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Los páramos colombianos están experimentando un aumento en su estrés climático. Uno de los factores clave detrás de esto es el cambio en las condiciones de cobertura de nubes, que dependen de procesos regionales y locales. Este trabajo busca explorar el grado de asociación entre la variabilidad año a año de las temperaturas superficiales del mar (TSM) observadas en las zonas tropicales de los océanos Índico-Pacífico y Atlántico y los cambios de año a año en las condiciones de cobertura regional de nubes imperantes en la cordillera Central de Colombia, pero enfocándose en el píxel de la retícula satelital donde se encuentran el macizo volcánico Ruiz-Tolima, el Parque Nacional Natural Los Nevados y sus alrededores. Los registros analizados incluyen valores promedio mensuales de TSM observados en la región Niño 3.4 del Pacífico ecuatorial, anomalías de las TSM observadas en las cuencas tropicales del Índico-Pacífico y el Atlántico, así como la cobertura de nubes de todo tipo y la presión atmosférica en su capa alta observadas sobre los Andes septentrionales. Aunque se procesan los datos de cuatro meses "secos", la discusión se centra en las condiciones de enero, cuando las zonas de alta montaña de la cordillera Central de Colombia están expuestas a máximos de brillo solar. Los análisis de funciones ortogonales empíricas (EOF) / componentes principales (PC) se llevan a cabo para identificar los principales modos de variabilidad de las TSM, tales como El Niño-Oscilación del Sur (ENOS). Los primeros modos de EOF en las anomalías de las TSM observadas en enero en las regiones 30°S a 30°N y 15°S a 15°N del Índico-Pacífico representan, en particular, la fase madura del ENOS y explican el 30,7 % y 44,3 %, respectivamente, de la variabilidad espacio-temporal de las anomalías de las TSM en enero. El primer modo de EOF de anomalías de las TSM observadas en enero en las latitudes 19°S a 29°N del Atlántico tropical explica el 32,0 % de la variabilidad espacio-temporal de las anomalías de las TSM en esta región oceánica y representa la estructura monopolar ecuatorial. Los análisis de correlación simple se llevan a cabo después para explorar los vínculos entre las anomalías de las TSM en Niño 3.4, el modo ENOS del Pacífico, la estructura monopolar ecuatorial del Atlántico y las condiciones de cobertura de nubes imperantes en los Andes septentrionales; 59 % de la variación de las condiciones de cobertura de nubes en el mes de enero sobre la zona de alta montaña seleccionada se explica por las anomalías de las TSM en la región Niño 3.4; 72 % y 71 % de esa variabilidad se explican por las primeras PC (PC1) de las anomalías de las TSM observadas en enero en los cinturones 30°S a 30°N y 15°S a 15°N de la región Índico-Pacífica, respectivamente; por último, el 28 % de esa variabilidad se explica por la PC1 de las anomalías de las TSM observadas en enero en la región 19°S a 29°N del Atlántico tropical. La PC1 de las anomalías de las TSM observadas en enero en el cinturón 30°S a 30°N de la región del Índico-Pacífico exhibe una tendencia estadísticamente significativa durante el período 1942-2007 que muestra más condiciones del tipo El Niño durante los últimos 28 años del período de observación. Ella también muestra un cambio estadísticamente significativo en la media, que coincide con el cambio de régimen ocurrido en el Pacífico tropical hacia 1976. Los análisis sugieren que es probable que haya una disminución de la cobertura neta de nubes en enero en la zona del macizo volcánico Ruiz-Tolima y sus alrededores durante los próximos 50 años. Una disminución en la cantidad de nubes de todo tipo del 6,8 %, relativa al período 1984-2001, es probable que ocurra alrededor del 2050 bajo condiciones "normales". Un evento fuerte de El Niño puede reducir esta cantidad media mensual de nubes desde un valor esperado de 68,7 % hasta un valor promedio de 59,6 %. Los cambios previstos en la cobertura de nubes tal vez empeorarán las actuales condiciones climáticas críticas que enfrentan los ecosistemas de alta montaña colombianos.Os páramos colombianos estão experimentando um aumento no seu stress climático. Um dos fatores chave atrás disto é a mudança nas condições de cobertura de nuvens, que dependem de processos regionais e locais. Este trabalho procura explorar o grau de associação entre a variabilidade ano a ano das temperaturas superficiais do mar (TSM) observadas nas zonas tropicais dos oceanos Índico-Pacífico e Atlântico e as mudanças de ano a ano nas condições de cobertura regional de nuvens imperantes na cordilheira Central da Colômbia, mas enfocandose no pixel da retícula satelital onde se encontram o maciço vulcânico Ruiz-Tolima, o Parque Nacional Natural Los Nevados e seus arredores. Os registros analisados incluem valores médios mensais de TSM observados na região El Niño 3.4 do Pacífico equatorial, anomalias das TSM observadas nas bacias tropicais do Índico-Pacífico e o Atlântico, assim como a cobertura de nuvens de todo tipo e a pressão atmosférica no seu alto limite máximo observadas sobre os Andes setentrionais. Mesmo que se processam os dados de quatro meses "secos", a discussão se centra nas condições de janeiro, quando as zonas de alta montanha da cordilheira Central da Colômbia estão expostas a máximos de brilho solar. As análises de funções ortogonais empíricas (EOF) / componentes principais (PC) se levam a cabo para identificar os principais modos de variabilidade das TSM, tais como El Niño-Oscilação do Sul (ENOS). Os primeiros modos de EOF nas anomalias das TSM observadas em janeiro nas regiões 30°S a 30°N e 15°S a 15°N do Índico-Pacífico representam, em particular, a fase madura do ENOS e explicam 30,7 % e 44,3 %, respectivamente, da variabilidade espaço-temporária das anomalias das TSM em janeiro. O primeiro modo de EOF de anomalias das TSM observadas em janeiro nas latitudes 19°S a 29°N do Atlântico tropical explica 32,0 % da variabilidade espaço-temporária das anomalias das TSM nesta região oceânica e representa a estrutura monopolar equatorial. As análises de correlação simples são feitas depois para explorar os vínculos entre as anomalias das TSM em Niño 3.4, o modo ENOS do Pacífico, a estrutura monopolar equatorial do Atlântico e as condições de cobertura de nuvens imperantes nos Andes setentrionais; 59 % da variação das condições de cobertura de nuvens no mês de janeiro sobre a zona de alta montanha selecionada se explica pelas anomalias das TSM na região Niño 3.4; 72 % e 71 % dessa variabilidade se explicam pelas primeiras PC (PC1) das anomalias das TSM observadas em janeiro nos cintos 30°S a 30°N e 15°S a 15°N da região Índico-Pacífica, respectivamente. Por último, 28 % dessa variabilidade se explica pela PC1 das anomalias das TSM observadas em janeiro na região 19°S a 29°N do Atlântico tropical. A PC1 das anomalias das TSM observadas em janeiro no cinto 30°S a 30°N da região do Índico-Pacífico exibe uma tendência estatisticamente significativa durante o período 1942-2007 que amostra mais condições do tipo El Niño durante os últimos 28 anos do período de observação. Ela também amostra uma mudança estatisticamente significativa na meia, que coincide com a mudança de regime ocorrido no Pacífico tropical para 1976. As análises sugerem que é provável que haja uma diminuição da cobertura líquida de nuvens em janeiro na zona do maciço vulcânico Ruiz-Tolima e seus arredores durante os próximos 50 anos. Uma diminuição na quantidade de nuvens de todo tipo de 6,8 %, relativa ao período 1984-2001, é provável que ocorra ao redor do 2050 sob condições "normais". Um evento forte do El Niño pode reduzir esta quantidade média mensal de nuvens desde um valor esperado de 68,7 % até um valor médio de 59,6 %. As mudanças previstas na cobertura de nuvens talvez piorarão as atuais condições climáticas críticas que enfrentam os ecossistemas de alta montanha colombianos.Colombian paramos are experiencing an increase in their climatic stress. One of the key factors behind is the change in cloud cover conditions, which are dependent on both regional and local processes. This work aims to explore the degree of association between the year-to-year variability of sea surface temperatures (SSTs) observed in the tropical Indo-Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and the year-to-year changes in regional cloud cover conditions prevailing over the Colombian Central Cordillera, but focusing on the satellite grid pixel where Ruiz-Tolima Volcanic Massif, the Los Nevados Natural Park and their surroundings are located. Analyzed records include mean monthly SSTs observed in the El Niño 3.4 region of the equatorial Pacific, SST anomalies observed in the tropical Indo-Pacific and Atlantic basins, as well as all-type cloud cover and top pressure data observed over the northern Andes. Even though data of four "dry" months are processed, discussion focuses on January conditions when highaltitude environments of the Colombian Central Cordillera are exposed to sunshine maxima. Empirical orthogonal function (EOF)/principal component (PC) analyses are conducted to identify the major modes of variability in SSTs, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The first EOF modes of January SST anomalies observed in the 30°S to 30°N and 15°S to 15°N Indo-Pacific regions represent, in particular, the mature phase of ENSO, and account for 30.7 % and 44.3 %, respectively, of the spatio-temporal variability of January SST anomalies. The first EOF mode of January SST anomalies observed in the 19°S to 29°N tropical Atlantic accounts for 32.0 % of the spatio-temporal variability of SST anomalies in this ocean region, and depicts the equatorial monopole structure. Simple correlation analyses are then conducted to explore linkages between the El Niño 3.4 SST anomalies, the Pacific ENSO mode, the Atlantic equatorial monopole structure, and the cloud cover conditions prevailing over the northern Andes; 59 % of the variance of January cloud cover conditions over the selected-high-altitude region is explained by the El Niño 3.4 SST anomalies; 72 % and 71 % are explained by the first PCs (PC1s) of January SST anomalies observed in the 30°S-to-30°N and 15°S-to-15°N belts of the Indo-Pacific region, respectively; finally, 28 % is explained by the PC1 of January SST anomalies observed in the 19°S to 29°N tropical Atlantic region. The PC1 of January SST anomalies in the 30°S-to-30°N belt of the Indo-Pacific region exhibits a statistically significant trend over the period 1942-2007 that shows more El Niño-like conditions during the last 28 years of the observational period. It also exhibits a statistically significant change in the mean that coincides with the regime shift that occurred in the tropical Pacific around 1976. Analyses suggest that there is likely to be a decrease in the January net cloud cover in the area of Ruiz-Tolima Volcanic Massif and its surroundings over the next 50 years. A decrease in all-type cloud amount of 6.8 %, relative to the period 1984-2001, is likely to happen by 2050 under "normal" conditions. A strong El Niño event would reduce this mean monthly cloud amount from an expected value of 68.7 % to an average value of 59.6 %. Predicted changes in cloud cover will probably worsen the current critical climatic conditions faced by Colombian high-altitude environments.

The phenotypic structure within and between plant populations is generally influenced by their distribution patterns in space and time; therefore, the study of their divergence is a central issue for the understanding of their microevolutive processes. We boarded the hypothesis that three populations of Espeletia pycnophylla show phenotypic divergence as one of the possible implications of their geographic isolation in the Southern Colombian Andes. We used the Elliptic Fourier Descriptors (leaf shape) and traditional leaf morphometry (leaf size) of 347 leaves to measure inter and intra-population variation and a comparison between a paleogeographic reconstruction with an actual estimate of the distribution areas of E. pycnophylla in order to identify their main changes during the last 14 000 years. The three populations showed significant differences in leaf morphometry and a positive correlation between the matrices of morphometric and geographic dissimilarities, indicating that the inter-population divergence increases between further populations, so that the morphometric structure reflects their spatial distribution. The geographical and paleogeographical estimates evidenced a conspicuous process of reduction and fragmentation of the distribution area of E. pycnophylla since the Late-Glacial until the Holocene. We suggest that these results support possible scenarios of vicariance events, which allow us to approach the divergence of these populations in terms of their historic biogeographic relations. However, genetic analyses are still needed to support these results. Rev. Biol. Trop. 58 (4): 1261-1270. Epub 2010 December 01.La estructuración fenotípica entre y dentro de poblaciones vegetales responde generalmente a sus patrones de distribución espacio-temporales, por lo tanto, el estudio de su divergencia es un tema central dentro de sus procesos microevolutivos. En esta investigación abordamos la hipótesis que tres poblaciones de Espeletia pycnophylla presentan divergencia fenotípica como uno de los posibles efectos de su aislamiento geográfico en los Paramos del suroeste de Colombia. Utilizamos los Descriptores Elípticos de Fourier (forma foliar) de 117 hojas y algunas medidas morfológicas tradicionales (tamaño foliar) como indicadores de la variación intra e inter-poblacional, además de una comparación entre una reconstrucción paleogeográfica con una estimación del área de distribución actual de la especie para identificar sus principales cambios durante los últimos 14 000 años. Todas las poblaciones mostraron diferencias significativas y además, existió una correlación positiva entre las matrices de disimilitud morfométrica y geográfica, indicando que la divergencia incrementa entre poblaciones lejanas. Paralelamente, las estimaciones geográficas y paleogeográficas evidenciaron un proceso de reducción y fragmentación del área de distribución de E. pycnophylla desde el Tardiglacial hasta el Holoceno. Sugerimos que ambos resultados apoyan escenarios de posibles series de eventos de vicarianza para las poblaciones estudiadas y nos permiten entender su divergencia en términos de sus relaciones biogeográficas históricas.

Este estudio se realizó en el Área de Manejo Especial (AME) “Sistema de Páramos y Bosques Altoandinos del Noroccidente Medio Antioqueño”, localizada en el Departamento de Antioquia, Colombia. El AME tiene una extensión total de 34.358,74 ha. Como objetivo principal de esta investigación se propuso estimar la oferta ambiental del recurso hídrico que se origina en dicho sistema, y como objetivos secundarios estimar el caudal medio mensual y anual que se origina en el sistema, así como también estimar el caudal mínimo anual para diferentes periodos de retorno. Para lograr estos objetivos se empleó el “procedimiento de contabilidad de aguas para efectuar el balance hídrico detallado según Holdridge”, y el método de regionalización de características medias. Como resultados se determinó para el AME una precipitación de 665.288.946,00 m³·año-1, una evapotranspiración real de 242.363.796,00 m³×año-1 y una escorrentía media anual de 422.925.149,57 m³·año-1. Obteniéndose un coeficiente de escorrentía del 63,6%, lo cual significa que el 63,6% de la precipitación se convierte en escorrentía y el 36,4% restante se pierde por evapotranspiración. Se concluye que el área de estudio presenta una precipitación media anual ( 1.847,4 mm), menor que la precipitación media anual de Colombia ( 3.000 mm) y mayor que el promedio anual de Suramérica ( 1.600 mm); y que la oferta hídrica del sistema estudiado (39,032 L·s-1·km²), es menor que la oferta hídrica promedia de Colombia (58 L·s-1·km²) y mayor que la oferta hídrica promedia suramericana (21 L·s-1·km²).This study was conducted in the “Paramo and High Andean Forest System of the Middle Northwest of Antioquia” Special Management Area (SMA), located in the Department of Antioquia, Colombia . The SMA has a total extension of 34.358,74 ha. The main object of this investigation was to estimate the environmental supply of hydric resource that originate in this system and with secondary objectives the estimation of monthly and annual average originate in the system, as well as to estimate the annual minimal volume for different periods of return. To achieve these objectives the “water accounting procedure to accomplish a detailed water balance according to Holdridge” and the regionalization of the mean characteristics method were used. As results for the SMA, a precipitation of 665.288.946,00 m³·year- 1, a real evapo-transpiration of 242.363.796,00 m³·year-1 and an annual run-off average of 422.925.149,57 m³·year- 1. A run-off coefficient of 63,6% was obtained, which signifies that 63,6% of the precipitation becomes run-off and the 36,4% remainder is lost by evapotranspiration. As conclusion the study area has an annual precipitation mean, ( 1.847,4 mm), that is less than the annual precipitation average for Colombia ( 3.000 mm) and greater than the annual average of South America ( 1.600 mm); and the hydric availability (39,032 L·s-1·km²) of the studied system is less than the hydric availability mean for Colombia (58 L·s-1·km²) and greater than the hydric availability mean for South America (21 L·s-1·km²).

En el caso del Ecuador, importantes tensiones y conflictos han surgido en los últimos años por el manejo del recurso hídrico, principalmente entre centros poblados hegemónicos como Quito, con aquellas poblaciones rurales y periféricas de donde se extrae el recurso. Tal es el caso de los páramos del cantón del Chaco. El claro contraste de necesidades contra demandas que se presenta entre un Ecuador urbano creciente y una ruralidad en construcción brinda un escenario local y regional interesantísimo, ciertamente un laboratorio geográfico donde se puede apreciar la globalización manifestada en diversas facetas positivas y negativas y donde existe el reto de analizar y proponer balances que permitan distribuir equitativamente cargas y beneficios en el uso, manejo y distribución del recurso hídrico.In the case of Ecuador, important tensions and conflicts have emerged during the last years over the management of hydraulic resources, between hegemonic populated centers such as Quito and rural and peripheral populations where the resources have been extracted, such as the moors of the Canton of Chacos. The contrast between needs and demands emerging between a growing urban Ecuador and an in-construction rural Ecuador sets up an interesting regional and local stage: most certainly a geographical laboratory where we can witness globalization expressing itself in diverse positive and negative facets and where we are faced with the challenge to analyze and propose an equilibrium in distributing fair loads and benefits for the usage, management, and distribution of hydraulic resources.

A new species of Espeletia from the Páramo de Presidente in northeastern Colombia is described. The species is named Espeletia praesidentis after the name of the páramo, and it is dedicated to the President Juan Manuel Santos, for his persistent efforts in working for peace for Colombia. The new species is closely related to Espeletia dugandii, but differs in the shape and colour of the leaves and arrangements of the capitulescences. A large population was found, but its total extension is yet to be determine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wetlands are considered globally important for storing carbon, due to the high plant productivity, and low decomposition of organic matter occurring in their flooded soils. Protected areas around the world are being conserved and ecosystems managed to maintain a good state of biodiversity and environmental services; therefore, contributing to carbon storage in these. The aim of this study was to analyze the potential of carbon that could be stored in the high wetlands of the Antisana Ecological Reserve (REA) and the Cajas National Park (PNC) of Ecuador. Wetland with different states of conservation were analyzed in each protected area; the contribution to organic carbon capture was determined through a systematic sampling with field and laboratory work. In the REA and the PNC, the wetland considered "preserved" had the highest organic carbon content. Wetlands have a significant potential for carbon sequestration, but drainage, drying, burning and grazing trigger the release of CO2, thus the conservation of wetlands is critical in regulating the carbon cycle on Earth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We show t he results of a rapid characterization of anurans at t he highland complex Los Nevados, Chilí-Barragán and Las Hermosas, which are located in the Central Andes of the departments of Quindío, Tolima and Valle del Cauca, Colombia. We registered 263 individuals belonging to 11 species of the families Craugastoridae and Bufonidae. Local richness is low (3-5 species), but most species (8/11) are endemic to Colombia and at least two (Osornophryne percrassa and Pristimantis simoteriscus) are listed with some risk of threat. Most species exhibit nocturnal-arboreal and ground-breeding behavior; the known distribution range for three species is expanded (Pristimantis simoterus, Pristimantis obmutescens, Pristimantis vicarius). We also present an updated list of anuran species recorded at the páramo ecosystem on Colombia. We hope that our records help with basic information about the actual presence of species in this ecosystem and provide a baseline for the eventual establishment of monitoring plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Facultad Nacional de Agronomía Medellín is the property of Universidad Nacional de Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Gestión y Ambiente is the property of Universidad Nacional de Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The Santander massif is a strategic area of the Colombian Eastern Cordillera by the presence of mineral and water resources. This study provides structural geology criteria around the Charta area where different faults that have continuity to the west-central part of the massif are identified, and mining projects, páramo zones and water sources for human consumption are located (more than one million inhabitants, including Bucaramanga city). A brittle deformation model was obtained from geological mapping and structural analysis, which is used to explain the distribution and kinematics of geological faults and folds. The three main fracturing trends were analyzed: one towards NNW related to east vergence thrust faults in thick and thin skinned structural style, and two transverse trends towards WNW and NE, exhibiting displacements under a strike slip regime. Areas of high secondary porosity and potentially open zones were identified based on fracture attributes measurement as intensity, density and length, as well as the kinematic analysis and water outcrops; specially related to the NE fracture corridors. Therefore, a hydraulic connection between the high páramo areas and the lowlands is proposed along the NE fracturing trend, which works as channels for groundwater flow and potentially contaminant fluids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The frailejón (Espeletia spp.) is the emblematic shrub of the paramo. This is an important ecosystem because they are sources of water and organic matter, and are inhabited by a high number of endemic biological species. Considering the importance of the microbiota in soil structure and nutrients availability to support plant growth, we assessed the cultivable microbial populations in Espeletia spp. rhizosphere in Santa Inés and Frontino-Urrao paramos, including functional groups with important role in cycling nutrients. The soil pH was strongly acid in both sites and the organic matter and nitrogen contents were highest in Frontino-Urrao soil. Nevertheless, the microbial abundance was similar in these sites except the content of endospore-forming bacteria, which was 3.8 fold large in Frontino-Urrao. Phosphate solubilizing and cellulolytic microorganisms were found in both sites. Those microorganisms would be used for soil restoration processes in paramos degraded by mining, livestock or agriculture. MICROBIOTA RIZOSFÉRICA DE Espeletia spp. DE LOS PÁRAMOS DE SANTA INÉS Y DE FRONTINO-URRAO EN ANTIOQUIA, COLOMBIA El frailejón cuyo nombre científico es Espeletia spp., es considerado el arbusto emblema de los páramos, un ecosistema de importancia debido a que son fuente de agua y de materia orgánica, donde se han registrado un alto número de especies biológicas endémicas. Considerando la relevancia de la microbiota en la estructuración del suelo y disponibilización de nutrientes como soporte para el crecimiento vegetal se determinaron las poblaciones microbianas cultivables de importancia funcional como dinamizadora de nutrientes en el suelo rizosférico de Espeletia spp. en el páramo de Santa Inés y en el de Frontino-Urrao en Antioquia. Los suelos se caracterizaron por ser ácidos y en el páramo de Frontino-Urrao se reportaron los mayores contenidos de materia orgánica y nitrógeno. La biomasa microbiana fue similar en los dos páramos y se registró únicamente variación en el contenido de bacterias formadoras de endospora, que superaron en Frontino-Urrao 3,8 veces el contenido respecto al de Santa Inés. En ambos páramos se reportaron bacterias y hongos solubilizadores de fosfato y degradadores de celulosa que pueden ser empleados en procesos de restauración de suelos paramunos degradados por la minería, la ganadería o la agricultura.

We describe two new species of Pristimantis from the cloud forest and paramo highlands protected by the Reserva Municipal Tinajillas-Gualaceño, province of Morona-Santiago, southeast versant of the Andes of Ecuador. The first species inhabits cloud forests at 2250 m and its diagnosed by the presence of spatulated digital discs and dark brown coloration (males with orange groin). The second species inhabits paramo highlands at 3200 m and exhibits a distinctive inguinal coloration with black marks on yellow background, a subconical tubercle on the snout and tympanum present.

This article aims to show the results of research, which describes the conflicts over land ownership and the consequences that the redistricting process will bring to settled communities and other social actors that converge in the territory of the complex Sonson moors in the states of Antioquia and Caldas. This is in order to provide some items to the problematization of these state exercises, and to manifest the challenge of what the environmental governance of the territories means today, goes beyond the scope of a proposal of delimitation, which is proposed as a managerial procedure, which determines where in the country mining can be carried out, and which requires the fact of hearing the answers from the communities, in view of such initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Páramos are intertropical montane ecosystems belonging to the Amazonian domain. They are discontinuously located in the Neotropics and have a high rate of endemicity at the species level. Nevertheless, the chemical composition and biological properties of these plants are poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the antibacterial activities of essential oils from the aerial parts of eight Asteraceae species that grow in the Páramos of Antioquia–Colombia against Enterobacter cloacae using an in vitro system (clinical isolate and ATCC 13.047 strain). The chemical compounds of these oils were examined by GC/MS. Three essential oils from known species and 23 different compounds commonly found in essential oils were also evaluated for their antibacterial activity. The chemical analysis of the Asteraceae species essential oils led to the identification of 80 components and more than 45 constituents in each essential oil. Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes were identified as the main components, making up 25 and 70% of the oils, respectively. The relationship between the antimicrobial activity and the chemical composition of the isolated oils was examined. The essential oils from the species growing in the Páramos showed weak antibacterial activity with MIC values greater than 5.0 μg/μL and percentage inhibition, assessed at 10 μg/μL, of 38.7–76.0 and 62.2–92.3% against a clinical isolate of E. cloacae and the E. cloacae ATCC 13.047 strain, respectively. The findings of the present study suggest that phenolic compounds, such as cinnamaldehyde, thymol and carvacrol, and other non-aromatic monoterpenes, such as citronellal, showed higher antibacterial activity compared to the essential oils. Therefore, essential oils with these compounds could be used as products with antimicrobial activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The plant Páramo grasslands ecosystem characterization was carried out by means of field expeditions to eight protected areas that Ecuador maintains through the Ministry of Environment. The expeditions were carried out every two months during three years, to evaluate in situ the botanical composition, frequency, density, height, basal cover and aerial cover. The observations were registered during two periods per year, at 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 d, for a total of 36 evaluations in each study place. The soil pH varied between 5.0 and 8.5, it is volcanic, with sandy and loamy characteristics. The identified species in the Ecuadorians heathlands were: 169 plants with forage importance, 90 grasses, 14 legumes, 28 compounds and 37 belonging to Equitaceas, Oxalidaceas, Liliaceas, Scrophulariaceas, Rosaceas, Ciperaceas, Poligonaceas, Plantaginaceas, Arbustivas, Orchideaceas, Ranunculaceas and Gentianaceas. A total of eighteen species showed good performance, when locating, at least, in a place. Those of great persistence and adaptation were Agrostis breviculmis, Agrostis exigua, Arrhenatherum pratensis, Arrhenatherum elatius, Bromus lanatus, Bouteloua curtipendula, Calamagrostis bolanderi, Calamagrostis tarmensis, Digitaria floridona, Eragrostis curvula, Euchlaena mexicana, Festuca weberbaueri, Holcus lanatus, Paspalum plicatulum, Paspalum bomplandianum, Poa pratensis, Stipa plumeris and Stipa plumosa. For the production of green and dry forage, respectively, the best were Euchlaena mexicana, with 25.9 and 6.7 t/ha/cut, and Arrhenatherum elatius, with 24.4 and 6.9 t/ha/cut; also Arrhenatherum pratense, with 23.0 and 6.1 t/ha/cut and Stipa plumeris, with 21.9 and 6.8 t/ha/cut. There was great plants biodiversity that can be use for animal feeding, which is observed from other studies of chemical composition and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research was carried out in the Ecuadorian Páramo grasslands, between 2900 and 4200 m o.s.l, in Loja, Zamora Chinchipe, Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo, Bolívar, Tungurahua, Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Imbabura and Carchi provinces. For the identification and taxonomical classification of species there were taken herborized samples and identified by agrostologists. The Hitchcock, Gould, Lombardo and Tovar taxonomic keys were used for the identification. From the grasses family, in the eight study places, 90 species were identified, including 37 genus, being the mains, with higher number of species: Festuca (14), Paspalum (10), Agrostis (7), Calamagrostis (7), Bromus (6), Stipa (5), Poa (5), Agropirum (3), Arrhenatherum (2), Brisa (2) and Andropogon (2).The species that prevailed in the study places were: Agrostis breviculmis, Agrostis exigua, Bromus lanatus, Calamagrostis tarmensis, Festuca humilior, Festuca ortophylla, Festuca weberbaueri and Paspalum bomplandianum. The diversity indexes of the existent meadow species showed values from mean (0.72) to high (0.90), as for their uniformity. This allowed determining that the biodiversity is variable, according to the environmental conditions of the studied Páramo grassland ecosystems. Similar performance was obtained for trees grasses species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research was carried out in the Ecuadorian Páramo grasslands, between 2900 and 4200 m o.s.l, in Loja, Zamora Chinchipe, Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo, Bolívar, Tungurahua, Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Imbabura and Carchi provinces. For the identification and taxonomical classification of species there were taken herborized samples and identified by agrostologists. The Hitchcock, Gould, Lombardo and Tovar taxonomic keys were used for the identification. From the grasses family, in the eight study places, 90 species were identified, including 37 genus, being the mains, with higher number of species: Festuca (14), Paspalum (10), Agrostis (7), Calamagrostis (7), Bromus (6), Stipa (5), Poa (5), Agropirum (3), Arrhenatherum (2), Brisa (2) and Andropogon (2).The species that prevailed in the study places were: Agrostis breviculmis, Agrostis exigua, Bromus lanatus, Calamagrostis tarmensis, Festuca humilior, Festuca ortophylla, Festuca weberbaueri and Paspalum bomplandianum. The diversity indexes of the existent meadow species showed values from mean (0.72) to high (0.90), as for their uniformity. This allowed determining that the biodiversity is variable, according to the environmental conditions of the studied Páramo grassland ecosystems. Similar performance was obtained for trees grasses species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of Puya from the páramos in the vicinity of Bogota, Colombia, is described. Puya loca differs from all known species of the genus Puya by its ferrugineo-tomentose bracts and sepals abaxially, and deep-purple colored petals. It is, until now, endemic to small isolated patches of páramos North-East of Bogota, in the Chingaza Páramo Complex. It forms dense mats of rosettes on rocky cliffs. The new species is compared to other known species from the surroundings of Bogota, as well as to species with similar colored flowers from other regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the processes that cause speciation is a key aim of evolutionary biology. Lineages or biomes that exhibit recent and rapid diversification are ideal model systems for determining these processes. Species rich biomes reported to be of relatively recent origin, i.e., since the beginning of the Miocene, include Mediterranean ecosystems such as the California Floristic Province, oceanic islands such as the Hawaiian archipelago and the Neotropical high elevation ecosystem of the Páramos. Páramos constitute grasslands above the forest tree-line (at elevations of c. 2800–4700 m) with high species endemism. Organisms that occupy this ecosystem are a likely product of unique adaptations to an extreme environment that evolved during the last three to five million years when the Andes reached an altitude that was capable of sustaining this type of vegetation. We compared net diversification rates of lineages in fast evolving biomes using 73 dated molecular phylogenies. Based on our sample, we demonstrate that average net diversification rates of Páramo plant lineages are faster than those of other reportedly fast evolving hotspots and that the faster evolving lineages are more likely to be found in Páramos than the other hotspots. Páramos therefore represent the ideal model system for studying diversification processes. Most of the speciation events that we observed in the Páramos (144 out of 177) occurred during the Pleistocene possibly due to the effects of species range contraction and expansion that may have resulted from the well-documented climatic changes during that period. Understanding these effects will assist with efforts to determine how future climatic changes will impact plant populations.

Andiodrilus bogotaensis, a native species to the paramos around Bogotá was observed, by means of morpho-histologic studies, to lack spermateca. It was also observed that the Seminal vesicules of the large majority of the specimens studied are inhabited by the parasite Monocystis lumbrici, which is reported for the first time in Colombia for A. bogotaensis