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Guided by translanguaging pedagogy, this study examines how monolingual English teachers in a Pre-K school in China navigate between English and Chinese to construct a translanguaging classroom. Findings based on classroom observations and interviews reveal that, despite being constrained by their monolingualism, the English teachers enacted translanguaging in multiple ways creating three translanguaging components: translanguaging assistance, translanguaging assessment, and translanguaging showcases. Translanguaging assistance enables children to learn English with the assistance of their first language; translanguaging assessment evaluates children's English language skills within a spectrum of multilingual funds of knowledge, and translanguaging showcases define strategic activities to unlock children's full linguistic repertoires, activate their creative voices, and let their bilingualism shine. This study provides pedagogical guidelines that balance the goal of learning a language and developing children's bilingualism through an iterative enactment of the three translanguaging components.

This paper explores the ways in which white monolingual and monocultural English teachers articulate racial issues and conceptualise the racial identities of multiply-marginalised students in the classroom context. Drawing on the work of Charles Mills, this contribution aligns with an understanding of white supremacy as a means to historically dispossess, assimilate, and eliminate negatively racialized and language-minoritized communities, through mechanisms of Western settler-colonial hegemony and English language teaching. The authors present a qualitative case study of discursive practices of white English language educators who, despite their intentions to be inclusive, often (re)produce white supremacist values, language, and knowledges. Finally, this paper supports a more critical approach to the field of English language teaching, which recognizes and contends with whiteness and white supremacy in the co-construction of negatively-­racialized and language-minoritized identities.

Bilingual infants acquire languages in a variety of language environments. Some caregivers follow a one-person-one-language approach in an attempt to not "confuse" their child. However, the central assumption that infants can keep track of what language a person speaks has not been tested. In two studies, we tested whether bilingual and monolingual 5-, 12- and 18-month-olds spontaneously form language-person associations. In both studies, infants were familiarized with a man and a woman, each speaking a different language, and tested on trials where they either spoke the same language or switched to a different language. In Study 1, infants only heard the speaker, and in Study 2, infants saw and heard the speaker. Bilinguals and monolinguals did not look longer for Switch compared to Same trials; there was no evidence in this task that infants form person-language associations spontaneously. Thus, our results did not support a central assumption of the one-person-one-language approach, although we cannot rule out that infants do form this association in more naturalistic contexts.

This study explored the language experiences of dual language learners (DLL; n = 19) and English monolinguals (EM; n = 13) in preschool classrooms where English is the primary language of instruction and many home languages are present. Using the Language ENvironment Analysis™ system as a primary tool, we quantitatively analysed an average of 34 hours of recordings collected over 5-8 days for each participating child (M[subscript age] = 52 months) in six classrooms. Results showed that, during a typical preschool day, DLLs spoke as much as EMs but received less adult talk overall and had more 5-min segments with zero adult-child conversations than their EM peers. Follow-up analyses revealed that teachers generally talked less when children initiated the conversations than when adults initiated the conversations, and this pattern was particularly evident for DLLs. Study implications and future research are discussed.

Morphological awareness has been assessed longitudinally for monolinguals and bilinguals to trace the developmental trend. Researchers have found the important role it plays in literacy development including vocabulary growth and reading development. Conclusions about the important role morphological awareness play in literacy development are dependent upon valid methods. Unfortunately, some morphological awareness measurement issues have persisted in the literature. This article addressed some issues of morphological awareness assessment that persisted in the literature, which would cause inaccurate findings for studies. Twenty-six longitudinal studies that have assessed morphological awareness in Chinese and English at multiple time points have been reviewed, to investigate and address issues of measuring morphological awareness longitudinally. Four major issues were identified in the current article including the issue of high attrition and small sample size, using the same measure for multiple time points, inappropriate difficulty levels and types of the measurement used, and limitation of using one measurement. It provided several implications for future studies which could measure morphological awareness longitudinally.

Background: Bilingualism is widespread and being bilingual is more common than being monolingual. The lifelong practice bilinguals receive from managing two languages seems to lead to a cognitive benefit. Conversely, bilingualism seems to affect language ability negatively due to less use of each known language. Aims: This systematic review aims to summarize the results of the studies on the effect of bilingualism on executive functioning assessed by verbal fluency tasks. The verbal fluency task is a neuropsychological measure of lexical retrieval efficiency and executive functioning. Methods: The review was conducted according to the PRISMA statement through searches in the scientific databases PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science and SCOPUS. Studies included in this review had at least one bilingual and monolingual group, participants over 18 years and one verbal fluency task. Studies that considered bimodal bilingual, second language learners, trilingual or multilingual people, and clinical populations were excluded. A total of 38 studies were included in the systematic review. Main Contribution: Quantitative analysis of performance did not show significant differences between monolinguals and bilinguals. Qualitative results are mixed, and no definitive conclusions can be drawn about a bilingual advantage or disadvantage in the verbal fluency tasks. Conclusions: Normative data based on the monolingual population are not appropriate to test a bilingual population. It is necessary to take precautions in using this task, especially in clinical practice.

Purpose: Naming practices reflect culture, language and identity considerations. This study aims to explore Chinese American naming choices, revealing nuanced and complex linguistic, cultural and pragmatic considerations for teachers of literacy. Design/methodology/approach: The authors interviewed Chinese parents who are now living with their school-aged children in the USA on the naming choices of their students. By using content analysis, this study found patterns and themes from the interview data. Findings: The findings of this study suggest Chinese parents named their US school-aged children by taking into consideration of both Mandarin and English linguistic features, traditional and pop culture and the transnational identity of their children. Originality/value: The findings of this study can help teachers and teacher educators better understand the naming traditions of Chinese American families and connect these traditions to literacy instruction in the classroom. This study proposes practical suggestions suitable for both monolingual and multilingual students to explore all children's names and help build inclusive, culturally sustaining classrooms.

Non-word repetition tasks are widely used to assess phonological short-term memory (PSTM). Results of previous research on the performance of monolingual and bilingual children in PSTM tasks are inconclusive. Although in some studies bilinguals did outperform monolinguals in the repetition of non-words, most studies reported comparatively weak results of bilingual children, especially when they were tested in their L2. In this study, four-year-old monolingual and bilingual children acquiring German (N = 1,441) were tested with both German-based (GBNW) and quasi-universal non-words (QUNW). It was hypothesized that bilinguals would outperform monolinguals both in (a) GBNW under the condition of comparable German language skills and (b) QUNW without any preconditions because QUNW do not presuppose a good command of German. Bilinguals yielded significantly lower results in GBNW, but not in QUNW. After the exclusion of children with limited German language skills from both groups, bilinguals outperformed monolinguals in both tasks, especially in QUNW. It can be assumed that bilingualism puts higher demands on PSTM than monolingualism and thus contributes to its faster development. Unnecessary medical examinations and therapies that are sometimes prescribed to bilinguals due to a poor performance in German-based PSTM tasks can be avoided if QUNW are used instead of language-specific items.

With a growing number of multilingual children entering early childhood education, teachers are challenged to create appropriate learning opportunities for all children. Given diverse literacy skills and cultural backgrounds, early childhood educators might provide different support to children after an inappropriate child response depending on the child's language background. Therefore, the present study aimed to identify different types of teacher third-position support (i.e., support provided after not being satisfied with the child response or nonresponse) in interaction with multilingual and monolingual kindergartners. We conducted a multiple case study in which three kindergarten teachers and seven multilingual and five monolingual children were observed in the classroom during one school year. Support sequences were analyzed using content analysis. We identified six different types of teacher third-position support in educational interactions with multilingual children: allocate turn to another child, provision of hints, reduction of choice, establishing common ground, modeling, and using the home language. Teachers tended to use reduction of choice more with multilingual children, whereas provision of hints was used more with monolingual children. Overall, the presented study enabled us to obtain an in-depth view of how teachers differentially adopt types of third-position support in interaction with multilingual and monolingual kindergartners.

Previous studies on spoken word production have shown that native English speakers used phoneme-sized units (e.g., a word-initial phoneme, C) to produce English words, and native Mandarin Chinese speakers employed syllable-sized units (e.g., a word-initial consonant and vowel, CV) as phonological encoding units in Chinese. With spoken word production, although spoken word recognition is a fundamental language skill of human beings, it is unknown whether a Chinese-English bilingual listener can adjust the phonological unit sizes depending on the language used. Using four mouse-tracking spoken word recognition experiments, participants listened to spoken words (either presented in English or Chinese) while viewing a display of two written words. In Experiment 1, Chinese-English bilinguals experienced a larger phonological competition in the CV condition than the control condition, indicating that they recruited syllables when listening to Chinese monosyllabic words. Experiment 2 extended the results of Experiment 1 with a set of Chinese disyllabic words and further revealed the temporal distribution of syllable overlap of a spoken word constrains phonological competition. In Experiment 3, Chinese-English bilinguals exhibited a greater phonological competition in both CV and C conditions that mirrored those reported with English monolinguals in Experiment 4. Our results across experiments demonstrated that Chinese-English bilinguals employed both phonemes and syllables to recognize English spoken words but exclusively relied on syllables to recognize Chinese words, suggesting that there is flexibility in selecting phonological units when recognizing spoken words in the two languages. Implications for models of monolingual and bilingual spoken recognition are also discussed.

Chinatowns, as neighborhoods for overseas ethnic Chinese, have garnered considerable scholarly attention from linguistic landscape (LL) researchers in recent years. These investigations tend to treat old immigrants who have been tied to the neighborhoods for generations as the key text producers of LL, with far too little attention paid to the LL practices of new Chinese immigrants in Chinatowns, who are often associated with transnationalism and the rise of China. Focusing on Singapore's Chinatown, the present study attempts to explore Chinese Singaporean and new Chinese immigrants' linguistic choices concerning the Chinese-language signs displayed in the LL. Drawing on 326 instances of signs collected during site visits, the study found that Chinese Singaporeans and new Chinese immigrants make different linguistic choices when projecting their respective authenticities and identities. These findings suggest that there is indeed a linguistic basis for previously expressed arguments that Chinese Singaporean authenticity is threatened by new Chinese immigrants, shedding light on the need to examine the heterogeneity of Chinatown from the perspective of LL. This study enriches the scholarly understanding of LL practices within Chinese diasporic settlements in the East.

This exploratory study examined the experiences of middle school students in an urban two-way bilingual education (TWBE) program. Through the lens of students' sense of belonging, the study examined how middle school students described their experiences being enrolled in a TWBE program at the primary and secondary level. Data sources included a survey (n = 68) and six small group interviews with twenty middle school students. Using four dimensions of belonging (relationships, place, agency, and inclusion) to analyze the data, the study found that students experienced a sense of belonging through a culture of care, peer relationships, and community-building activities. Translanguaging practices supported students' identities as bilinguals and were a way to include students whose language proficiency was still in the emerging stages. Strong TWBE program cohesion appeared to positively mediate the transition from primary to secondary school. However, students experienced monolingual attitudes and ideologies outside the program, undermining their sense of belonging in school. The study concludes that TWBE programs are uniquely situated to engage in practices that support students' sense of belonging and, through these practices, create, open up, and sustain identity options for bilingual learners in middle school.

How do early bilingual experiences influence children's neural architecture for word processing? Dual language acquisition can yield common influences that may be shared across different bilingual groups, as well as language-specific influences stemming from a given language pairing. To investigate these effects, we examined bilingual English speakers of Chinese or Spanish, and English monolinguals, all raised in the US (N = 152, ages 5-10). Children completed an English morphological word processing task during fNIRS neuroimaging. The findings revealed both language-specific and shared bilingual effects. The language-specific effects were that Chinese and Spanish bilinguals showed principled differences in their neural organization for English lexical morphology. The common bilingual effects shared by the two groups were that in both bilingual groups, increased home language proficiency was associated with stronger left superior temporal gyrus (STG) activation when processing the English word structures that are most dissimilar from the home language. The findings inform theories of language and brain development during the key periods of neural reorganization for learning to read by illuminating experience-based plasticity in linguistically diverse learners.

Scholars have long critiqued points of view in which monolingual perspectives are seen as normative in research on multilingualism. In relation to this "monolingual orientation," however, in which monolingualism is perceived to be the implicit norm, less work has been dedicated to methodological challenges. As disciplinary perspectives on language in Linguistics and related fields move further towards the de-emphasizing and deconstructing of the boundaries between named linguistic varieties, this paper addresses some issues that come up in operationalizing this in our research. It does so through self-reflexivity, from a primarily Sociolinguistic and Applied Linguistic point of view, by addressing monolingual perspectives found in data on a project on multilingual practices in India. It focuses more narrowly on the ethnographic field notes from the research context. With discourse analysis, these are looked at through the lens of the monolingual orientation, with a particular focus on language ideologies and the compartmentalization of named-language varieties. Ideologies in the data are discussed in relation to their bearing on methodology in transcribing, coding, and the framing of research questions. This paper explores the tensions between evolving theoretical perspectives and on-the-ground research practice, concluding by proposing questions for reflection.

Reading research in the United States has mainly focused on early or, less frequently, middle grades and on monolingual (MN or English-only) rather than on multilingual (ML) students. To address these gaps, we focused on factors contributing to high school ML students' reading achievement. In particular, we first used machine learning to identify predictors of high school students' reading achievement on PISA 2018. We then conducted multilevel modeling on the entire sample (baseline model) and tested the model's generalizability to ML and MN populations. Results suggest that ML students would benefit from instruction focused on enhancing their reading self-efficacy and increased learning opportunities for extracurricular reading activities. The results also suggest that students, especially ML students, would benefit from schools avoiding grade retention policies and focusing on minimizing truancy and supporting positive peer and teacher relationships. Limitations of the study and future directions are discussed.

Purpose: Late talkers (LTs) are a group of children who exhibit delays in language development without a known cause. Although a hallmark of LTs is a reduced expressive vocabulary, little is known about LTs' processing of semantic relations among words in their emerging vocabularies. This study uses an eye-tracking task to compare 2-year-old LTs' and typical talkers' (TTs') sensitivity to semantic relationships among early acquired words. Method: U.S. monolingual English-speaking LTs (n = 21) and TTs (n = 24) completed a looking-while-listening task in which they viewed two images on a screen (e.g., a shirt and a pizza), while they heard words that referred to one of the images (e.g., "Look! Shirt!;" target-present condition) or a semantically related item (e.g., "Look! Hat!;" target-absent condition). Children's eye movements (i.e., looks to the target) were monitored to assess their sensitivity to these semantic relationships. Results: Both LTs and TTs looked longer at the semantically related image than the unrelated image on target-absent trials, demonstrating sensitivity to the taxonomic relationships used in the experiment. There was no significant group difference between LTs and TTs. Both groups also looked more to the target in the target-present condition than in the target-absent condition. Conclusions: These results reveal that, despite possessing smaller expressive vocabularies, LTs have encoded semantic relationships in their receptive vocabularies and activate these during real-time language comprehension. This study furthers our understanding of LTs' emerging linguistic systems and language processing skills.

How do teachers deal with multilingual pupils, and what reasons govern these choices? Whereas most studies on this topic have examined teachers in schools with monolingual policies, this paper includes teachers at bilingual schools. Framed by pedagogical theory, we present a qualitative research study based on interviews with teachers in the German state North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW). This area constitutes an interesting research site since 30-50% of the children are multilingual, but language policies in schools differ: Whereas most schools have a monolingual orientation, bilingual schools aim to purposely integrate languages beyond German in regular classes. Our results show that despite the differences in school language policies, despite different professional biographies and independent of knowledge on multilingual upbringings, teachers in mono- as well as bilingual schools reproduce the unquestioned perception of a monolingual norm. Furthermore, teachers at bilingual schools focusing on European languages deem migration-induced multilingualism as even less important than do teachers at regular schools. Finally, the results underline the importance of institutional policies and allow for insights into individual logic. On a larger horizon, the study contributes to issues of language-responsible teaching, equal opportunities, educational equality and social cohesion.

Purpose: This study conducted a transcription-based and spectral moments' analysis of alveolar and alveopalatal fricatives in monolingual and bilingual Frenchs-peaking children, aged 2;6--6;10 (years;months). We measured the percent accuracy of fricatives and investigated whether young children could distinguish alveolar and alveopalatal fricatives on the basis of spectral moments. In addition, we examined which child- (i.e., age, gender, bilingualism, and alveopalatal fricative inventory size) and word/sound-related (i.e., place-of-articulation [PoA], voicing, vowel quality, and word position) factors influenced spectral moments and fricative duration. Method: Children (N = 89) participated in a picture-naming task in which they produced words containing alveolar /s, z/ and alveopalatal /?, ?/ fricatives in word-initial, -medial, and -final positions. The words were transcribed and analyzed acoustically, and the first and third spectral moments (i.e., centroid and skewness) and the duration of fricatives were calculated. The data were subject to mixed-effects linear regression. Results: Percent accuracy results indicated effects of age on alveopalatal fricatives and effects of word position on voiced fricatives. Statistical models indicated that age, gender, and alveopalatal fricative inventory size influenced spectral moments. Age and inventory size interacted significantly with PoA. Children as young as age 2;6 distinguished alveopalatal and alveolar fricatives on the basis of centroid but not skewness values. The distinction between the two sets of fricatives increased with age. Bilingual children who spoke languages with greater numbers of alveopalatal fricatives distinguished alveopalatal and alveolar fricatives less well than monolinguals and bilinguals who spoke languages with fewer numbers of alveopalatal fricatives. Girls had higher centroid and lower skewness values than boys. Models also revealed a significant influence of word/sound-related factors (voicing, vowel quality, and word position) on spectral moments and fricative duration. Conclusions: Findings indicated that multiple factors influence the spectral moments and duration measures of children's alveolar and alveopalatal fricatives. In particular, we found that spectral moments were sensitive to gender and bilingualism effects.

This study investigated the influence of first language (L1) phonology on second language (L2) early reading skills in Sylheti-English bilinguals (N = 58; 48% girls; British Bangladeshi) and their monolingual-English peers (N = 43; 45% girls; 96% White British, 4% multiethnic British) in a diaspora context. Language-specific phonological awareness and nonword repetition were tested at two time points (6;2-7;8 years-old). At Time 1, the bilinguals had lower productive accuracy for phonological sequences that violated their L1 phonology (d = 0.56; 0.84), and these skills accounted for a significant amount of variance in their reading accuracy. At Time 2, the language-specific effects were no longer present. These findings highlight the importance of considering language structure in multilingual early literacy development.

Current models of the affinity between syntax and vocabulary are complex and recognize the contribution of bootstrapping and computational processes. To date, the mutual facilitation between these two constructs over time has not been studied in second language (L2) school children. The present study investigated longitudinally the direction and strength of the associations between syntactic and vocabulary skills in English Language Learners (ELLs; N = 409, 204 females, M age = 78 months, low socioeconomic status backgrounds) and their monolingual English-speaking peers (EL1; N = 157, 92 females, M age = 77 months, low socioeconomic status backgrounds). Children were assessed annually from Grade 1 to Grade 4 on a syntactic and a vocabulary task. Overall, autoregressive cross-lagged analyses indicated that early syntax predicted later vocabulary and vice versa, yet, the magnitude of prediction varied across groups. Notably, in the early stages of L2 learning, the predictive power from vocabulary to syntax was stronger than that in the opposite direction. Moreover, the predictive power from vocabulary to syntax was consistently stronger in the ELL than in the EL1 group. The results suggest that, in general, with sufficient quantity and quality of exposure to the L2, lexical and syntactic bootstrapping coexist. However, among novice young ELLs, bootstrapping is stronger from vocabulary to syntax than the other way around. Results underscore the importance of studying the relations between vocabulary and syntax longitudinally, and caution about an injudicious application of L1-based models to young L2 children's language development.

Across the globe signage which conveys directives regarding appropriate behavior in public, such as 'Do Not Enter' signs, is made multilingual in ways that other signage is not. This paper examines two examples of multilingualism in directive signs within Seoul, South Korea in order to theorize what gives rise to multilingualism in directive signage while other signage remains monolingual. Examination of Vietnamese and Arabic on signs prohibiting the illegal disposal of household garbage on side streets in Seoul, and English, Chinese, and Japanese on mask-required due to COVID-19 signs within the Seoul subway system allows for a robust analysis of what shapes the inclusion of additional languages on directive signage. We posit the construction of a differently speaking other who is seen as likely to disobey stated regulations alongside the desire by authorities to minimize the effort required to respond to rule breaking results in a multilingual commanding urgency that shapes multilingualism in directive signage. The concept of multilingual commanding urgency emphasizes the role enforcement practices have in shaping multilingualism, an important development in understanding this form of signage. Multilingual commanding urgency is especially relevant as it shapes signage deployed in emergency contexts such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

The present study tested the postulation that "knowledge begets reading, which begets knowledge." Using Random Intercepts Cross-Lagged Panel Models (RI-CLPM), we analyzed a U.S. nationally representative data set to examine the directionality and magnitude of the longitudinal relation between domain knowledge (operationalized as science domain knowledge) and reading throughout the elementary years (from kindergarten to fifth grade), while accounting for important covariates, such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, English language proficiency, basic literacy skills, and demographic information. Moreover, we conducted multi-group RI-CLPM analyses to examine whether language status (being bilingual or monolingual) moderates the longitudinal relation between domain knowledge and reading. The results showed that the relation between domain knowledge and reading is bidirectional and positive throughout the elementary years, providing empirical evidence that domain knowledge and reading may mutually enhance with each other. In addition, language status did not moderate the relation between domain knowledge and reading, suggesting that the directionality and magnitude of the relation were similar between bilingual and monolingual students. Taken together, the results have important implications for integrating content knowledge and English language arts core instruction in elementary grades. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED623594.]

The present study examines the production and intuition of Spanish clitics in clitic left dislocation (CLLD) structures among 26 Spanish heritage speakers (HSs) born and raised in Brazil. We tested clitic production and intuition in contexts in which Spanish clitics vary as a function of the semantic features of the object that they refer to. Results showed overextension of object clitics into contexts in which null objects were expected. Furthermore, we found higher levels of overextension among the HSs with lower patterns of heritage language use. Results are discussed along the lines of the model of heritage language acquisition and maintenance.

This article describes the changing linguistic landscape on the North Shore of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, during the first three months of the COVID-19 pandemic. I present an account of the visual representation of change along the area's parks and trails, which remained open for socially-distanced exercise during the province's lockdown. Following the principles of visual, walking ethnography, I walked through numerous locations, observing and recording the visual representations of the province's policies and discourses of lockdown and social distancing. Examples of change were most evident in the rapid addition to social space of top-down signs, characterised mainly by multimodality and monolingualism, strategically placed in ways that encouraged local people to abide by social-distancing. However, through this process of observation and exploration, I noticed grassroots semiotic artefacts such as illustrated stones with images and messages that complemented the official signs of the provincial government. As was the case with the official signs and messages, through a process of discursive convergence, these grassroots artefacts performed a role of conveying messages and discourses of social distancing, public pedagogy, and community care.

For much of the history of deaf education, spoken language bilingualism was not considered a viable goal. It was believed that given the challenges of meaningful auditory access, age-appropriate development in even one language would be daunting. However, implementation of universal newborn hearing screening during the early 2000s, along with early fitting of hearing technologies, including cochlear implants, has afforded significantly improved access to spoken language during the critical early years of language acquisition for most deaf children. In this context, it is timely to reconsider the possibilities of spoken language bilingualism in the education of deaf students. The present article therefore focuses on examining the available literature with a view to summarizing current understandings and reflecting on how these understandings can inform future research and practice and the multiple ways in which bilingualism can be operationalized in the education of deaf students.

Many universities in non-English speaking countries have been adopting English as a medium of instruction to internationalize their education. We set out to compare the language policies of a Finnish and a Japanese university using the lens of language ideology -- a set of normative beliefs about the social dimension of language. Data were collected from selected documents of the two universities, and analyzed utilizing critical discursive psychology. This social constructionist approach allows mapping out language ideological landscapes -- interrelationships among different co-occurring language ideologies -- from which students may draw ideas about how they orient themselves towards their peers on international campuses today. Our analysis shows that different language ideological landscapes are constructed in the language policies of the two universities, affording them different positioning in the phenomenon of internationalization. The findings suggest that both multilingualism and languaging would be important discursive resources for universities to maintain ethnolinguistic nationalism and ensure equality among students with different linguistic backgrounds, in the process of internationalization of higher education through English. On international campuses where multilingualism is prevalent, students are likely to be constructed as cosmopolitans for inclusion, locals and foreigners for exclusion, or 'native/native-like and non-native speakers' for hierarchy through different monolingual language ideologies.

Among inequities faced by multilingual learners, engagement in science education is one of the most persistent. Research suggests leveraging students' full multilingual repertoires in science education can help address this gap. However, pervasive monolingual norms in schooling may impede multilingual engagement, impacting students' multilingual identities and self-perceptions as science learners. Using observations and classroom artifacts from four seventh-grade life science classes in a linguistically diverse school district in the Southeastern United States, we documented one teacher's attempts to engage students' multilingual repertoires in science education during a four-week instructional unit. Our findings indicated student hesitancy to participate multilingually in science discourse. Using critical language awareness (CLA) as a lens, we draw connections between this reluctance and monolingual schooling norms that impact students' multilingual identities and present challenges to implementing linguistically sustaining pedagogies in English-medium instructional environments. By focusing on engaging students' multilingual repertoires in science education, these findings have the potential to advance research on teacher CLA--including its affordances and contextual limitations--in science education and beyond.

We compared two tools that have been used to capture the linguistic heterogeneity and achievement of students in England: the exposure-based distinction between English as an additional language (EAL) and monolingual learners, and the 2017--2018 five level teacher rating of proficiency in English (from "New to English" to "Fluent"). Based on a nationally representative sample of 140,000 students aged 5 to 16 years, we assessed the explanatory power of the proficiency in English rating in relation to educational achievement and compared it directly to EAL status. Our results demonstrate that proficiency in English is a significantly better predictor of student achievement than EAL status and that it accounts for up to six times more variance than other student background variables (ethnicity, gender and socio-economic disadvantage) combined. Proficiency in English was particularly (but certainly not solely) predictive for student performance in subjects such as English and reading vis-à-vis mathematics. Our findings are clear in demonstrating the value of a proficiency in English rating for assessing linguistic heterogeneity and student achievement, in contrast to the exposure-based EAL measure. We recommend the (re)introduction of proficiency in English ratings to monitor and support student progress and discuss the value of classroom-based language assessments.

The following article attempts to characterise the current changes in the communication of people living in the area of Polish-Czech borderland based on the results of the study conducted in 2018 and 2019. The aim is to determine the dominant mode of supranational communication, as well as the reason behind its prevalence by analysing the language skills of the interviewed Poles and Czechs, along with their language preferences and selected personal experiences. The multilingual modes known as English as a "lingua franca" and "lingua receptiva" as well as their combination, constitute a platform of reference. The analysis proves that in more peripheral areas of the globalised world where different languages and cultures cross, postmonolingual practices have been developed. They maintain the leading position of the first language but they also adapt other multilingual modes. It is suggested that these practices should not be treated as a transitional phase on the way to rich multilingualism but rather as a specific glocalisation effect.

This paper investigates the communication strategies of schools to engage linguistically diverse parents through enrollment information on their websites. The importance of the study is due to the known educational disadvantage experienced by migrant children as well as the known positive influence of parental engagement on educational achievement. Against this background, we ask whether English-speaking and non-English-speaking parents have equal opportunities to support the education of their children through accessible high-quality enrollment information provided by their local school. To this end, we analyze language choice, multilingual information architecture, and references to linguistic diversity on the websites of 30 highly linguistically diverse Australian primary schools. English was found to be the exclusive medium of communication, even in schools where up to 98% of students speak another language at home. Where automated translation options or hyperlinks to external translated information are available, these follow a monolingual logic and are listed by language names in English rather than targeting the specific languages of the school community. References to linguistic diversity are rare but serve to normalize monolingual practices while regulating and otherizing linguistic diversity. The study thus demonstrates that accessible enrollment information in languages other than English is virtually non-existent. We close with implications for more inclusive design and professional development to foster greater parental engagement in linguistically diverse societies.

Most Indigenous peoples live in urban and regional locations across Australia and no longer speak their traditional languages fluently. Instead contact languages, creoles and dialects, are widely spoken. In many educational settings, educators may know little about the first languages of the Indigenous children they teach, and not recognise these as different languages or dialects. Consequently, these students may not be treated as second language learners of Standard Australian English (SAE) and their language learning requirements are not considered. From a sociocultural perspective, language is crucial to students' learning. In this paper, we quantitatively analyse the SAE learning needs of Indigenous primary school aged children in Far North Queensland using oral elicited imitation of simple sentences in SAE as a research method. Using one-way ANOVA, the results are compared with native monolingual SAE speakers showing significant differences between the two. This finding has important implications for classroom teaching practices and educational policies.

This paper explores language beliefs and writing practices of an international scholar in Biochemistry working at a large U.S. research university. Although the participant articulated monolingual ideologies and a desire to become like a 'native speaker,' he did not consider advanced writing skills in English a prerequisite for publishing in English in his field. Through 'talk-around-text' (Lillis 2008) and visits to his laboratory, we examine what resources the participant deemed valuable in the process of producing a scientific article. Adopting a spatial orientation to writing (Canagarajah 2018a), we pay particular attention to the spatial repertoires that shaped his recent first-author publication. We bring out the tensions between his language ideologies and actual communicative practices and discuss the theoretical and pedagogical implications of our research. Ultimately, we argue that a spatial orientation to communication expands the notion of bilingualism by urging us to consider people's actual creative practices of meaning-making in particular spaces rather than focus on isolated cognitive abilities.

The ways in which educators talk about diversity, and specifically about linguistic diversity, reflect underlying beliefs about language in society and influence teaching practice. Semi-structured interviews with 55 high school teachers in the Netherlands were analyzed qualitatively in order to identify teachers' discourse patterns related to the backgrounds and home languages of their students as well as language policies in the school context. The teachers struggle with the labels to categorize students with migration backgrounds, showing awareness of problematic insider-outsider labels. In terms of language diversity, deficit discourses about home languages and a monolingual focus on Dutch acquisition for immigrants highlights the prevalence of a language-as-problem orientation in decisions about language use. Language policy is focused on the development of skills in the target language, Dutch, and the promotion of a Dutch-only norm in the high schools. However, some interviewees describe the potential resource of the mother tongue in the classroom. Highlighting taken-for-granted assumptions in the discourses of Dutch teachers does not negate their best intentions in preparing their students for society. Rather it demonstrates the influence of language ideologies on teaching practice and the importance of teacher preparation and increased awareness of students' home language resources.

The recent trend of the internationalization of higher education has increased the significance of English as a medium of instruction and communication on campus in non-English speaking countries. Within this context, this study explores emotional vulnerability of teachers of Korean as a second language (KSL) over their foreign language competency, particularly English. Analysis of interviews of twelve KSL teachers demonstrates these teachers' divergent ways of interpreting and implementing Korean-only instruction, a prevalent norm within the language program, according to their perceived foreign language competency and relevant emotional vulnerability. KSL teachers with proficiency in other foreign language(s) tended to challenge the monolingual norm by utilizing their bilingual skills and experiences as resources for their teaching. Monolingual KSL teachers interpreted Korean-only narrowly and supported a monolingual immersion approach as a way to secure their teacher authority. Regardless of their attitudes towards the Korean-only instruction, however, most teachers experienced various levels of anxiety concerning their perceived lack of adequate English proficiency in the KSL classroom. The results suggest how second language teachers struggle to maintain legitimacy and authority against the hegemony of English in non-English second language contexts, providing implications for the language teacher education.

This paper explores the connection between nurses' multilingual beliefs and their advice on multilingual parenting to families with young children. Data was gathered through video-stimulated reflection dialogues with 11 nurses employed at infant welfare clinics in Belgium. Our analysis disclosed two salient counter topics regarding participants' multilingual beliefs: order versus chaos. The latter refers to nurses' view of multilingualism as a linguistic imbroglio. By 'order', we understand the benefits of multilingualism for cognitive and emotional development, provided that the multilingual environment is strictly regulated, particularly through the rigorous adherence to a consistent multilingual parenting strategy. Nurses' panacea for this linguistic farrago is manifested in their advice to multilingual parents. Their recommendations are consistent: multilingualism can only be advantageous for children through a functional language segregation within spaces (i.e. home versus school) and individuals (i.e. One-Parent-One-Language). Nurses' positive perspective on multilingualism thus hinges on the condition that home languages are neatly transmitted in which the acquisition of the school language will not be impeded. Our findings illuminate how nurses' ostensible multilingual orientations are in fact coloured by a monoglossic ideology in which multilingualism is acknowledged from a monolingual vantage point: as the simple sum of separate languages.

The relationship between written and spoken recall (SR) has primarily been analyzed with English-speaking monolinguals. Written recall (WR) has been reported more accurate due to higher cognitive load and attention required to produce a text. This study examined the written and spoken text recall relationship in L2 learners of Russian and analyzed how individual working memory (WM) capacity influenced both types of recall. Twenty-two intermediate-low learners of Russian participated in the study. The obtained results were consistent with results obtained from research on monolingual learners. WR was found more accurate than SR. The WM score did not correlate, however, with accuracy for either type of recall. This could be due to low cognitive demands of the chosen text required from the participants. A longer text is suggested for future studies. Also, second language acquisition studies analyzing a possibility of scaffolding L2 speaking accuracy by practicing L2 writing are encouraged.

The Spanish subjunctive mood (SUBJ) is said to be highly vulnerable in heritage language (HL) acquisition. However, there is little controlled research on HL-speaking children acquiring the various Spanish SUBJ contexts, so we do not have a clear picture of when, how, or why heritage speakers (HSs) develop in the SUBJ as they do. This study tests the development of the SUBJ in two of the earliest acquired contexts by monolingual children--SUBJ with volitional clauses and adverbial clauses with future reference. Through an oral sentence-completion task administered to 50 school-aged child HSs, this study observes whether language-internal factors (modality, variability) and speaker factors (age, exposure/use, or morphosyntactic proficiency) influence acquisition of the SUBJ in the examined contexts. Although SUBJ is categorically used in the first-generation input the child HSs receive at home, school-aged HSs exhibit elevated optionality; the majority show a pattern of use typical of very young monolingual children, and there is wide variance among the child HSs across all ages. Overall, they exhibit slightly more optionality within epistemic modality (adverbials) than deontic modality (volition). Crucially, exposure to and use of Spanish and, even more so, a standardized measure of Spanish morphosyntactic proficiency were strongly associated with SUBJ use in both contexts by the child HSs. We argue that the observed vulnerability in these early-acquired SUBJ contexts follows from an interaction between the child HSs' engagement with the HL environment (including their resulting command of the HL grammar) and linguistic factors common to all SUBJ contexts.

Background: Early and effective treatment for children with developmental language disorder (DLD) is important. Although a growing body of research shows the effects of interventions at the group level, clinicians observe large individual differences in language growth, and differences in outcomes across language domains. A systematic understanding of how child characteristics contribute to changes in language skills is still lacking. Aims: To assess changes in the language domains: expressive morphosyntax; receptive and expressive vocabulary; and comprehension, in children in special needs education for DLD. To explore if differences in language gains between children are related to child characteristics: language profile; severity of the disorder; being raised mono- or multilingually; and cognitive ability. Methods & Procedures: We extracted data from school records of 154 children (4-6 years old) in special needs education offering a language and communication-stimulating educational environment, including speech and language therapy. Changes in language were measured by comparing the scores on standardized language tests at the beginning and the end of a school year. Next, we related language change to language profile (receptive-expressive versus expressive-only disorders), severity (initial scores), growing up mono- and multilingually, and children's reported non-verbal IQ scores. Outcomes & Results: Overall, the children showed significant improvements in expressive morphosyntax, expressive vocabulary and language comprehension. Baseline scores and gains were lowest for expressive morphosyntax. Differences in language gains between children with receptive-expressive disorders and expressive-only disorders were not significant. There was more improvement in children with lower initial scores. There were no differences between mono- and multilingual children, except for expressive vocabulary. There was no evidence of a relation between non-verbal IQ scores and language growth. Conclusions & Implications: Children with DLD in special needs education showed gains in language performance during one school year. There was, however, little change in morphosyntactic scores, which supports previous studies concluding that poor morphosyntax is a persistent characteristic of DLD. Our results indicate that it is important to include all children with DLD in intervention: children with receptive-expressive and expressive disorders; mono- and multilingual children, and children with high, average and low non-verbal IQ scores. We did not find negative relations between these child factors and changes in language skills.

Human creativity and ingenuity partly depend on divergent thinking -- the ability to generate many varied, original, and elaborate responses. Prior research has found ample evidence of an effect of cognitive factors, including the organization of semantic networks and associative ability, on divergent thinking. Less is known, however, about how the language we speak shapes this relationship. Specifically, the linguistic relativity hypothesis stresses the influence of a linguistic variation on structural semantic representations that are essential for generating associations. To address this open scientific problem, an experiment with several tasks was conducted (n = 122). The category discrimination task replicated the linguistic relativity effect of satellite-framed (e.g., English) versus verb-framed languages (e.g., Spanish), by showing how English monolinguals, when exposed to motion events, were more attentive to the manner of motion than Spanish monolinguals. The free association task showed, in the same sample, that divergent thinking in response to motion events led English monolinguals to generate more elaborate responses than Spanish monolinguals. Linguistic relativity mediated this effect. No effect was found on the number, diversity, or originality of the responses. These findings contribute new insights into the relationship between linguistic relativity and divergent thinking in response to motion events.

This paper examines how children and teachers negotiate the official Turkish only language policy as they manage their linguistic resources (Turkish and Kurmanji) in one Turkish preschool serving predominantly emergent bilingual Kurdish minority children. Using a critical ethnographic lens to language-in-education policy making (Martin-Jones and Da Costa Gabral, in: Tollefson, Pérez-Milans (eds) The Oxford handbook of language policy and planning, Oxford University Press, 2018), the study investigates how children and teachers navigate locally situated language practices and language ideologies that accord legitimacy and authority to standard Turkish and officially invisibilise Kurmanji in the preschool. Findings indicate that acting as agentive social actors teachers and children do not merely comply to the Turkish only language policy but they also adapt, recast, and contest it in social interaction. They stress the need to rethink the language-in-education policy in the Turkish educational system in ways that recognise and leverage teachers and children's entire linguistic repertoires and experiences for teaching and learning.

Classrooms across the United States today often include students from multiple different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. The teaching force, by contrast, has remained predominantly White and Anglophone with little experience learning additional languages (Athanases & Wong, 2018; Deroo & Ponzio, 2023; Pettit, 2011). When teachers themselves have limited experience with linguistic diversity, how can teacher ­educators raise teacher candidates' (TCs) critical multilingual language awareness (CMLA) over the limited duration of the teacher certification process? This article analyzes the implementation of a CMLA project which engaged secondary TCs in becoming language learners themselves to reflect on the experience of being an early language learner. We collected written reflections from 49 TCs about their language learning experiences over 30 hours and drew on the five domains of CMLA (Power, Cognitive, Affective, Social and Performance) (Prasad, 2022) to code the data set. We focus on the domain of Power to examine how learning a new language even for a short time can engage TCs practically in attending not only to mechanics of teaching and learning with multilingual students but also more critically to recognize the systemic power relations among languages and language users in schools.

Studies on Family Language Policy state that the shape of family multilingualism is embedded in diverse conditions within and outside the family, like historical, social and political factors, which influence family language practices. In this regard, the monolingual orientation of early childhood education (ECE) institutions in many European nation states is in tension with dynamic family multilingualism, thereby constituting a potentially conflict-prone relationship. In this article, we would like to illustrate this with regard to language policy in ECE institutions in Germany, drawing on empirical data from a new teaching research project on Family Language Policy of multilingual, (newly) migrated and/or refugee families. Our analyses reveal that parents are aware of selection in education based on language as well as a hierarchical language order. Family language practices are shaped against the background of the prevailing language policy in ECE institutions.

Purpose: Developmental language disorder (DLD) is characterized by persistent and unexplained difficulties in language development. Accumulating evidence shows that children with DLD also present with deficits in other cognitive domains, such as executive functioning (EF). There is an ongoing debate on whether exclusively verbal EF abilities are impaired in children with DLD or whether nonverbal EF is also impaired, and whether these EF impairments are related to their language difficulties. The aims of this study were to (a) compare nonverbal performance of preschoolers with DLD and typically developing (TD) peers, (b) examine how nonverbal EF and language abilities are related, and (c) investigate whether a diagnosis of DLD moderates the relationship between EF and language abilities. Method: A total of 143 children (n[subscript DLD] = 65, n[subscript TD] = 78) participated. All children were between 3 and 6.5 years old and were monolingual Dutch. We assessed nonverbal EF with a visual selective attention task, a visuospatial short-term and working memory task, and a task gauging broad EF abilities. Vocabulary and morphosyntax were each measured with two standardized language tests. We created latent variables for EF, vocabulary, and morphosyntax. Results: Analyses showed that children with DLD were outperformed by their TD peers on all nonverbal EF tasks. Nonverbal EF abilities were related to morphosyntactic abilities in both groups, whereas a relationship between vocabulary and EF skills was found in the TD group only. These relationships were not significantly moderated by a diagnosis of DLD. Conclusions: We found evidence for nonverbal EF impairments in preschool children with DLD. Moreover, nonverbal EF and morphosyntactic abilities were significantly related in these children. These findings may have implications for intervention and support the improvement of prognostic accuracy.

While teachers value cultural and linguistic diversity, they see the benefits of speaking different languages "in the future tense," feeling it hard to specify how language differences positively impact students' learning in the present. This study explores teachers' temporal perceptions of language differences, specifically focusing on how teacher perceptions of language differences as "future assets" are intertwined with native speakerism in the present. It draws on multi-year interviews that unveil how teachers prioritise monolingualism as the norm of classroom discourse and juxtaposes teachers' accounts with an immigrant child's navigation of cultural-linguistic assets to speak Korean and English in non-school contexts. Through this, we argue that, whereas teachers see the potential benefits of speaking different languages that seek to pluralise the educational futures, they continue to hold the normative view on language differences by not being offered the epistemic tools to question "whose future" and "whose language" are imagined as the desired endpoints of language education. Approaching teachers' statements as the outcome of the limited epistemic principles of normative futurity, this study calls for disrupting the continuity of native speakerism to support culturally and linguistically diverse students through the non-linear, reparative, and multiple relations to the futures in language education.

Morphological knowledge is known to be positively associated with reading ability. However, whether morphological knowledge affects children's learning of new orthographic representations is less clear. Purpose: This study aimed to investigate morphological effects on orthographic learning in English, and whether this effect, if any, is different for monolingual compared to Chinese-English-speaking bilingual children, who often have difficulty acquiring English inflectional morphology. Method: 59 Year 2 children, including 29 English-speaking monolinguals and 30 Chinese-English-speaking bilinguals participated. We assessed children's preexisting English inflectional morphological knowledge. The children learned twelve novel words that were either presented with morphological variation (e.g., vack, vacks, vacking, vacked) or pure repetition (e.g., vack x 4). Orthographic learning was measured by orthographic choice and spelling tasks. Results: 1) orthographic learning from the spelling task showed better performance in the repetition condition, 2) there were no differences in orthographic learning between the monolinguals and bilinguals, despite the fact that the monolinguals had better inflectional morphological knowledge than the bilinguals. Conclusion: Children learned novel written words better when they are presented without morphological variation, supporting the item-based feature of the self-teaching hypothesis. Chinese-English-speaking bilinguals' weaker English morphological knowledge does not seem to hinder their orthographic learning ability.