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One of the main effective factors on olive oil quality is harvesting fruit at proper time. In this study, the effect of fruit harvesting time on oil antioxidant compounds of four olive cultivars, Zard, Rowghani, Arbequina and Coratina was investigated at Roodbar region, Guilan province. Therefore, the characteristics such as total chlorophyll, total carotenoid, total phenol, total flavonoid, antioxidant capacity, IC50 and anti-radical efficiency (AE) were determined in the oil. The results showed that with delaying in harvest time, antioxidant compounds of olive oil such as total chlorophyll and carotenoid, total phenolic and flavonoid decreased, that followed by declining oil antioxidant capacity and AE and, but increasing IC50. The results also showed that there was a positive significant correlation between olive oil total antioxidant activity with AE (+0.919), total chlorophyll (+0.562), total carotenoid (+0.562), total phenolic (+0.86) and flavonoid (+0.868) and a negative correlation with IC50 (-0.87). Overall, the highest antioxidant compounds were found when Zard, Rowghany and Arbequina cultivars fruits were harvested from 7 October to 18 October and 18 october to1 November for Coratina cultivars. Furthermore, delaying in fruit harvest time could increase olive oil content but declined oil antioxidant compounds and its nutritional value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information about reproductive behavior of the olive trees ( Olea europaea L.) in regions with lower occurrence of cold is fundamental to the expansion of its economic cultivation. Researches studding the adequacy of management techniques in order to promote flowering in these regions are important. Thus, this research was conducted to evaluated water restriction, girdling and paclobutrazol on flowering and production of olive cultivars. Three experiments were conducted in Federal University of the Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys in Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil. In the first experiment, ‘Arbequina’ olive trees were subjected to water restriction and two environmental conditions. In the second experiment, the girdled branches in different times on flowering and nutritional behavior of ‘Grappolo 541’ and ‘Barnea’ olive trees were evaluated. And in the third experiment, the application of paclobutrazol (PBZ) and the water restriction were studied in the vegetative growth and flowering of ‘Ascolana’ olive trees. The flowering of ‘Arbequina’ olive tree occurred with the averages of minimum temperatures varied from 8.4 to 11.7 °C, in autumn and winter. The girdling at different times did not influence the production of olive trees ‘Barnea’ and ‘Grappolo 541’. The girdled branches had a higher nutrient levels in leaves.The application of paclobutrazol in the soil promoted the reduction in vegetative growth of ‘Ascolana’ olive trees, with increase of flowering and fruiting. The water restriction did not favor the flowering of ‘Arbequina’ and ‘Ascolana’ olive trees and it reduced the effect of PBZ in ‘Ascolana’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant architecture is a critical trait in fruit crops that can significantly influence yield, pruning, planting density and harvesting. Little is known about how plant architecture is genetically determined in olive, were most of the existing varieties are traditional with an architecture poorly suited for modern growing and harvesting systems. In the present study, we have carried out microarray analysis of meristematic tissue to compare expression profiles of olive varieties displaying differences in architecture, as well as seedlings from their cross pooled on the basis of their sharing architecture-related phenotypes. The microarray used, previously developed by our group has already been applied to identify candidates genes involved in regulating juvenile to adult transition in the shoot apex of seedlings. Varieties with distinct architecture phenotypes and individuals from segregating progenies displaying opposite architecture features were used to link phenotype to expression. Here, we identify 2252 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated to differences in plant architecture. Microarray results were validated by quantitative RT-PCR carried out on genes with functional annotation likely related to plant architecture. Twelve of these genes were further analyzed in individual seedlings of the corresponding pool. We also examined Arabidopsis mutants in putative orthologs of these targeted candidate genes, finding altered architecture for most of them. This supports a functional conservation between species and potential biological relevance of the candidate genes identified. This study is the first to identify genes associated to plant architecture in olive, and the results obtained could be of great help in future programs aimed at selecting phenotypes adapted to modern cultivation practices in this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physiological drought response was evaluated for two olive cultivars commonly grown under rain fed conditions (‘Souri’ and ‘Picual’) and another selected for intensive, irrigated cultivation (‘Barnea’). ‘Souri’ is a traditional local Israeli cultivar, ‘Picual’ originated in Spain and ‘Barnea’ is a modern Israeli cultivar. Trees in pots were alternatively provided well irrigated conditions (100% FC, field capacity) or allowed to dry, first to 33% FC and then to 10% FC. Under conditions of greatest water availability, the ‘Barnea’ cultivar had the highest stomatal conductance and net photosynthesis, significantly higher than that found in ‘Souri’. Stomatal conductance and leaf water potential of ‘Souri’ and ‘Picual’ at 33% FC were not affected relative to the well irrigated treatment but decreased significantly at 10% FC. Photosynthetic parameters of ‘Souri' and ‘Picual’ were not affected by water stress. Stem growth was also not affected by drought in ‘Souri’ but was reduced at 10% FC in ‘Picual’. In contrast, the ‘Barnea’ showed higher sensitivity to low water availability with stomatal conductance and net photosynthesis reduced at 33% FC and sharp decreases in these and leaf water potential occurring at 10% FC. At 10% FC ‘Barnea’ trees showed stem shrinkage, a phenomenon not observed in the other cultivars. These results suggest a tradeoff between selection for suitability in intensively irrigated orchards and tolerance to drought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The need for new improved cultivars adapted to modern cultivation techniques and changing climatic environment requires genetic studies able to provide a better understanding of the phenotypic variance decomposition into genetic and environmental variances. In perennial crops, this decomposition requires evaluations carried out among years, trees within a genotype, samples within a tree and their interactions. The aim of this study was to perform such a detailed variance analysis of oil content components (fruit fresh weight-FFW, fruit moisture-FM, oil content on both fresh-OCFFW and dry-OCFDW basis) and fruit morphology traits (fruit maximum diameter-FMD and fruit circularity-FC) in an olive progeny issued from the cross 'Oliviere' × 'Arbequina'. A total of 106 genotypes from this progeny, together with the parents cultivars, were evaluated over two consecutive years in two trees/genotype, and three samples/tree for oil content components and 30 samples/tree for fruit morphology traits. Two dataset were considered during analysis. The first one, including a limited number of genotypes without any missing data, was fully balanced and ANOVA was applied for variance components estimation from expected mean squares. The second dataset contained the full unbalanced information of the 106 genotypes and mixed linear models were built following to the same statistical model. Both analyses showed that variance among genotypes (σ) was the main contributor to total variance for FFW, OCFFW and OCFDW and variance among years (σ) for FM. Residual error effect (σ) was the main contributor for morphology traits, whereas variance associated with the genotype × year interaction (σ) and tree × year interaction (σ) represented also important variance components for most traits, and variance among trees within a genotype (σ) was negligible. Consistently, the mean broad sense heritabilities (H²) showed the lowest values for FM (0.40) and the highest values for OCFFW (0.94). An estimation of heritability and environmental variation under varying numbers of years and tree replications revealed that including more yearly replications could be more effective than adding trees replications. Finally, this study provides a global view of adequate spatial and temporal replications required to accurately develop criteria for both conventional and marker-assisted selection on fruit traits from olive crossing progenies, and more generally in fruit trees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (AOXA) of olive ( Olea europaea L.) sprouts were measured in three cultivars (Arbequina, Moraiolo and Leccino). Olive seeds, obtained by manually breaking whole stones derived from de-stoning ripe fruits, were sown in plastic trays and subjected to cold stratification for 30 days. The trays were then moved to 25 °C and 16:8 light:dark regime. Total germination was 27% in Arbequina, 18% in Leccino, 14% in Moraiolo. Mean germination time (MGT) was 10 days in Leccino and Moraiolo and 14 days in Arbequina. Shoots were progressively harvested once the cotyledons were completely unfolded, i.e., between 8 and 16 days after germination. Sprouting dramatically increased TPC and AOXA in all cultivars (on average, 14 and 30 times higher, respectively, compared to seeds), with Moraiolo and Leccino showing higher values than Arbequina. Sprouting olive seeds appears to be a valid way to obtain antioxidants for food supplementation or pharmaceutical purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) has been proposed as one of the most promising irrigation strategies for hedgerow fruit orchards with high plant densities. Scheduling a RDI strategy, however, is highly demanding, since the targeted water savings must be achieved at the same time that episodes of excessive water stress are avoided when the crop is most sensitive to drought. Here we tested an approach to schedule a RDI strategy supplying 45% of the crop irrigation needs, specially designed for hedgerow olive orchards. Our approach is based on the use of a water stress indicator derived from the shape of the daily curves recorded with ZIM sensors, which are related to the leaf turgor pressure. We worked in a mature, fully productive ‘Arbequina’ olive orchard with 1667 trees ha −1 , under both a daily irrigated (FI) treatment and the mentioned RDI strategy. We found that the relation between the shape of the curves and the tree water stress levels holds for olive trees of different age under a wide range of growing conditions. We were able to schedule irrigation just from the visual analysis of the curves derived from the ZIM outputs, without any further data processing. A comparison with the crop coefficient approach showed that, with our approach, we achieved greater water savings without affecting neither the trees water status nor the crop performance. Still, further studies are required to confirm whether empirical aspects of our approach are limiting and, if so, to derive suitable alternatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olive ( Olea europaea ) is one of the most important fruit species in the Mediterranean basin, where 95% of the world’s olive orchards are planted, and it has become an economically valuable crop worldwide, due to an increasing interest in olive oil for human consumption. New olive orchards are being planted outside the Mediterranean, calling for an effort to identify the genotypes best adapted to the new conditions. However, some olive cultivars remain difficult to propagate, which significantly reduces the capacity to use the full genetic diversity of the species. Improving rooting ability in cuttings from recalcitrant olive cultivars has become a critical topic, which implies fundamental research on the anatomy, physiology, biochemistry and genetics of the adventitious root formation process. Besides, the existence of different rooting behaviors among olive cultivars also makes the species a candidate model plant for these studies. Olive propagation techniques evolved through time from field- or nursery-planted hardwood cuttings, to semi-hardwood cuttings in greenhouses under mist, and, more recently, to in vitro culture techniques. Nevertheless, research about adventitious root formation carried on each propagation method was mostly based on trial and error approaches. Researchers have mainly investigated different factors involved in the process of adventitious rooting by testing their effect in the rooting capacity of different cultivars, leading to a high dispersion and fragmentation of the available information. The goal of this review is to present the most relevant results achieved on adventitious root formation in olive cuttings, aiming to provide an integrated perspective of the current knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four field experiments were established at different locations to study the influence of Zn alone and combined Zn + Fe, Zn + B and Zn + Fe + B applications on leaf and fruit absorption levels by “Gemlik” table olive cultivar ( Olea europea L.) trees. The treatments of every experiment were consisted of control, soil and foliar applications. Soil applied Zn did not have an effect on Zn contents of either the leaves or the fruit in each year of the experiments. Every treatments of foliar applied Zn elevated sufficiently Zn contents of the leaves. Four times foliar application of each dose should be conducted due to more evident increases in the fruit Zn contents. Foliar applications of double and triple combinations of Zn with Fe and B increased significantly Zn, Fe and B concentrations in the olive trees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volatile compounds are responsible for most of the sensory qualities of virgin olive oil and they are synthesized when enzymes and substrates come together as olive fruit is crushed during the industrial process to obtain the oil. Here we have studied the variability among the major volatile compounds in virgin olive oil prepared from the progeny of a cross of Picual and Arbequina olive cultivars ( Olea europaea L.). The volatile compounds were isolated by SPME, and analyzed by HRGC–MS and HRGC–FID. Most of the volatile compounds found in the progeny's oil are produced by the enzymes in the so-called lipoxygenase pathway, and they may be clustered into different groups according to their chain length and polyunsaturated fatty acid origin (linoleic and linolenic acids). In addition, a group of compounds derived from amino acid metabolism and two terpenes also contributed significantly to the volatile fraction, some of which had significant odor values in most of the genotypes evaluated. The volatile compound content of the progeny was very varied, widely transgressing the progenitor levels, suggesting that in breeding programs it might be more effective to consider a larger number of individuals within the same cross than using different crosses with fewer individuals. Multivariate analysis allowed genotypes with particularly interesting volatile compositions to be identified and their flavor quality deduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bruising, damage caused by impact on the fruit during harvesting, is a major limiting factor in the production of table olives and currently restricts the applicability of mechanical harvesting. Bruising is characterized by darkening of the olive fruit surface and softening of the mesocarp or pulp. It decreases final product quality and may cause consumer rejection. This paper describes and quantifies anatomical changes in the olive mesocarp (pulp) related to bruising in fresh olive fruits after an induced impact. The study assessed two harvested table olive cultivars differing in bruise susceptibility (‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ and ‘Hojiblanca’) at two different times (4 and 24 h after induced impact). Qualitative observations of tissue bruising prior and after histological analysis revealed changes in the damaged mesocarp including ruptured cells, loss of cell wall thickness, and discoloration in the damaged areas. These changes appeared greater in ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ than ‘Hojiblanca’, and more evident 24 h after the impact. Bruising damage was quantified using eleven parameters related to the area of the damaged zone, and incidence and position of tissue ruptures. Nine of these parameters changed significantly with time, and significant differences were observed between the two cultivars studied in seven of the parameters. Three of these, the total damaged area ( TDA ) measured in mesocarp portions prior to histological procedure, the number of tissue ruptures in the mesocarp intersected by circumferential arc2 (located at one-fourth of the pulp thickness from the fruit exterior; Brk-arc2) , and the distance from the fruit exterior) to the first found tissue rupture ( D-min )), measured in histological preparations, were the most discriminating and easy to assess parameters, and are thus recommended for the evaluation of susceptibility to bruising among harvested table olive cultivars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work was conducted to study the differences in leaves oil content as well as its fatty acids composition. Also, study the molecular genetic identification of three Egyptian olive Cultivars (Olea europaea L.) coined as Maraki, Aggezi Shami and Toffahi cultivated in the farm of Horticulture Research Institute. The oil content percentages in the dry leaves were (7.650, 6.046 and 4.754) for Maraki, Aggezi Shami and Toffahi, respectively. The main component of fatty acids were Linolenic acid methyl ester, Oleic acid, and palmitic acid. For molecular studies RAPD and ISSR-PCR were performed and efficient in detecting polymorphism and genetic variations within and between olive cultivars. In RAPD analysis, 4 selected primers displayed a total of 51 amplified fragments, in which 31 (60%) were polymorphic fragments. Twenty eight out of 51 RAPD-PCR fragments were found to be useful as cultivar specific markers. Regarding the ISSR analysis, total of 46 out of 84 ISSR fragments were polymorphic. Twenty nine DNA amplified fragments were considered as cultivar-unique markers. Genetic similarities among the olive cultivars were estimated according to the fragments. In conclusion, both RAPD and ISSR polymorphisms could be used as efficient tools for the detection of similarities and phylogenetic relationships of the studied genotypes, which could be useful in the future breeding programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leaves and drupes of the major Greek olive varieties 'Koroneiki', 'Lianolia Kerkyras', 'Mastoidis', 'Adramytini', 'Megaritiki', 'Gaidourelia', 'Kalamata', 'Konservolia', 'Chalkidiki' and the Spanish variety 'Arbequina' were collected at different developmental stages during two consecutive years and investigated by HPLC for their phenolic profile and the concentration of the phenolic compounds present. The phenolic compounds identified in year 1 new season leaves were, in declining concentration order, oleuropein, 7-O-glucoside of luteolin and rutin, whereas for those collected in year 2 the main phenolic compounds were oleuropein, rutin, 4-O-glucoside of luteolin and 7-O-glucoside of apigenin. In September - December collected leaves of year 2, oleuropein presented the higher concentration followed by 7-O-glucoside of luteolin, 4- O-glucoside of luteolin and rutin. Regarding green and black drupes for both years, the main phenolic compounds were oleuropein, verbascoside and rutin. Verbascoside was only found in drupes whereas the 7-O-glucoside of apigenin only in leaves. The concentration of oleuropein showed high fluctuations both between different tissues within the same variety and between different varieties within the same tissue. The number of phenolic compounds identified in the phenolic profile of green and black drupes was lower than that of leaves regardless developmental stage or year. Differences were observed in the concentration of phenolic compounds depending on the variety in all tissues. The phenolic profile of new season leaves, green and black drupes was similar for both years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olive (Olea europaea L.) is one of the most characteristic agricultural trees of the Mediterranean region and has a large number of cultivar diversity. Olive cultivar characterization is very important especially for the fruit productivity and olive oil quality. In the present study, 46 clones belonging to Turkey (eight cultivars, each having five clones) and Italy (two cultivars, each having three clones) were assessed for cultivar characterization via inter-retrotransposon amplified polymorphism (IRAP) and retrotransposon-microsatellite amplified polymorphism (REMAP) marker systems using 10 LTR and 10 ISSR primers. In total, 368 band profiles were obtained, 358 of which are polymorphic (97.28% polymorphism). The cultivars were segregated into three main groups, each group having several branches, where all the clones of each cultivar were belonging to the same main group. The only exception to that was the distribution of the clones of cultivar Yaglik, 'Yaglik 4' and 'Yaglik 5', into different main groups. IRAP and REMAP analysis showed a high level of genetic variability among the olive cultivars in this study and this marker systems would be useful tool for clonal selection programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The total phenolic content and the antioxidant activity were determined for leaves and drupes of the major Greek olive varieties 'Koroneiki', 'Lianolia Kerkyras', 'Mastoidis', 'Adramytini', 'Megaritiki', 'Gaidourelia', 'Kalamata', 'Konservolia', 'Chalkidiki' and the Spanish variety 'Arbequina'. Leaves were collected in April, September and December, and drupes were collected green and black, for two consecutive years and investigated for their total phenolic content and antioxidant activity, using the Folin-Ciocalteu and the DPPH assays, respectively. The data obtained from this work showed that the total phenolic content and the antioxidant activity of all varieties per tissue have varied significantly since different varieties exhibited statistically significant different values. Furthermore, within each variety, tissue was an important parameter for both the total phenolic content and the antioxidant activity, as different tissues exhibited statistically significant differences for both measurements. For the varieties studied, and for both years, new season leaves on April showed the highest total phenolic content followed by green and black drupes with a few exceptions. Also new season leaves on April showed the highest total phenolic content than the leaves of September and December of the same year with a few exceptions also. A positive correlation (r=0.793**) between the antioxidant activity and the total phenolic content was found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was carried out on seven Algerian olive cultivars to report the effect of Spanish style processing on individual and total phenolic compounds and the changes that occur in antioxidant capacity. The results indicate that the treatment leads to losses in phenolic contents which are cultivar dependent. Sigoise is the least affected variety (12.25%) and Azzeradj from Seddouk the most affected one (94.80%). The phenolic profile shows drastic changes after processing. Hydroxytyrosol is dominant in processed olives (14.42-545.42 mg·100 g-1) while oleuropein is the major phenolic compound in fresh olives (994.27 mg·100 g-1). As a consequence to the loss in phenolic content, substantial reductions in the antioxidant activities of the extracts are noted. They are estimated to be 13.12-92.75% in scavenging activity against the DPPH radical, 37.78-93.98% in reducing capacity, 59.45-97.94% in the hydrogen peroxide radical and 7.26-51.66% in the inhibition bleaching of ß-carotene. Among the processed varieties, only Sigoise presented a positive value of RACI (relative antioxidant capacity index). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In the present study, the electrophysiological response of olive fly adults, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi), to olive leaves essential oils (EO’s) from different cultivars (cvs. Cobrançosa, Madural and Verdeal Transmontana) with distinct fly susceptibility degrees, as well as host volatiles ([( E )-2-hexenal, α-pinene, farnesene, xylene, and nonanal]) and semiochemicals (spiroketal, and ( Z )-9-tricosene) were assessed at different adults ages ([0–5] days old, early young adults; [5–10] days old, corresponding to sexual maturity; and [10–15] days old, when females are gravid). Results showed clear differences in the EAG response of both sexes to EO’s of the different cultivars, with higher signal in cv. Cobrançosa, the less susceptible to olive fly. An inverse proportionality was found between the EAG response to EO’s in both sexes and the susceptibility degrees to olive fly. Chemical composition of EO's proved to be highly influenced by olive cultivars, with a clear differentiation between them. A possible deterrent mechanism could be involved in the observed results. Host volatiles, mainly ( E )-2-hexenal and nonanal exerted higher EAG responses, ( E )-2-hexenal mainly in females at sexual maturity and oviposition period, while nonanal elicited higher responses at [5–10] days old in males, corresponding to sexual maturity. The present results give important results regarding olive fly oviposition preference as well to olive fly—olive tree interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this work was to assess the pollen viability, the pollen capacity (germination and tube growth) and the rate of fruit set in 19 cultivars of olive trees field grown in Chott Mariem (Tunisia) after self- and free-pollination treatments during two seasons 2012 ('on' year) and 2013 ('off' year). The pollen viability ranged from 60.5% for 'Meski' to 88.85% for 'Gerboui' during 2012 ('on' year) and between 97.47% for 'Chetoui' to 62.38% for 'Meski' in 2013 ('off' year). All the cultivars increased their values of viability and germination during 2013 comparatively to 2012, with important consequences on the fertilization process measured by the initial fruit set rate. Concerning the pollination treatments, generally, the free-pollination improved fruit set when compared with self-pollination, especially for 'Meski'. However, a non-pollination of 'Ascolana' and 'Tounsi' was observed with all pollination modes and during the two years in Chott Mariem. Our results showed a high correlation between the rate of fruit set after self- and free-pollinations during the two years of study 2012 and 2013 (respectively, r²= 0.74 and 0.65). This study highlights some major remarkable differences among cultivars in terms of pollen abilities. In general, concerning the pollination efficiency of olive cultivars, the pollen viability can be an important characteristic to be considered as an indicative parameter of pollen development and functionality. Finally, this is a topic of particular importance for large-scale isolated plantings and in choosing the cultivars in new olive groves plantations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olive (Olea europaea L.) is one of the most important crops in the Mediterranean region. The expansion of cultivation in areas irrigated with low quality and saline water has negative effects on growth and productivity however the investigation of the molecular basis of salt tolerance in olive trees has been only recently initiated. To this end, we investigated the molecular response of cultivar Kalamon to salinity stress using next-generation sequencing technology to explore the transcriptome profile of olive leaves and roots and identify differentially expressed genes that are related to salt tolerance response. Out of 291,958 obtained trimmed reads, 28,270 unique transcripts were identified of which 35% are annotated, a percentage that is comparable to similar reports on non-model plants. Among the 1,624 clusters in roots that comprise more than one read, 24 were differentially expressed comprising 9 down- and 15 up-regulated genes. Respectively, inleaves, among the 2,642 clusters, 70 were identified as differentially expressed, with 14 down- and 56 up-regulated genes. Using next-generation sequencing technology we were able to identify salt-response-related transcripts. Furthermore we provide an annotated transcriptome of olive as well as expression data, which are both significant tools for further molecular studies in olive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Recent technological advances to improve the quality of virgin olive oil ( VOO) have been focused on olive breeding programs by selecting outstanding cultivars and target progenies. Fatty acid ( FA) composition, with special emphasis on oleic acid ( C18:1) and palmitic acid ( C16:0), is one of the most critical quality factors to be evaluated in VOO. For this reason, the profile of FAs is frequently used as a decision tool in olive breeding programs. RESULTS A method based on gas chromatography with flame ionization detection ( GC-FID) was used to study the influence of genotype on the concentration of ten of the most important FAs in VOOs from target crosses Arbequina × Arbosana, Picual × Koroneiki and Sikitita × Arbosana and their corresponding genitors Arbequina, Arbosana, Koroneiki, Picual and Sikitita. For this purpose, a targeted approach was selected for determination of esterified FAs ( EFAs) and non-esterified FAs ( NEFAs) in a dual analysis by the same chromatographic method. A Pearson analysis revealed correlations between pairs of FAs, which allowed detecting metabolic connections through desaturation and elongation enzymes. An ANOVA test (with P < 0.01) led to identification of C16:0 EFA, C16:1 EFA and C18:1 EFA and also C16:1 NEFA and C18:0 NEFA as the FAs more influenced by cross breeding. Statistical analysis was carried out by unsupervised analysis using principal component analysis ( PCA) and cluster analysis ( CA) to look for variability sources. CONCLUSION Crosses with a common genitor (Arbequina × Arbosana and Sikitita × Arbosana) were partially overlapped in the PCAs using the profile of FAs. The CA results revealed clear differences between Sikitita × Arbosana and Picual × Koroneiki crosses in the composition of the most significant FAs, while Arbequina × Arbosana was not properly discriminated from the other crosses. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plants can avoid freezing damage by preventing extracellular ice formation below the equilibrium freezing temperature (supercooling). We used O lea europaea cultivars to assess which traits contribute to avoid ice nucleation at sub-zero temperatures. Seasonal leaf water relations, non-structural carbohydrates, nitrogen and tissue damage and ice nucleation temperatures in different plant parts were determined in five cultivars growing in the Patagonian cold desert. Ice seeding in roots occurred at higher temperatures than in stems and leaves. Leaves of cold acclimated cultivars supercooled down to −13 ° C, substantially lower than the minimum air temperatures observed in the study site. During winter, leaf ice nucleation and leaf freezing damage ( LT50) occurred at similar temperatures, typical of plant tissues that supercool. Higher leaf density and cell wall rigidity were observed during winter, consistent with a substantial acclimation to sub-zero temperatures. Larger supercooling capacity and lower LT50 were observed in cold-acclimated cultivars with higher osmotically active solute content, higher tissue elastic adjustments and lower apoplastic water. Irreversible leaf damage was only observed in laboratory experiments at very low temperatures, but not in the field. A comparative analysis of closely related plants avoids phylogenetic independence bias in a comparative study of adaptations to survive low temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A florescence microscopy was used to assess the graft compatibility of five scions of olives and one rootstock. The cultivars inspected were ‘Gemlik’, ‘Memecik’, ‘Sari Ulak’, ‘Nizip Yaglik’ and ‘Domat’ where the rootstock was ‘Gemlik’. Anomalies have been observed in some grafts, such as differences in the growth of scions and rootstock trunk diameters. The study reports the extent of callus growth, cambial differentiation, cambial continuity and formation of vascular tissues of these olive cultivars in applied grafts by florescence microscopy. A good callus growth was observed in the cambial development of vascular tissues in these samples. The formation of air pockets in side grafts was also found. Successful compatible grafts of ‘Gemlik’, ‘Memecik’, ‘Nizip Yaglik’, and ‘Sari Ulak’ cultivars were identified using ‘Gemlik’ rootstock. The scions of ‘Domat’ grafted onto ‘Gemlik’ induced limited callus and cambial development, resulting only in partial success of the grafts, and with the formation of air pockets. Weak grafts; dark brown necrotic regions along the lines of the graft in the callus tissue borders were also observed. Phenolic compounds causing necrosis in the graft zone were also identified by histochemical investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work studies the effect of packaging material (glass jar or plastic pouches), olive environment (covered with brine, under N 2 atmosphere or vacuum) and storage temperature (7, 13, and 22 °C) on the microbial survival, brine characteristics and colour of packaged fermented olives (Manzanilla cv.) subjected to preservation only by pH and NaCl levels. The highest lactic acid bacteria counts on olive epidermis (6.2–6.5 log 10 CFU/olive) were found in fruits stored in glass jar and plastic pouches at 22 °C which, on the contrary, showed the lowest yeast population levels (5.2–6.5 log 10 CFU/olive) due to the opposed growth trend observed between bacteria and yeasts. The pH increase in the packages with brine limited the product shelf life to about 2 months but without brine the shelf life could be longer. Changes in colour parameters did not affect the product's shelf life. The verification of the high lactic acid bacteria on the olive surface, particularly for plastic pouches with brine, and under N 2 atmosphere at room temperature, constitutes an essential step for producing probiotic table olives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The chemical composition of olive leaves cultivated in Southern Brazil was evaluated regarding proximate composition, total phenolic compounds, fatty acids profile, and macro- and microelements. For the varieties Ascolano, Arbosana, Negrinha do Freixó, Koroneiki, and Grappolo the concentrations of ash, protein, lipid, and total carbohydrates ranged from 4.37% to 6.00%, 10.50% to 13.10%, 9.13% to 9.80%, and 8.74% to 32.63%, respectively. Arbosana was the variety with the highest concentration of total phenolic compounds (35.71 mg GAE g −1 ), and the higher concentration of saturated fatty acids (37.26%, mainly palmitic acid). All varieties presented similar concentrations of oleic (from 19.80 to 21.50%), linoleic (from 6.84 to 8.26%), and linolenic (from 34.40 to 41.30%) acids. The high content of linolenic acid found in olive leaves turns this by-product into an interesting source of n -3 PUFA (linolenic acid) in addition to phenolic compounds. The mineral elements observed in higher concentrations in the varieties studied were Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, P, and S. However, if the recommended daily intake is considered for consumption of 50 g of leaves, the amount of Fe consumed reached the recommended dose while the amount of Cu exceeds the recommended value for all varieties. The results showed the importance of the constitution of these varieties, which could be used as supplements in food or to feed animals and increase the nutritional value of their products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The olive ( Olea europaea) is one of the most important crops in the Mediterranean region for economic and culinary reasons. Cuticular waxes coat olives and olive leaves and play a significant role in plant physiology and resistance against environmental stresses. The present study describes n-alkane profiles in cuticular waxes of olives and leaves of three Italian varieties (Frantoio, Leccino and Maraiolo) during different stages of olive development. Additionally, the study investigates the differences between n-alkane profiles of extra virgin olive oils with low and high leaf content. Olive leaves are characterised by the predominance of n-alkanes with longer carbon chains ( n-C29-C33) compared with olives ( n-C25-C29). During all stages of olive ripening period, n-alkane average chain length (ACL) values of olive leaves are significantly higher compared with those of olives. Extra virgin olive oils with admixture of leaves have significantly different n-alkane profiles than those free from leaf material. Practical applications: The results of this study will contribute significantly to the currently very limited information on n-alkane data from olive tree varieties used for oil production. The presence of leaves increases the concentrations of long chain n-alkanes ( n-C31-C35) in extra virgin olive oils, therefore studying the differences between n-alkane profiles of olives and olive leaves could help establishing the presence of leaf material in produced extra virgin olive oils. Information about the relative and absolute concentrations of n-alkanes in olives, olive leaves and olive oil will also be useful for biochemical and metabolic studies of the olive tree. Significant differences in n-alkane profiles of olives and olive leaves can be used for detecting the presence of leaf material in virgin olive oils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to identify new sources of resistance to Verticillium wilt in olive. We evaluated various types of genotypes: wild olive trees ( Olea europaea subsp. europaea var. sylvestris ), genotypes belonging to related subspecie ( Olea europaea subsp. guanchica ) and genotypes coming from crosses between Picual cultivar and wild olive trees. Fifty-six genotypes were inoculated by dipping roots and then screened under controlled conditions to test their resistance to a highly virulent Defoliating isolate of Verticillium dahliae . Picual (susceptible) and Frantoio (resistant) were control cultivars. Wide variability and significant differences were obtained in the evaluated disease parameters. The Relative Susceptibility Index (RSI), summarizing the disease parameters, was used for final classification of genotypes. Thirteen genotypes were categorized as resistant: eight wild olives from different locations, two genotypes belonging to subsp. guanchica populations from Canary Islands and three genotypes obtained from one of the crosses Picual x wild. The identification of high levels of resistance to V. dahliae among wild olive genotypes may be helpful for the management of this disease. The resistant genotypes could be used as rootstocks for susceptible olive cultivars or parents in future breeding programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of agronomical factors (two growing areas and four harvest periods) and storage conditions of virgin olive oils (room temperature, +4 and −20 °C) on tocopherols was investigated on two cultivars having significantly different tocopherol content (Oblica 269-443 mg/kg, Leccino 403-784 mg/kg). α-Tocopherol accounted for 97 % of total tocopherols and its content decreased during ripening of both cultivars. In a warmer growing area both cultivars gained a higher γ-tocopherol content while only Leccino showed a higher content of α-tocopherol. After 12 months of storage α-tocopherol content decreased by up to 27 %. Lower storage temperatures did not always contribute to the higher stability of α-tocopherol compared to room temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extra virgin olive oils were extracted from six different major olive cultivars (Gemlik, Ayvalik, Domat, Akhisar, Memecik, Arbequina) cultivated in the Aegean region of Turkey. Fatty acid, sterol and tocopherol compositions were analyzed and the results were compared by multivariate statistical analysis. Olive samples were collected from the same orchard in order to limit the contribution of parameters such as climate, soil quality and agricultural practices to the total variance of chemical composition of olive oils. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that cultivars can be clearly distinguished on the basis of fatty acid and sterol composition. It is of interest to note that palmitoleic acid content of Arbequina, a Spanish cultivar, is significantly ( p < 0.05) higher than the local Turkish cultivars in question and it is the only olive sample whose palmitoleic acid concentration is higher than that of the stearic acid concentration, exhibiting a divergent composition from the local Turkish cultivars. β-Sitosterol and Δ5-avenasterol contents of the oils are significantly correlated ( r = −0.989, p < 0.05) and this results in a discriminative axis on the PCA loading plot. Tocopherol composition was relatively insufficient in discriminating the olive varieties. Regarding tocopherol compositions Gemlik cultivar is distinguished from other cultivars with its γ-tocopherol content, which is in average two times higher than that of other cultivars. The result of the present compositional study provides important data which can be used for olive oil authenticity studies in Turkey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fruit cuticle micromorphology of several cultivars of Olea europaea L. was described with the aim to individualize features of the epicarp and epicuticular waxes useful to technological processings. All olive cvs. analyzed in this paper showed only epicuticular waxes arranged in crystalloid structures (granules, platelets, plates and rodlets). The epicarp aspects examined in this work were: the entire thickness of epicarp from surface to the base of epidermal cell, the height of the epidermal cell, the thickness of the cuticular flange that is wedged between epidermal cells and the thickness of the cuticular membrane, the continuous layer on the top of the epidermal cell. The cuticular membrane was the most important parameter, being the only barrier up the epidermal cells. Gentile di Chieti and Dritta cvs. had the thickest cuticular membrane (17.04 and 16.05 μm for green olives, respectively), Castiglionese , Carboncella and Kalamata cvs. had a medium cuticular membrane while the cuticular membrane of Intosso cv. was very thin (8.46 μm for green olives). The epicarp thickness decreased during ripening of fruits in all examined cultivars. Multivariate approaches were also used to identify similarities and differences between cultivars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research was to study the influence of the ripening stage of olive fruits and genotype on the composition of esterified fatty acids (EFAs) and non esterified FAs (NEFAs) in virgin olive oils (VOOs) from advanced selections obtained by crosses between Arbequina, Picual, and Frantoio cultivars. For this purpose, a method based on gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) was used to estimate the percent of each type of FAs. Principal Component Analysis was applied to find clustering of samples attending to the ripening stages. Discrimination was observed for VOOs associated to early and advanced ripening stages according to the concentration of FAs. The contribution of ripening and genotype to explain the variability in the concentration of EFAs and NEFAs was evaluated by ANOVA. Linoleic acid was the FA most influenced by the genotype. The highest genetic variability in FAs composition was observed in the ripening stage in which the fruit color is reddish or light violet, since five EFAs (palmitic, palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic) were significant to explain this effect. Therefore, the interval that lasts this ripening stage is the most appropriate to compare Arbequina, Frantoio, and Picual genotypes in olive breeding programs according to FAs composition. Practical applications: The composition of fatty acids (FAs) is one of the most critical aspects that affect the quality of VOOs, which has been related to balance of the concentrations of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated FAs. The results of this study can be used to improve olive oil quality by olive breeding programs. () Dark green to yellow or yellowish-green skin (RI 0-1); () yellowish with reddish spots (RI 2); () reddish or light violet to black (RI 3-4). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is known that fats and oils, when submitted to prolonged heat, are subjected to a series of chemical-physical modifications, generating changes in sensory and nutritional characteristics. The aim of the present research was to develop an accurate and repeatable method to predict appearance of undesired odour when extra-virgin olive oils from Arbequina and Manzanilla are submitted to heating processes, using an electronic nose. Among the metal oxide sensor response (electronic nose) an odour index was performed. Emissions of several volatile organic compounds released during the process were analysed by SPME-Gas chromatography. Linear discriminant analysis was applied on the sensor response; it was found that among eight sensors, four sensors were more specific for detecting release of volatile organic compounds during the heating process. The Mahalanobis distance method was adopted to create an odour index and was correlated with emissions of n-pentanal, n-hexanal, n-heptanal and n-nonanal. Data showed that the methodology accurately and rapidly predicted changes in odour pattern between cultivars. Practical applications: Changes in odour pattern of different cultivars of extra-virgin olive oil subjected to heating processes can be performed quickly and easily by applying electronic nose. Appearance of undesired odour due to thermo-oxidation can be detected applying an odour index based on the metal oxide sensors response. High correlations can be observed when linear regressions are applied to odour index and volatile compounds (VOCs) content. New markers of oxidation can be obtained applying this methodology. Electronic nose instruments are attractive for a number of significant features: the relatively fast assessment of headspace, a quantitative representation or signature of a gas and cheap sensors which can be easily integrated to quality control. The motivation of the present research was to incorporate metal oxide sensors in electronic nose as a useful tool to analyse the odour pattern and quality of different products. An odour index was performed using a metal oxide sensors signal. Linear regressions were performed with emissions of several volatile compounds, assessing content and odour index to predict appearance of undesired odour in extra-virgin olive oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite their importance as bioactive compounds and authentication parameters in olive oil, the response of policosanol aliphatic alcohols to even the most influential sources of variability is practically unknown. To investigate policosanol variation in olive oil as a result of variety, ripening, and oil storage temperature, 36 samples were subjected to gas chromatographic (GC-FID) and mass spectrometric (GC-MS) analysis, and results were processed by univariate (ANOVA) and multivariate (SLDA) statistics. The concentration (mg/100 g) and relative amount (%) of pentacosanol accounted for the most variation due to variety. The largest influence of ripening was observed for pentacosanol (%) and docosanol (%). Docosanol, tricosanol, and tetracosanol amounts mostly increased during ripening, whereas those of pentacosanol, hexacosanol, heptacosanol, and octacosanol decreased in Črna and Rosinjola oils, whereas Buža showed different patterns in some cases. Variations as a result of storage were lower and inconsistent. Results suggest that the investigated olive oils retained the bulk of their health beneficial features of policosanol origin throughout shelf-life. Relatively successful differentiation of oils achieved by multivariate models pointed to the potential use of policosanol alcohols as chemical indicators of varietal origin which are independent on ripening degree, and vice versa, applicable both for fresh and stored oils. Practical applications The results obtained may serve producers to assess and optimize the suitability of individual steps in production, and develop strategies aimed at producing olive oils with targeted policosanol composition. More generally, the indicators of variety and ripening degree among policosanol aliphatic alcohols proposed may contribute to the scientific work on the authenticity and quality of olive oil which is an ever-growing area, and be used for characterization, differentiation, authentication, and certification of olive oils of specific origin and attributes. The approach tested in this work could be utilized for developing more robust olive oil chemical composition specifications for European Union's Protected Designations of Origin (PDO) and other designations, because it considers the inter-relationship between three factors of variability and extracts only the most useful and stable indicators or markers. Policosanol alcohol variation as a result of variety, ripening degree, and storage temperature was investigated. The use of policosanol variation as a chemical indicator and discriminator according to these factors was tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arbequina and Picual are the most common olive fruit varieties cultivated in Galicia (NW Spain). However, in recent years, the interest of oil producers in autochthonous Local olive fruits has increased substantially since its oil has differentiated and peculiar characteristics, especially with respect to the aromatic and phenolic composition. The blending of Local oil (in low percentages) with Arbequina or Picual oils is assessed in this study. Quality-related indices, fatty acid composition, as well as minor compounds, such as volatiles and phenolics, were determined for both monovarietal and blending oils. Results obtained showed that the blending has the advantage of producing high quality virgin olive oil with predictable phenolic and aromatic profiles. Practical application: The development of high quality and distinctive extra virgin olive oils in NW Spain based on blends with a minor oil of differentiated and peculiar characteristics, especially with respect to the aromatic and phenolic composition, could produce highly marketable EVOO, with qualities that could be selected à la carte. Galician virgin olive oil producers want to promote the production and marketing of high quality extra virgin olive oils with peculiar sensory and health characteristics. To reach this goal, it is of great interest to recover old autochthonous Local olive varieties, which may bring added value to the most common Galician olive oils elaborated from Arbequina and Picual cultivars. Results obtained in this study showed that the previous knowledge of quality-related indices, fatty acid composition, as well as minor composition, such as phenolic and volatile profiles of monovarietal EVOOs, could be a good strategy to produce high quality extra virgin olive oils à la carte. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research was conducted to determine the effectiveness of various treatments in correction of single deficiency of iron (Fe) and multiple deficiencies of Fe, zinc (Zn), and boron (B) in an olive cultivar (Gemlik) in the southeastern Marmara region of Turkey. This study was consisted of four field experiments, which included control, soil and foliar applications of Fe alone, and combinations with Zn and B. Soil applications of the compounds were only performed in the first year of the experiments to estimate residual effect of soil applications in the following year. Foliar applications were sprayed onto leaves two and four times at two doses in consecutive years. Soil application of iron sulfate did not increase Fe concentrations in the both leaves and fruits. Foliar applications of iron sulfate considerably elevated leaf total and active Fe concentrations, but the effect of the foliar applications on fruit Fe concentrations was small. Two foliar applications of iron in each season seemed to be appropriate treatment in the all experiments, as well. To maintain sufficient Fe concentrations, especially in the newly developing tissues of olive trees, foliar application of Fe should be conducted at least four times at the lowest dose as performed in the experiments. Foliar applications of double and triple combinations of iron sulfate with zinc sulfate and borax increased significantly B and Zn concentrations in the trees, as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of actual evapotranspiration (ETa) models requires an appropriate parameterization of the available energy, where the net radiation (Rn) is the most important component. Thus, a study was carried out to calibrate and evaluate three semiempirical approaches to estimate net radiation (Rn) over a drip-irrigated olive (Olea europaea L. 'Arbequina') orchard during 2009/2010 and 2010/2011 seasons. The orchard was planted in 2005 at high density in the Pencahue Valley, Maule Region, Chile. The evaluated models were calculated using the balance between long and short wave radiation. To achieve this objective it was assumed that Ts = Ta for Model 1, Ts = Tcv for Model 2 and Ts = Tr for Model 3 (Ts is surface temperature; Ta is air temperature; and Tcv is temperature inside of the tree canopy; Tr is radiometric temperature). For the three models, the Brutsaert's empirical coefficient (φ) was calibrated using incoming long wave radiation equation with the database of 2009/2010 season. Thus, the calibration indicated that φ was equal to 1.75. Using the database from 2010/2011 season, the validation indicated that the three models were able to predict the Rn at a 30-min interval with errors lower than 6%, root mean square error (RMSE) between 26 and 39 W m-2 and mean absolute error (MAE) between 20 and 31 W m-2. On daily time intervals, validation indicated that models presented errors, RMSE and MAE between 2% and 3%, 1.22-1.54 and 1.04-1.35 MJ m-2 d-1, respectively. The three Rn-Models would be evaluated and used in others Mediterranean conditions according to the availability of data to estimate net radiation over a drip-irrigated olive orchard planted at high density. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of this study is to investigate the in vitro antioxidant activity, the total phenolic and flavonoid contents and the possible protective effects of seven cultivars of olive on lipid peroxidation induced by iron in mice liver. Methods: Antioxidant activity was evaluated by using different assays, including thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS), total antioxidant, 2,2-diphenlyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical and metal ion-chelating activities. Results: The aqueous extracts of fruit showed inhibition against thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) induced by pro-oxidant (10 μM FeSO4) in mice liver. The order of the antioxidant activity among different cultivars on lipid peroxidation assay is Maurino>Mission> Picholine>Ascolano>Carolea>Itrana>Pedolina. Moreover, the free radical scavenging activities of the extracts was evaluated by the scavenging of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical (IC50, 85.9 μg/ml (Ascolano), 82.1 μg/ml (Mission), Pedolino and Carolea >200 μg/ml, 85.1 μg/ml (Picholine), 143.6 μg/ml (Maurino) and 150 μg/ml (Itrana). Principal component analysis showed that phenolics and flavonoids contributed to the antioxidant activity of olives. Conclusion: The oxidative stress in liver can be potentially managed/prevented by the dietary intake of olive fruit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) allows us to decrease the amount of water to apply without significantly affecting yield and fruit quality. The influence of 3 irrigation treatments [T0: control (no stress); T1: moderate stress during pit hardening; and, T2: low stress at the end of flowering stage and moderate during pit hardening) on the quality of table olives, cv. ‘ Manzanilla’ , was evaluated. The parameters evaluated in table olives (after processing) were: weight, size, texture, color, fatty acids, volatile compounds and sensory quality. T1 olives had the highest weight and size, and were rounded. Color coordinates L * and b * had the highest values in T2 olives. Aldehydes and monounsaturated fatty acids predominated in T0 olive fruits, while terpenes and polyunsaturated fatty acids predominated in T1 fruits, and finally saturated fatty acids were abundant in T2 olives. Finally, the results of sensory studies indicated that global acceptance was higher for T1 olive, obtaining better satisfaction degrees for fresh olive flavor, crunchiness, and global satisfaction. Deficit irrigation is effective and can be a good alternative for this type of crop, ‘ Manzanilla’ table olives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current trend of the olive oil market is the production of high quality extra from traditional minor olive varieties with peculiar and differentiated characteristics (especially with respect to the aromatic and phenolic composition). In this way, the interest of Galician oil producers (NW Spain) in recovering old autochthonous Local olive fruits has increased substantially in recent years. In order to investigate the potential of the Local olives by either producing high quality monovarietal oils or mixing with the most widespread olives in Galicia (Arbequina and Picual cv.), quality indices, and fatty acid composition as well as volatile and phenolic profiles were determined and compared. All EVOOs studied in this work can be considered as “extra virgin olive oil” due to quality indices fell within the ranges established in legislation. Picual and Local olive oils as well as those resulting from their co-crushing reach values which are required by EU legislation to add the specific health claim on the oil label. Co-crushing Picual: Local (80:20) provided a significant enhancement of grass and apple nuances and a decrease of banana notes with respect to Picual oils. The co-crushing process improved sensory and health properties of Picual extra virgin olive oils. The effect of co-crushing on phenolics, ester volatiles and banana nuances cannot be easily modulated, contrary to quality indices and fatty acid composition, both changing linearly in strict correlation with the fruit mass ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of salinity, on three olive tree cultivars (‘Picholine’, ‘Meski’ and ‘Ascolana’), growing under greenhouse conditions, were studied through the following parameters: vegetative growth, stomatal density and ion accumulation (Na + , K + , Ca 2 + , and Cl − ). Olive plants were subjected to three saline irrigation treatments: T0 (irrigated with tap water), T1 and T2 irrigated with 6 and 9 g of NaCl·l 1 solution respectively. As salinity increased, vegetative growth, stomatal density, root dry weight and root density of ‘Meski’ and ‘Ascolana’ declined sharply. Sodium accumulation was greater in leaves and roots with increased external NaCl concentration, but differently according to cultivars. In fact, Na + concentration was higher in leaves than in roots for ‘Meski’ and ‘Ascolana’ cultivars. However, for ‘Picholine’ the highest content of Na + was in roots. Generally, ‘Picholine’ accumulate less Na + in leaves and were able to maintain higher K + /Na + ratios compared to other cultivars. In leaves, ratios of K + /Na + and Ca 2 + /Na + between cultivars were lower in salinity treatments compared to control. ‘Meski’ and ‘Ascolana’ have a higher power of water desalination than ‘Picholine’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Volatile compounds of Cellina di Nardò and Ogliarola Barese, two typical Italian olive varieties, have been characterised at different ripening stages. Proton transfer reaction-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry ( PTR-TOF-MS) was used for the first time on these fruits with the aim of characterising the volatile profile and, in the case of Ogliarola, the changes which may occur during the maturation process. RESULTS PTR-TOF-MS does not involve any sample pre-treatment, and allows high-resolution measurements, large spectra and small fragmentation of the volatiles. Therefore it allows both compound identification and data statistical treatments. In the present work, about 40 compounds that contribute to the discrimination between samples of the two varieties have been identified. CONCLUSIONS Three groups of compounds were identified: (1) compounds that are typical of mature fruits of Ogliarola, (2) compounds that tend to decrease during the change from green to mature fruits, and (3) compounds that increase during the maturation process. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some physico-chemical properties of olive fruits ( Olea europaea L., variety ‘Sariulak’) and their corresponding oils during 2007–2013 crop seasons were investigated following inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF, Rhizophagus intraradices ) and application of micronized calcite (MC) [as plant growth stimulating product] with special emphasis on individual phenolic compounds. Olive fruits showed greater accumulation of hydroxytyrosol and p-hydroxybenzoic acid in plants on which AM was inoculated when compared to the values of uninoculated plants. AMF inoculation resulted in a reduction in vanillin, dimethyloleuropein and luteolin content of olive fruits. Secoiridoid aglycones in the olive oils from treated trees generally tend to decrease. There were differences in the levels of phenolics in fruits and their corresponding oils, such as the amount of hydroxytyrosol rose in AMF + MC applied fruits, nevertheless the amount of verbascoside, a secoiridoid conjugate of hydroxytyrosol, declined in the oil of AMF + MC treated plants. After the application of AMF + MC, the oils did not show a significant change in the total phenolics content contrarily to olive fruits. These results highlight that phenolic compounds having hydrophilic structure were influenced by AMF + MC application more than those of lipophilic structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study selected 10 extracts from Tunisian chetoui O. europaea variety for their total phenolics, flavonoids, and phytochemical analyses as well as for their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities determination. The in vitro antioxidant property was investigated using DPPH, ferric reducing antioxidant capacity (FRAP), oxygen reducing antioxidant capacity (ORAC), and β-carotene-linoleic acid bleaching assays while antimicrobial activity was evaluated using macrodilutions method. For all organs of chetoui O. europaea variety, the investigated activities were found to be higher in the polar extracts (ethyl acetate, methanol, and methanol/water). These activities were correlated with the presence of phenolic compounds. Phytochemical analyses revealed that the crude extracts contain triterpenoids, quinones, and flavonoids. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) confirmed the presence of phenolic compounds in the studied extracts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The combined effect of an edible coating and a nitrogen atmosphere on the quality of Manzanilla olives mechanically harvested and processed as Spanish-style green olives was assessed. The percentage of olives free of any brown spots ranged between 35–50%, 10–25% and 50–65% for fruit directly processed, storage under nitrogen and coated and storage under nitrogen respectively. Moreover, olives stored in the open air developed brown spots due to the oxidation of oleuropein. By contrast, the anoxic conditions prevented oleuropein from undergoing enzymatic oxidation but not from its enzymatic hydrolysis. Hence, the phenolic derivative HyEDA was formed in olives stored under nitrogen, and this substance was rapidly oxidized in the open air to give rise to brown spots although to a lesser extent in the coated fruit. Therefore, the postharvest storage of coated olives under nitrogen can be a good method to prevent bruise damage in mechanically harvested fruit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The olive fruit fly, Bacterocera oleae Gmelin (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a serious pest of olive around the world. In the current research, digestive glucosidases were studies in the alimentary canal of the last larval instar. The specific activity of α- and β-glucosidases were 0.077 and 0.023 U/mg protein in soluble fraction. Results showed that optimal activities of α- and β-glucosidases were at pHs 5-6 and temperatures of 45°C and 25 °C for α- and β-glucosidases, respectively. Ca2+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Na+ and Zn2+ significantly increased activity of α-glucosidase but K+ and Mg2+ had the opposite effects. Meanwhile, Cu2+, K+ and Na+ increased β-glucosidase activity and other ions decreased it in the gut of B. oleae. Among used specific inhibitors, Phananthroline and DTC significantly decreased activity of α- glucosidases but EGTA and EDTA decreased β-glucosidase activity. Other compounds had no statistical effects on enzymatic activity. Kinetic parameters of α- and β-glucosidases showed a Km of 4.26 and 0.84 (mM), respectively. Also maximal velocities (Vmax) were found to be 0.21 and 0.11 U/mg protein. The highest activities of α- and β-glucosidase was found in Frangivento and Fishomi varieties but the enzymatic activities significantly decreased in the larvae fed on Amigdalifolia, Zard and Conservalia varieties. Understanding of digestive enzyme properties, particularly the effect of inhibitors on enzymatic activity and physiology of insects, could be useful to reach safe and useful controls of insect pests before achieving to resistant varieties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective was to compare 10 types of table olives, 11 types of tomatoes and tomato products and 18 types of legumes from conventional or organic farming for selected nutritional properties. All products were tested for their total antioxidant capacity (TAC) (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assay) and total phenolic content (Folin-Ciocalteau method). Tomatoes and legumes were further tested for iron and zinc dialyzability after in vitro digestion. Ascorbic acid content of tomatoes was also measured. The study resulted that the nutritional properties of olives, tomatoes and legumes tested were different among the various cultivars but, in most cases, not between products from organic or conventional farming. Natural black olives, cherry and santorini tomatoes and lentils exhibited superior nutritional properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information on olive breeding is very scarce and particularly concerning selection strategies to obtain new olive cultivars, while for other fruit tree crops different possibilities of resources allocation have been reported regarding the number of selection steps, number of replications and number of characters under evaluation and phenotyping methodologies. In this work, we report the utility of an intermediate step in an olive breeding program in contrast with a previous strategy where the initial selection at the seedling stage was directly followed by the final step in different environments. Correlations between data recorded at seedling and intermediate steps indicate that selection for bearing earliness, fruit size and oil content can be efficiently performed at the seedling stage, whereas evaluation at the intermediate step would be necessary to select for yield and vigor. Similar conclusions were obtained from the analysis of heritability estimated for these characters at the intermediate step of selection. Additionally, genotypes evaluated at this intermediate step showed high variability for characters not previously considered at the seedling step such as pattern of oil accumulation and oil quality parameters as fatty acid composition, tocopherol and sterols content. Therefore, the intermediate step proposed seems an efficient strategy for accurate selection of genotypes for productivity, tree vigor, oil content and quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bimonthly samples of olive fruits were collected from six olive varieties (Mawi, Frountoio, Istanbouli, Trilia, Sourani and Kaisi) planted in Khan-arnabeh research station during 2012. Studied varieties' olive fruit color, weight rate, susceptibility to olive fruit fly and parasitism rate were estimated for each collecting process. Three species of hymenopteran parasitoids on olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae were identified which are Psyttalia concolor, Pnigalio mediterraneus and Eupelmus urozonus in addition to predator fly Prolasioptera berlesiana (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). The study showed deference in olive variety susceptibility to B.oleae, ranged from 28.29 flies per 100 fruits in Mawi to 48.01 flies per 100 fruits in Kaisi which reported the highest susceptibility rate with significant deference from all varieties except Trilia and Istanbouli (p