glider in the south east Queensland region, both of which are important for the long term, regional survival of the squirrel glider. One is the management of local populations within individual remnant patches, and the second is the management of the regional glider population or metapopulation over the series of remaining patches. Management of local populations and the regional metapopulation of squirrel gliders requires that remnants which support, or potentially support, gliders are identified and no net reduction in the area of these remnants occurs. Retention of nest trees within local populations is also an issue that requires attention if local populations are to be conserved.

This study reports the diet of the powerful owl (Ninox strenua) in East Gippsland, from a dataset of 2009 vertebrate prey items collected from 53 sites. Mammals dominated the diet at all sites, but birds were also consumed regularly. The greater glider (Petauroides volans) was the dominant dietary item across the region in terms of both frequency of consumption and biomass contribution. There was geographical dietary variation between coastal and foothill forest sites, with the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) and birds consumed more frequently in foothill forests, whereas the common ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) was frequently consumed only in coastal forests. Typically, a higher percentage of powerful owl diet comprised birds closer to cleared land. The dietary reliance upon hollow-dependent mammals in foothill forests (averaging >70%) is of conservation concern, especially when non-hollow-dependent prey are rare. Forest management activities, especially logging, that reduce densities of hollow-bearing trees in the landscape are therefore likely to decrease the long-term carrying capacity of the landscape for the powerful owl.

Artificial structures designed to promote road-crossing by arboreal mammals are increasingly being installed in Australia but there is a limited understanding of their usefulness. We studied five 50–70-m-long rope-bridges (encompassing three designs) erected across the Pacific Highway, a major freeway in eastern Australia. Native arboreal mammals showed a willingness to explore these structures, being detected by camera traps on four rope-bridges. The vulnerable squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) crossed on one rope-bridge at least once every 4.5 weeks over a 32-week period. The feathertail glider (Acrobates pygmaeus), common ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) and the common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) were detected on one of two rope-bridges that extended under the freeway at creek crossings. The feathertail glider was detected on all three rope-bridge designs. Our results suggest that rope-bridges have the potential to restore habitat connectivity disrupted by roads for some arboreal mammals. Further research is needed to refine the design and placement of rope-bridges as well as to determine whether these structures promote gene flow.

Tall wooden poles placed along roadsides may enable road crossing by gliding mammals. We investigated the use of 12-m-high roadside glide poles at one location in Brisbane. Camera traps on roadside poles detected squirrel gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis) on one or both poles on 60 of 310 operational nights including at least 16 confirmed crossings during 125 nights when both roadside cameras operated concurrently. This provides definitive evidence that squirrel gliders will readily use tall wooden poles to make glide-crossings of two-lane roads. This is consistent with other investigations of glide poles and suggests that poles should be installed more broadly to reconnect habitat for gliding mammals.

Here, we describe the development of seven new microsatellite loci from Petaurus breviceps. Together with eight loci from previous studies of gliders, we tested their utility for amplification, multiplexing and polymorphism in two glider species, P. breviceps and P. norfolcensis. Of the 15 loci tested, all were polymorphic in P. breviceps and 12 were polymorphic in P. norfolcensis. Overall, 260 sugar gliders from 13 sites in south-eastern South Australia and 106 squirrel gliders collected throughout south-east Queensland were used in analyses. Numbers of alleles per locus ranged from 4 to 27 in P. breviceps and from 2 to 44 in P. norfolcensis. Observed heterozygosity ranged between 0.438 and 0.904 in P. breviceps and between 0.189 and 0.981 in P. norfolcensis. Within the populations analysed, one of the 15 loci for P. breviceps and two of the 12 loci for P. norfolcensis deviated from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. The microsatellite loci will provide valuable tools for further study of social organisation, mating systems and population biology of these gliding marsupials.

In Australian temperate woodlands, most squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) habitats exist outside formal conservation reserves, often in highly fragmented agricultural landscapes. To conserve squirrel glider populations in such woodlands it is essential to define important habitats and understand how they are used. This study examines the nocturnal habitat use of squirrel gliders across five sites within an agricultural landscape in south-eastern Australia. Over a five-month period we radio-tracked 32 gliders to 372 nocturnal locations. We quantify characteristics of key nocturnal habitats and describe their use. Gliders were more likely to use large eucalypt trees, particularly yellow box (Eucalyptus melliodora) and mugga ironbark (E. sideroxylon). Nocturnal activity mostly took place high in the canopy of eucalypts, accounting for 74% of fixes. Multiple regression models revealed that feeding was more likely to occur in large, healthy trees close to drainage lines, with a preference for E. melliodora, when eucalypts were not flowering. Flowering trees were preferentially sought and were strongly associated with being large healthy trees that occur on ridges and upper slopes. Showing that the squirrel glider utilises key feeding structures (large healthy Eucalyptus trees) in different parts of the landscape at different times has direct management implications in the conservation and restoration of squirrel glider habitat, particularly in fragmented temperate woodland.

Socially dominant male sugar gliders are heavier than socially subordinate males, have higher plasma testosterone and lower cortisol concentrations, win more social encounters, scan the arena more, scent-mark more, and are more active and move more quickly, even though they spend more time in the colony nesting box. When they are transferred into a foreign stable colony there is an impressive reversal of behavioral measures and a concomitant decrease in concentration of plasma testosterone and rise in cortisol that is apparent over the first 3 weeks of observation.

Gliding mammals may be susceptible to habitat fragmentation due to increased vulnerability to predators and road mortality if forced to cross roads and other canopy gaps on the ground. We document three trials where 6–12-m-high wooden poles, also known as glide poles, were installed to provide a link for gliding mammals across 50–75-m-wide canopy gaps, over open pasture or over roads. We used hair-traps over periods of 10–42 months to determine whether squirrel gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis) used the poles. Squirrel glider hair was detected on at least one pole during 69–100% of sampling sessions. At two road locations where poles were installed on wildlife land-bridges, hair was detected on poles in the middle of the bridge in 7–18 sessions, suggesting that complete crossings may have occurred. At one road location a camera-trap recorded a squirrel glider ascending a middle pole on five of 20 nights. Repeated use of the wooden poles by squirrel gliders at three locations suggests that tall wooden poles can restore habitat connectivity for a gliding mammal. We recommend further trials to extend our knowledge of the usefulness of this management tool for a range of gliding mammal species.

The squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) is an arboreal marsupial potentially impacted throughout its geographic range by the loss of hollow-bearing trees. We investigated the use of den trees and the availability of hollow-bearing trees near Mackay in the tropical north of the squirrel glider range where information was deficient. Mean den tree size (41.1 ± 2.9 cm (s.e.), diameter at breast height (dbh)) was significantly larger than that of available trees (27.5 ± 0.9 cm). Dead trees (stags) comprised 52% of 27 dens but comprised only 12% of available trees. This likely reflects the greater frequency of hollows in dead trees compared with other trees. Surveys found that 59% of 720 available trees contained hollows. A much lower percentage of trees in the 10–30-cm dbh size class were hollow-bearing (22%) compared with trees >30 cm (77%), and we view these smaller trees as those providing future den trees. Their density varied from 17 to 95 ha–1 among sites, which suggests that most sites have an adequate supply of future hollows. We installed 56 nest boxes to determine use by squirrel gliders. Only 20% were used after 3 years, but use was not influenced by the availability of tree hollows. Tree hollow availability appears adequate for the squirrel glider in these tropical woodlands but further studies are needed to understand the dynamic processes that govern this resource.

Petaurus gracilis (de Vis, 1883). Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 20 Dec. 1882, ii. TYPE LOCALITY: Australia, Queensland, Cardwell region. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from the region of Barrett's Lagoon, near Tully, Queensland, Australia. STATUS: Probably endangered. COMMENTS: History of description given by Van Dyck (1990). Species resurrected from synonomy with P. norfolcensis by Van Dyck (1991)., Published as part of Colin P. Groves, 1993, Order Diprotodontia, pp. 45-62 in Mammal Species of the World (2 nd Edition), Washington and London :Smithsonian Institution Press on page 61, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7353075, {"references":["Van Dyck, S. 1990. Belideus gracilis- - soaring problems for an old De Vis glider. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, 28: 329 - 336.","Van Dyck, S. 1991. Raising an old glider's ghost- - a devil of an exorcise! Wildlife Australia, 28 (2): 10 - 13."]}

Petaurus Shaw, 1791. Nat. Mise., 2, pl. 60. TYPE SPECIES: Petaurus australis Shaw, 1791. SYNONYMS: Belideus, Petaurella, Petaurula, Ptilotus, Xenochirus., Published as part of Colin P. Groves, 1993, Order Diprotodontia, pp. 45-62 in Mammal Species of the World (2 nd Edition), Washington and London :Smithsonian Institution Press on page 61, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7353075

Petaurus breviceps Waterhouse, 1839. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1838:152 [1839]. TYPE LOCALITY: Australia, New South Wales. DISTRIBUTION: SE South Australia to Cape York Peninsula (Queensland), Tasmania (introduction), N Northern Territory, NE Western Australia; New Guinea and adjacent small islands, including Bismarck Arch.; Aru Isis and N Moluccas (Indonesia). STATUS: Common. SYNONYMS: ariel, biacensis, flavidus, kohlsi, longicaudatus, notatus, papuanus, tafa. COMMENTS: See Smith (1973, Mammalian Species, 30). McAllan and Bruce (1989) argued that the original publication of this name was in The Athenaeum, 580:880 [8 Dec 1838]., Published as part of Colin P. Groves, 1993, Order Diprotodontia, pp. 45-62 in Mammal Species of the World (2 nd Edition), Washington and London :Smithsonian Institution Press on page 61, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7353075, {"references":["McAllan, A. W., and M. D. Bruce. 1989. Some problems in vertebrate nomenclature. I. Mammals. Bollettino, Museo Regionale di Scienze Naturali, Torino, 7: 443 - 460."]}

Petaurus norfolcensis (Kerr, 1792). In Linnaeus, Anim. Kingdom, 1:270. TYPE LOCALITY: Australia, New South Wales, Sydney. DISTRIBUTION: Australia: E Queensland, E New South Wales, E Victoria. STATUS: Common. SYNONYMS: sciurea., Published as part of Colin P. Groves, 1993, Order Diprotodontia, pp. 45-62 in Mammal Species of the World (2 nd Edition), Washington and London :Smithsonian Institution Press on page 61, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7353075

Petaurus abidi Ziegler, 1981. Austr. Mamm., 4:81. TYPE LOCALITY: Papua New Guinea, West Sepik Prov., Mt. Somoro, 3°25'S, 142°05'E. DISTRIBUTION: NC New Guinea. STATUS: Rare., Published as part of Colin P. Groves, 1993, Order Diprotodontia, pp. 45-62 in Mammal Species of the World (2 nd Edition), Washington and London :Smithsonian Institution Press on page 61, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7353075

Twenty common brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), 23 ringtail possums (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) and five sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) from the Blue Mountains, New South Wales, Australia were evaluated for traumatic injuries between 1989 and 1990. Ten brushtail possums and five ringtail possums were hit by motor vehicles with injuries primarily to the anterior of the body. Fifteen ringtail possums and all sugar gliders were attacked by cats. Four brushtail possums were attacked by dogs. The remaining nine possums had evidence of intraspecific fighting (n = 2) or other types of trauma. Brushtail and ringtail possums were presented primarily during their main breeding seasons. There was no sex predilection. More ringtail than brushtail possums were subadults and these were injured primarily at the time of dispersal.

The sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) shows considerable variation in external morphology and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) diversity across its distribution in New Guinea and Australia. Here we investigate the phylogeography of P. breviceps in Australia using data from two mitochondrial genes (ND2 and ND4) and a nuclear gene (ω-globin). Phylogenetic analyses revealed the existence of two divergent mtDNA clades that are distributed over distinct geographical regions, one from coastal New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland and a second over the remaining distributional range of the species in Australia. The two groups generally had distinct ω-globin haplotypes that differed by one or two mutational steps. Analyses of Molecular Variation further supported the presence of at least two populations, accounting for 84.8% of the total mtDNA variation and 44% of the ω-globin variation. The general concordance of phylogeographic and population analyses suggests that population subdivision, possibly resulting from the combined influences of aridification after the Pliocene and uplift of the Great Dividing Range has impacted the evolution of P. breviceps. Our results also show that the geographical distribution of the two evolutionary lineages does not correspond with the distribution of the current morphological subspecies and we further propose that they be considered as separate Evolutionarily Significant Units for the purposes of conservation management.

Context. Nectar is a temporally variable food resource. However, because few studies describe the population dynamics of nectar-feeding non-flying mammals, it is unclear how such populations are influenced by resource availability. Aims. We investigated the population ecology of the squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) in remnant forest in Brisbane, Australia, where nectar was a dominant food item. Methods. We used 36 tree-mounted traps to census a squirrel glider population inhabiting a 47-ha urban remnant over a 4-year period. Key results. A total of 201 gliders was captured 705 times in 3729 trap-nights (19% trap success). Population density peaked in the first year at ~1.6 individuals ha–1, and declined down to ~0.5 individuals ha–1 by the final year. This change in population density appeared to be mediated by annual variation in flowering intensity. Births occurred from March to November, peaking between April and July. All females >1 year old bred in each year of the study, with a mean litter size of 1.7 (n = 122). The overall natality rate was 1.9, indicating that females occasionally bred twice per year. The sex ratio was at parity in the pouch and in the trappable population. Gliders first entered the trappable population at 4 months of age, and persisted for a mean of 32 months. The maximum longevity was at least 6 years. Conclusions. The demographic characteristics of this squirrel glider population within remnant forest surrounded by urban development were similar to those reported elsewhere. Variation in nectar availability appears to have a substantial influence on the dynamics of squirrel glider populations. Implications. The substantial variation in population size driven by food availability raises concerns regarding the viability of small populations of nectarivorous non-flying mammals inhabiting remnant habitat.

The home-range area of animals may vary geographically and in response to habitat quality. We investigated the size of squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) home ranges near Brisbane, Queensland, and at Tea Gardens on the central coast of New South Wales. Habitat at both sites had been partially cleared and had been subjected to grazing for several decades. Twelve gliders were tracked over an average of 3.5 months in Brisbane. The fixed kernel (FK95%) home-range estimate averaged 4.6 ± 0.7 (s.e.) ha while the minimum convex polygon (MCP100%) averaged 6.7 ± 1.5 ha. Six gliders were tracked over 1 month at Tea Gardens. The FK95% home-range estimate averaged 14.8 ± 2.4 ha while the MCP100% averaged 13.3 ± 3.1 ha. The Tea Gardens values are derived from relatively short periods and are likely to underestimate the areas used. This study demonstrates that home-range size can vary substantially in the squirrel glider. This has implications for understanding how this species responds to variation in habitat quality and highlights the need for site-specific studies to inform aspects of management.

Observations were made of a pair of wild sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) occupying a nest box. When the two young of this pair were ~65 days old, the adult male remained with them within the nest box for at least the first three hours of the night on consecutive nights. This is consistent with the hypothesis that, whilst the mother forages, care from other family members is required to prevent the young becoming hypothermic. This provides the first field evidence of direct male parental care in this species.

Effective conservation relies on understanding the biology of particular species and how they use key resources. For many arboreal mammals, tree hollows are a key den site. We examined the use of tree hollows by the squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) in south-eastern Australia. Over a five-month study, individual squirrel gliders used multiple hollow trees (average = 7) as den sites. Den sites were often adjacent to areas where nocturnal activities took place. The average distance between den sites used by individual gliders on successive days was 218 m. Dens were often shared by an adult pair and a juvenile. Den trees were disproportionably used, with gliders showing preference for 1–2 primary den trees often located on steep slopes. Our findings have implications for the number and spatial arrangement of den trees needed to promote the conservation of populations of the squirrel glider, particularly where land is used for agriculture and livestock grazing.

An investigation spanning two breeding seasons was carried out to examine endocrine changes associated with reproduction in a wild population of the marsupial sugar glider Petaurus breviceps, a small arboreal gliding possum. Using techniques of equilibrium dialysis and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis at steady-state conditions, a high-affinity, low-capacity glucocorticoid-binding protein was demonstrated in the plasma of Petaurus breviceps. Equilibrium dialysis at 36 °C using cortisol gave a high-affinity binding constant of 95 ± 5·2 litres/μmol for a presumed corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) while the binding constant for the cortisol-albumin interaction was 3·5 ± 0·4 litres/mmol. There was no difference between the sexes in the affinity of binding of cortisol to CBG; however, the cortisol-binding capacity underwent seasonal variation in both sexes. Progesterone was bound strongly to the presumed CBG while neither oestradiol nor aldosterone appeared to be bound with high affinity to P. breviceps plasma. In the males, peaks in the plasma concentration of testosterone coincided with the July–September breeding season in both years. A significant inverse relationship was shown to exist between the plasma testosterone concentration and the CBG-binding capacity. In both sexes an increase occurred in the plasma concentration of free cortisol during the first breeding season, a pattern which was not repeated in the subsequent breeding season, possibly due to a lower population density in that year. Journal of Endocrinology (1992) 132, 21–31

We describe the vocal behaviour of the squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) from 465 h of observation across five sites in north-east New South Wales and south-east Queensland. A monosyllabic or polysyllabic nasal grunt was the most frequent call (56% of 208 calls); it ranged from single calls to sequences of up to 20-min duration (mean 2.1 min ± 0.6, s.e.) and was heard on 34% of nights (n = 83) at two sites. The rate of the nasal grunt showed a positive relationship with population density at one site. The nasal grunt was typically made when conspecifics were near the caller, but responses were infrequent (7% of observations). Call playback produced no discernable change in call response. The nasal grunt appears to regulate individual spacing by facilitating mutual avoidance, a function hypothesised to be an evolutionary precursor to the use of calls in territorial defence. Threatening calls were the next most common vocalisation (17% of calls) and were accompanied by scuffles and/or chases. They were also used when gliders were preyed upon and during animal handling. The calling behaviour of the squirrel glider confirms the importance of vocal communication among petaurid gliders.

We investigated the diet of the squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) from within a highly fragmented landscape in the northern (tropical) part of its geographic range where information was absent. We analysed 86 faecal samples of 53 gliders from 11 locations and obtained 97 observations of 10 gliders feeding at two locations. Pollen of Eucalyptus/Corymbia was present in 70% and Melaleuca in 20% of faecal samples. Indicators of sap feeding were present in 44% of samples and seeds were present in 14% of samples. Invertebrates, mostly moth larvae, were present in 54% of samples. Observations of gliders feeding revealed that the main food types were invertebrates (36% of observations), nectar and pollen (27% of observations) and sap (26% of observations) of five tree species. Differences in the use of the major food types revealed by the two methods of diet analysis partly reflect site-based differences. Qualitatively, the diet was similar to that described in southern Australia, with confirmation that sap may be important at some locations. Our results reveal the contribution that different tree species make to the diet, which should be used to guide habitat restoration for the squirrel glider in this fragmented landscape.

Gliding mammals occur worldwide and many are subject to increasing levels of habitat fragmentation. Knowledge of their ability to cross tree-gaps by gliding is quite poor. We describe aspects of the gliding performance of the squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) based on recorded parameters of 85 glides of 73 individuals. Animals launched from a horizontal position ~1.7 m below the top of a tree and 2.3 m out from the main trunk. All but one glide was to the trunk of a tree, landing 5.7 m above the ground. Animals glided a mean of 21.5 ± 0.9 m (range 9–47 m) in a horizontal plane, with no significant difference between the sexes. Horizontal glide distance appears to reflect tree spacing where individuals were released. The mean glide angle was 28.5 ± 0.8°, with no significant difference between the sexes. We predict that trees beside roads that create a tree-gap of 20 m (two-lane road) or 43 m (four-lane road) will need to be a least 13 m and 25 m tall, respectively, to enable animals to safely glide across a road. Where trees are absent, 12-m-high wooden poles could be installed, requiring some in the median strip of four-lane roads.

Being able to recognise critical habitat features such as nesting and denning sites is essential for wildlife conservation. It is particularly true for the den trees of species threatened by habitat loss, such as the squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis). Measurements of 146 den trees of the squirrel glider were made in fragmented woodlands of the South-west Slopes of New South Wales and data compared with random trees to quantify the key characteristics of den sites. The likelihood of use as a den tree increased with increasing numbers of visible tree hollows and tree size. Dieback was also a positive indicator of den use. However, when visible hollows within a tree are abundant, dieback-free trees were preferred. Measures of den tree context such as basal area, the number of neighbouring large trees and distance to the next nearest tree, were also found to be important determinants of the likelihood of usage. The above variables were combined into a multiple regression model. The squirrel glider favoured particular Eucalyptus species and some broader eucalypt groups. We believe such variations were most likely due to interspecific differences in hollow development and dieback among the various groups, rather than bark type, a factor previously cited as an important determinant of den tree usage. The ‘best’ model had high negative predictive power, suggesting it would be useful for identifying (1) trees that could be felled without a loss of this critical habitat resource (e.g. at development sites) and (2) areas unsuitable for potential squirrel glider relocation or habitat enhancement. Squirrel gliders show preference for a combination of tree and tree context features in selecting den trees. Understanding these features will help managers enhance and protect denning resources for this species.

Effective management of tree-hollow-dependent wildlife requires a sound knowledge of the characteristics of the trees used for shelter or breeding. We used radio-tracking to identify the den trees of squirrel gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis) in south-east Queensland (Qld) and north-east New South Wales (NSW). Squirrel gliders used dead trees as well as 13 species of living tree for dens across the two locations. Dead trees accounted for a large percentage of dens (54% of 48 dens in Qld, and 50% of 18 dens in NSW) despite comprising only 3–10% of the forest (trees >20 cm diameter at breast height (dbh)) at each location. This preference is largely due to dead trees being more likely to contain hollows, accounting for 26–44% of available hollow-bearing trees. Mean den tree size (dbh) was 48.9 ± 2.4 cm in Qld and 62.8 ± 5.6 cm in NSW. Den entrance height averaged 6.8 ± 1.2 m in Qld and 11.9 ± 1.3 m in NSW. Fissures in the trunk and holes in branches were the most common of six hollow types used. At one location branch end hollows were ignored relative to their availability. Den entrances varied in size (2.5–12 cm wide) but most were ≤5 cm in diameter. Entrance size of hollows appears to be the hollow attribute of most importance to squirrel gliders. Monitoring of these den trees over several years revealed the collapse of three dead den trees at each location, which is equivalent to an annual loss of 3% of den trees. Further research is needed to determine whether this will lead to a future shortage of den trees.

We evaluated gliding, climbing, and running performance by Petaurus norfolcensis in southern Queensland, Australia and by a laboratory colony of P. breviceps. The data were used to test the hypothesis that gliding locomotion is energetically less expensive than quadrupedal transport, and is thus a reasonable explanation for the evolution of gliding. Gliding locomotion is less expensive than quadrupedal transport only when P. norfolcensis is able to climb to a launch point rapidly. We found no conditions in which gliding was less expensive than quadrupedal transport for P. breviceps. We compare these results with published data on North American flying squirrels, and argue that gliding locomotion in mammals may be a solution to foraging optimisation problems such as decreasing travel time between patchy food resources and increasing foraging velocity.

Using a chronically placed jugular catheter and a silver electrode, it was possible to monitor short-term changes in the plasma concentration of cortisol and catecholamine in the marsupial sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) and to monitor both heart and respiration rates. Males judged to be low in the social hierarchy of a particular group were exposed to the whole-body odor of a dominant male from the same social group, a foreign dominant male, or a castrate male. While there was no evidence of a change in any of the physiological parameters when a male was exposed to either a castrate male or a female, a rapid increase occurred in heart rate and plasma concentrations of cortisol, glucose and catecholamine when the donor was a dominant male from the same or a different social group.

A trap constructed from 90 mm PVC stormwater pipe and attached to the trunk of trees was more effective for trapping sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) and squirrel gliders (P. norfolcensis).

Night light pollution is an important environmental problem impacting on many animals including a variety of insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. While some impacts of night light pollution are well-known such as misorientation of sea turtle hatchlings and deaths of migratory birds, other less obvious impacts on reproduction, communication, competition, and predation have recently been reported. As some natural areas in New Guinea and Australia face agricultural and industrial development, conflicts between wildlife and photopollution will add to existing problems of habitat fragmentation and degradation. I report on the photopollution impacts on the nocturnal behavior of the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps). Captive sugar gliders were monitored using a "super nightshot" camcorder for baseline nocturnal behaviour following a 12 hour dayligh/12 hour dark regime. Treatment consisted of 12 hour dayligh/12 hour simulated ambient low and high luminosity street light photopollution (average 7.0 and 12.0 lux). Over 575 sugar glider-hours were analyzed. The results show marked behavioural impacts under high luminosity treatment, even 7.0 lux reduced foraging time. This is the first report of photopollution impacts on sugar glider foraging and activity levels. Further research, particularly with wild populations, is needed to elucidate the extent of photopollution impacts on sugar gliders and their endangered and vulnerable relatives.

Although nest boxes have considerable application in the research and management of hollow-using arboreal marsupials, few studies have assessed whether species show a preference for particular nest box designs. This study aimed to determine whether the feathertail glider (Acrobates pygmaeus) showed a preference when offered four different designs, each of which had been used in earlier studies. We established one of each design in 45 plots across five locations, spanning north-east New South Wales and south-east Queensland. Feathertail gliders used 34 nest boxes at four locations but avoided a medium-sized rear-entry box with a 45-mm-diameter entrance. No clear preference was shown for three designs with narrow (≤25 mm) entrances. Feathertail gliders used 15 small rear-entry boxes, 10 large slit-entrance boxes and 9 wedge-shaped bat boxes. A slight preference was shown by breeding groups to occur in the non-wedge boxes compared with the wedge boxes. Squirrel gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis) used 51% of medium rear-entry boxes at four locations. This may account for the avoidance of this box design by feathertail gliders at these locations. Breeding and prolonged use of nest boxes by resident feathertail gliders and squirrel gliders at two locations in eucalypt plantations suggest that nest boxes can support local populations of arboreal marsupials where tree hollows are absent or scarce.