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Since the 2014 RobotX competition, we have modified our WAM-V, christened REx 4, to perform ocean science missions. Larger motors and the addition of a winch enable the vehicle to operate further from its base of operations at the MIT Sailing Pavilion. New autonomy software reduces the operator’s workload. Over the last few years, the vehicle has operated in the Charles River, Neponset River, Boston Harbor, and Massachusetts Bay. Our goal is to achieve autonomous operation of the vehicle in most of the waterways we have access to so that REx 4 can act as a force multiplier for ocean scientists. In this paper, we discuss the hardware, software, missions, and lessons learned related to REx 4.

Thesis: S.M., Joint Program in Applied Ocean Science and Engineering (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering; and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), 2019

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Oceanography/Applied Ocean Science and Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution June 2019.

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Oceanography/Applied Ocean Science and Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution June 2019.

Thesis: Thesis (Ph. D.)--Joint Program in Applied Ocean Science and Engineering (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering; and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), 2019

Thesis: Sc. D., Joint Program in Applied Ocean Science and Engineering (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences; and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), 2019

Development of global ocean observing capacity for the biological EOVs is on the cusp of a step-change. Current capacity to automate data collection and processing and to integrate the resulting data streams with complementary data, openly available as FAIR data, is certain to dramatically increase the amount and quality of information and knowledge available to scientists and decision makers into the future. There is little doubt that scientists will continue to expand their understanding of what lives in the ocean, where it lives and how it is changing. However, whether this expanding information stream will inform policy and management or be incorporated into indicators for national reporting is more uncertain. Coordinated data collection including open sharing of data will help produce the consistent evidence-based messages that are valued by managers. The GOOS Biology and Ecosystems Panel is working with other global initiatives to assist this coordination by defining and implementing Essential Ocean Variables. The biological EOVs have been defined, are being updated following community feedback, and their implementation is underway. In 2019, the coverage and precision of a global ocean observing system capable of addressing key questions for the next decade will be quantified, and its potential to support the goals of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development identified. Developing a global ocean observing system for biology and ecosystems requires parallel efforts in improving evidence-based monitoring of progress against international agreements and the open data, reporting and governance structures that would facilitate the uptake of improved information by decision makers. Publisher PDF

Thesis: S.M., Joint Program in Applied Ocean Science and Engineering (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering; and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), 2019

With advanced observation instruments, such as satellite radars and altimeters, huge amounts of oceanic data can be measured and saved everyday. How to extract effective information from these raw data becomes an urgent problem in the research of ocean science. In this chapter, we review the data representation learning algorithms, which try to learn effective features from raw data and deliver high prediction accuracy for the unseen data. Particularly, we describe two pieces of work to show how the state-of-the-art deep learning models can be applied to oceanic data analysis. That is how the deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are used for ocean front recognition and how the long short term memory (LSTM) networks are employed for sea surface temperature prediction. We believe that these two pieces of work are interesting to the researchers in both the machine learning and the ocean science areas, and many machine learning algorithms will be adopted in the ocean science applications.

The UN-endorsed decade from 2021 to 2030 promises to advance ocean science and sustainable use of the oceans and reverse the decline in the health of the oceans.

The use of autonomous vehicles (AUVs) can greatly increase the efficiency of science campaigns, reduce human impact and effort, and provide a more tractable expansion of ocean observing systems. This paper highlights a variety of autonomous vehicles and their contributions to specific science applications. We also explore ongoing development projects and the role autonomous systems will play in the future. Over the past decade, the operational domain of autonomous vehicles has expanded to higher complexity tasks with less power required to achieve them. Hundreds of autonomous vehicles are now available to the science community, and their growing ability to carry highly specific and complex payloads for longer durations is transforming how ocean scientists do research. This paper focuses on two broad areas where autonomous vehicles have provided significant value: time-series observations and ocean feature detection and observation.

Through the Cooperative Study of the Kuroshio and Adjacent Regions (CSK) program during 1965–1979, the capacities of current member states (MSs) of the Sub-Commission for the Western Pacific (WESTPAC) of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) were enhanced with regard to regional ocean science and data management. Following the termination of the CSK in 1979, each MS continued the work to advance ocean science. The results of scientific studies of the Kuroshio and its adjacent regions have been published by various experts including many from the MSs of the WESTPAC; however, to-date, there has been no systematic approach to the research of the Kuroshio and its adjacent regions. This review considered the Kuroshio from the regional perspective of experts of the MSs, that is, from the perspectives of MSs, science, and the future prospects. Experts from each MS reviewed past activities and contributions and reviewed the knowledge gaps in the fields of physical, biological, and biogeochemical science. Many scientific questions remain regarding the path of the Kuroshio from south to north, as well as associated phenomena, including mesoscale eddies and fronts, the important roles of ocean variations in adjacent regions, and the different roles and mechanisms of air–sea interactions in low- and mid-latitude areas. Despite considerable effort by many biologists, substantial gaps remain in our biological knowledge of the region. The Kuroshio and its adjacent regions comprise one of the areas of the world with high biodiversity; however, there has been insufficient research into what is the cause of this high biodiversity. From a biogeochemical aspect, high-resolution spatiotemporal observations will be required to understand interactions with physical processes both in the Kuroshio region and in the marginal seas. It has been highlighted that long-term fixed-location observations will be needed to understand the key mechanisms of biogeochemical processes, particularly in relation to climate change. Finally, the report summarized the future perspectives. Based on recognition of the current circumstances and with acknowledgment of the potential short-term future capabilities of MSs, the possible uses of new technologies and frameworks were discussed. Since the implementation of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which came into force in 1994, it has been difficult to conduct observations in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of other regional states. Thus, new frameworks and/or technologies will be needed to ensure the success of future studies of the Kuroshio.

The author name was incorrectly published in the original publication of the article. The correct version of author name is provided in this correction. The correct name of the author is Camilla Novaglio.

The commentary discusses the emerging UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, 2021–2030, LMEs activities supported through the GEF/UNDP IW:LEARN and LME:LEARN project hub hosted by the IOC of UNESCO, and perspectives of integrated ocean management based on interdisciplinary science and involvement of leading international research programmes.

The inter-comparison project for seawater salinity measurements, in which 25 laboratories from 16 countries took part, was conducted by JCOMM (Joint WMO/IOC Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology) for the first time in 2014. Two seawater samples of different salinity values ranging from 30−35 and 20−25 for Sample A and Sample B respectively and which had sufficient homogeneity and stability were distributed to all participants. Participants measured the salinity in their own laboratories at least 3 times and reported the results. Statistical treatments were applied to the results to assess discrepancies among laboratories. 20 out of the 25 laboratories used laboratory salinometers and statistics for this group were denoted as belonging to group α; while 5 out of the 25 laboratories used hand-held measuring instruments and statistics for this group were denoted as belonging to group β. Bias described as discrepancy among laboratories in group α was within ± 0.001 and expanded uncertainty (k = 2) was in the vicinity of 0.002. The bias and the uncertainty of Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), in group α, were 0.000 and 0.002, respectively. The biases of group β were greater than group α because of constraints related to instrument accuracy. Biases from 3 laboratories in group β exceed the accuracy specification of the corresponding instruments. Considering that the uncertainty of Standard Seawater (SSW) is of the order 0.001 to 0.002, the inter-comparison results show that 16 laboratories among the 25 laboratories made high quality measurements, largely indistinguishable from one another.

Deep-sea research is rarely available to undergraduate students. However, as telepresence technology becomes more available, doors may open for more undergraduates to pursue research that includes remote fieldwork. This descriptive case study is an initial investigation into whether such technology might provide a feasible opportunity for undergraduate students to conduct ocean science research remotely, and if so, whether students can move from being spectators to beingactive agents. Specifically, we inquire into the learning of seven students who conducted fieldwork via telepresence, which enabled them to participate in a cruise that used remotely operated vehicles to explore an active underwater volcano and mud volcano cold seeps. This study examines whether the students engaged in authentic research and whether telepresence provided a reasonable experience of fieldwork at sea. Interviews and observation notes suggest that these undergraduates were able to undertake all aspects of research. Stu...

Reconstructing past climate is beneficial for researchers to understand the mechanism of past climate change, recognize the context of modern climate change and predict scenarios of future climate change. Paleoclimate data assimilation (PDA), which was first introduced in 2000, is a promising approach and a significant issue in the context of past climate research. PDA has the same theoretical basis as the traditional data assimilation (DA) employed in the fields of atmosphere science, ocean science and land surface science. The main aim of PDA is to optimally estimate past climate states that are both consistent with the climate signal recorded in proxy and the dynamic understanding of the climate system through combining the physical laws and dynamic mechanisms of climate systems represented by climate models with climate signals recorded in proxies (e.g., tree rings, ice cores). After investigating the research status and latest advances of PDA abroad, in this paper, the background, concept and methodology of PAD are briefly introduced. Several special aspects and the development history of PAD are systematically summarized. The theoretical basis and typical cases associated with three frequently-used PAD methods (e.g., nudging, particle filter and ensemble square root filter) are analyzed and demonstrated. Finally, some underlying problems in current studies and key prospects in future research related to PDA are proposed to provide valuable thoughts on and a scientific basis for PDA research.

International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP 2013---2023) and its predecessors is the largest and longest international cooperation research program in earth science. It requires a strong financial support from government. Therefore, a study to compare research achievements among main IODP members was carried out. All peer-reviewed publications related with IODP can be acquired through database built by American geosciences institute. Comparisons of research directions and focus among the United States, Japan, Germany and P. R. China were studied using term frequency-inverse document frequency matrix, co-word, co-citation cluster and overlay analysis methods. Publication numbers, collaboration network, annual variation and expedition achievements among IODP main members were analyzed at the meantime. Research output differences in ocean science among IODP main members were also covered and compared with IODP outputs.US has emerged as absolutely the leader of IODP. Japan, Germany, UK and France are close followers, and these countries also have their own research topics. P. R. China ranks six with publication number and ranks ten with first authors and corresponding authors. There is a large gap between P. R. China and other countries such as US and Japan, which lies in expedition chief scientists' percentage, basic researches and activeness in research focus. Besides, researches output performance of P. R. China in ocean science is better it ranks 2 in ocean science publications. What is more, Japan has a trend to catch US, however, P. R. China doesn't have any sign of increasing. Sustained fiscal effort is still necessary for P. R. China.

The National Science Foundation funded the Transforming Remotely Conducted Research through Ethnography, Education, and Rapidly Evolving Technologies (TREET) project to explore ways to utilize advances in technology and thus to provide opportunities for scientists and undergraduate students to engage in deep sea research. The educational goals were to engage students in research in which they develop a hypothesis and research plan, experience a distant environment, collect data remotely, and interact with the scientific community. Eight undergraduate students from three universities participated, working closely with a professor at their institution with additional mentoring by other scientists. This paper describes the educational portion of TREET, students' experiences conducting ocean science research using telepresence, and lessons learned about the promise and challenges of using telepresence to engage undergraduate students in research. The TREET project consisted of three phases: Phase I, ...

While US naval officer Matthew Fontaine Maury is frequently celebrated by naval historians, historians of science have treated him more poorly. He is often portrayed as an uneducated amateur who jumped to conclusions about the oceans based on slim evidence and biblical reasoning, and who missed the opportunity provided by the founding of the US Naval Observatory to place American scientists on a competitive footing with their European counterparts. Consigning Maury to the category of disappointing amateur, however, misses the opportunities his case presents to better understand the historical milieu in which he worked, as well as his enduring contributions to the scientific exploration of the deep ocean. This article reconsiders Maury as scientist, siting the origins of his poor historical reputation in arguments over the professionalization of science and of the navy. His reputation also suffered after his departure from Washington, DC, for the Confederacy at the beginning of the American Civil War. The article examines his participation in a practice of science flavoured by its location in the nation’s capital, where science required as much attention to lobbying and leveraged connections as to the calibration of instruments. In this context, Maury was a serious scientist who embraced the task of doing science in the public interest, and he participated in an ongoing effort to further the USA’s ability to be competitive on the world stage, whether that stage was dressed for scientific achievement or commerce. Maury sought authority for his claims with a strong sense of the geopolitics of geophysics. Re-examining Maury as scientist provides a window onto a pattern of scientific practice in Washington, DC, in the middle of the 19th century whose echoes propagated through the rest of that century and into the 20th.

Formation of hypoxia zone in coast seas is a critical factor influencing the health of marine ecosystem and has becoming a focus of ocean science. The Bohai Sea in northeastern China is a semi-enclosed shallow sea receiving tremendous amount of terrestrial input of nutrients and sediments from several large rivers as well as coastal municipalities and has suffered serious eutrophication in the last two decades. Seasonal hypoxia has been reported on some locations in the Bohai Sea but relative few studies have been carried out to reveal its physical and biological mechanisms.

Establishing and maintaining a diverse US workforce that fully engages all populations represents a tremendous opportunity not only for furthering ocean science-related enterprises but also for cultivating future global ocean science leaders who collaborate effectively to make discoveries, achieve solutions, and develop technologies. A growing body of evidence suggests that a more diverse professional US workforce that better reflects the nation's demographics can be achieved through numerous strategies aimed at effectively recruiting, supporting through graduation, and facilitating the increased participation of underrepresented minorities in Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences (and other related) graduate degree programs. To provide background and context for understanding the diversity challenge, we first describe expectations for the future US population and compare these projections to information about today's demographic realities and the situation for the geosciences (including the ocean sciences) in particular. Descriptions of several specific implementations provide examples of successful strategies and reflect the research-based positive factors shown to foster increased engagement of underrepresented minorities.

PETER D. CLIFT1*, JAN HARFF2,3, JIAXUE WU4 & YAN QIU5 Department of Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA University of Szczecin, Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Mickiewicza 18, PL-70-383 Szczecin, Poland Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research, Seestrasse 15, D-18119 Rostock–Warnemunde, Germany Centre of Coastal Ocean Science and Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China Guangzhou Marine Geological Survey, China Geological Survey, Guangzhou 510760, China

Herzon, S. B. Macrocyclic colibactins. Nat. Chem. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41557-020-00551-8 (2020). Li, Z.-R. et al. Macrocyclic colibactin induces DNA double-strand breaks via copper-mediated oxidative cleavage. Nat. Chem. 11, 880–889 (2019). CAS Article Google Scholar Download references Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Wenjun Zhang Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA Wenjun Zhang Department of Ocean Science and Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China Pei-Yuan Qian You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar W.Z. and P.-Y.Q. wrote the manuscript. Correspondence to Wenjun Zhang or Pei-Yuan Qian. The authors declare no competing interests. Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Reprints and Permissions Zhang, W., Qian, P. Reply to: Macrocyclic colibactins. Nat. Chem. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41557-020-00552-7 Download citation Received: 24 April 2020 Accepted: 06 August 2020 Published: 21 September 2020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41557-020-00552-7

The International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) of 1960-1965 brought together scientists of all the major oceanographic nations of the time, as well as nations from the Indian Ocean region. The Indian Ocean basin and its processes were largely unknown at the time although it was known to feature unusual dynamics resulting from seasonally reversing monsoon winds that significantly affected the productivity of the basin. The Special Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR, later the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research), identified the Indian Ocean as a prime location for its first international expedition. The United States made a major investment in the IIOE, across all areas of ocean science. This article will document the legacy of the U.S. Program in Biology that was part of the IIOE.

Shim, J.S.; Kim, J.H.; Chang, B.S.; Min, I.K.; Choi, J., and Chun, I., 2020. Wave observation methods using high-frequency ocean radar. In: Malvarez, G. and Navas, F. (eds.), Global Coastal Issues of 2020. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 95, pp. 1273–1278. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.The Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST) has been developing high-frequency (HF) ocean radar for wave observation with SETsystem Inc., which had developed HF ocean radar for ocean currents. A Bayesian directional spectrum estimation method (BDM) algorithm was developed to extract wave information from HF ocean radar and tested using surface current and wave variability experiments (SCAWVEX) data. A circular array antenna was used, which has advantages in terms of smaller installation space and narrower beamwidth. The prototype of the HF ocean radar for wave was composed of BDM algorithm and circular array antenna for optimizing the observed waves. The prototype of the HF ocean radar was installed at the East Sea Research Institute, Uljin, in the Republic of Korea (ROK). The radar system is being checked, and a future study will compare the results with those of other observation tools.

In addition to being an esteemed marine ecologist and oceanographer, William T. (Bill) Peterson was a dedicated public servant, a leader in the ocean science community, and a mentor to a generation of scientists. Bill recognized the importance of applied science and the need for integrated “big science” programs to advance our understanding of ecosystems and to guide their management. As the first US GLOBEC program manager, he was pivotal in transitioning the concept of understanding how climate change impacts marine ecosystems to an operational national research program. The scientific insight and knowledge generated by US GLOBEC informed and advanced the ecosystem-based management approaches now being implemented for fishery management in the US. Bill held significant leadership roles in numerous international efforts to understand global and regional ecological processes, and organized and chaired a number of influential scientific conferences and their proceedings. He was passionate about working with and training young researchers. Bill’s academic affiliations, notably at Stony Brook and Oregon State Universities, enabled him to advise, train, and mentor a host of students, post-doctoral researchers, and laboratory technicians. Under his collegial guidance they became critical independent thinkers and diligent investigators. His former students and colleagues carry on Bill Peterson’s legacy of research that helps us understand marine ecosystems and informs more effective resource stewardship and conservation.

The Mediterranean is a semi-enclosed sea characterized by high salinities, temperatures and densities. The net evaporation exceeds the precipitation, driving an anti-estuarine circulation through the Strait of Gibraltar, contributing to very low nutrient concentrations. The Mediterranean Sea has an active overturning circulation, one shallow cell that communicates directly with the Atlantic Ocean, and two deep overturning cells, one in each of the two main basins. It is surrounded by populated areas and is thus sensitive to anthropogenic forcing. Several dramatic changes in the oceanographic and biogeochemical conditions have been observed during the past several decades, emphasising the need to better monitor and understand the changing conditions and their drivers. During 2011 three oceanographic cruises were conducted in a coordinated fashion in order to produce base-line data of important physical and biogeochemical parameters that can be compared to historic data and be used as reference for future observational campaigns. In this article we provide information on the Mediterranean Sea oceanographic situation, and present a short review that will serve as background information for the special issue in Ocean Science on "Physical, chemical and biological oceanography of the Mediterranean Sea". An important contribution of this article is the set of figures showing the large-scale distributions of physical and chemical properties along the full length of the Mediterranean Sea.

cess Biogeosciences Open Access Climate of the Past Open Access Biogeosciences, 10, 4845–4846, 2013 www.biogeosciences.net/10/4845/2013/ doi:10.5194/bg-10-4845-2013 © Author(s) 2013. CC Attribution 3.0 License. Techniques Corrigendum to Geoscientific for International and Environmental Research Oslo – CICERO, PB 1129 Blindern, 0318 Oslo, Norway Instrumentation 2 Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Stanford, CA 94305, USA Methods and 3 Department of Earth System Science, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA 1 Center Data Systems Correspondence to: G. P. Peters (glen.peters@cicero.uio.no) Open Access Solid Earth Open Access The Cryosphere Open Access There are different ways to define the “carbon footprint” or “consumption-based emissions” (Wiedmann and Minx, 2008; Peters, 2008, 2010a; Kanemoto et al., 2012). Table 6 shows the top 10 emitters, and top 10 relative differences, in terms of consumption using two different definitions (Peters et al., 2011a). In the top 10 largest emitters, the differences are generally small, with the largest being the UK (6.7 %) and France (5 %). The mean relative difference for the top 10 countries is 2 %. Geoscientific The largest relative differences are around 50 %, and occur for either small Model countries or countries with poor data. It is not Development possible to know the magnitude or direction of the difference without performing specific calculations (Su and Ang, 2011; Kanemoto et al., 2012). Differences are generally larger for Hydrology small and trade-exposed countries such and as Singapore, Tai- wan, Malaysia, and Belgium (Peters et al., 2011a). The av- Earth System erage difference for the 112 countries and regions in the Sciences database is 6.2 %, signifying that definitions could be one of the reasons for differences in results. While we have only compared two main definitions, other studies can use other different and less standard definitions (cf. Peters and Solli, 2010). Our results clearly show that to ensure robust compar- Ocean Science isons between studies, it is important to control for different definitions. Open Access 3.2.3 Differences due to the definition of consumption-based emissions Open Access In the paper “A synthesis of carbon in international trade” by Peters et al. (Biogeosciences 9, 3247–3276, doi:10.5194/bg-9-3247-2012, 2012), Table 6 presented incorrect EEBT (emissions embodied in bilateral trade) results. The corrected table appears below, and the related text from Sect. 3.2.3 on page 3259 should read as follows (changes in bold): Open Access G. P. Peters 1 , S. J. Davis 2,3 , and R. Andrew 1 Open Access Earth System “A synthesis of carbon in international trade” published in Dynamics Biogeosciences, 9, 3247–3276, 2012 Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. M

Researchers are challenged with preparing and complying with data management plans and open data mandates. The ocean science repository community has demonstrated the benefits of providing FAIR (fi...

© 2018 For thousands of years humankind has sought to explore our oceans. Evidence of this early intrigue dates back to 130,000 BCE, but the advent of remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) in the 1950s introduced technology that has had significant impact on ocean exploration. Today, ROVs play a critical role in both military (e.g. retrieving torpedoes and mines) and salvage operations (e.g. locating historic shipwrecks such as the RMS Titanic), and are crucial for oil and gas (O&G) exploration and operations. Industrial ROVs collect millions of observations of our oceans each year, fueling scientific discoveries. Herein, we assembled a group of international ROV experts from both academia and industry to reflect on these discoveries and, more importantly, to identify key questions relating to our oceans that can be supported using industry ROVs. From a long list, we narrowed down to the 10 most important questions in ocean science that we feel can be supported (whole or in part) by increasing access to industry ROVs, and collaborations with the companies that use them. The questions covered opportunity (e.g. what is the resource value of the oceans?) to the impacts of global change (e.g. which marine ecosystems are most sensitive to anthropogenic impact?). Looking ahead, we provide recommendations for how data collected by ROVs can be maximised by higher levels of collaboration between academia and industry, resulting in win-win outcomes. What is clear from this work is that the potential of industrial ROV technology in unravelling the mysteries of our oceans is only just beginning to be realised. This is particularly important as the oceans are subject to increasing impacts from global change and industrial exploitation. The coming decades will represent an important time for scientists to partner with industry that use ROVs in order to make the most of these ‘eyes in the sea’.

During the Second World War the need for closer working relationships between the Navy and science was demonstrated, and the wider belief that science was a necessary auxiliary to modern war was established. It is clear that the emerging group that would form the basis of the National Institute of Oceanography had close ties with military administrative patrons and understood their work as military-orientated ocean science. Using three case studies—the Hydrographic Office, anti-submarine warfare, and anti-sea mine warfare—the chapter argues that the Second World War provided the opportunity for key relationships to become established between leading ocean scientists, such as George Deacon, James Carruthers, and Edward Bullard, and leading military-scientific administrators.