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Many older people experience changes in appetite and consume marginal or inadequate dietary protein. This study was designed to examine the appetitive responses to habitual protein intakes that span the range of adequacy in younger and older men. Twenty-two men (12 younger, aged 21-43 y and 10 older, aged 63-79 y) completed, in random order, three 18-d trials that involved consumption of individualized, isoenergetic menus providing 1.00, 0.75, and 0.50 g protein . kg BW(-1). d(-1), which were 125% (trial P125), 94% (trial P94), and 63% (trial P63) of the Recommended Dietary Allowance for protein. Near the end of each trial, the subjects recorded appetitive sensations hourly throughout one day using a visual analogue scale. Independent of age, ratings of hunger were lower for P125 (1.3 +/- 0.5 cm) than P94 (1.8 +/- 0.8 cm) and P63 (1.8 +/- 0.6 cm) (P = 0.037), and desire to eat was lower during the P125 trial (1.4 +/- 0.5 cm), compared with the P63 trial (2.1 +/- 0.7 cm) (P = 0.003), and P94 (1.8 +/- 0.7 cm) was not different when compared with P63 and P125. Protein intake did not influence fullness. These results show that younger and older men who consume inadequate protein experience appetite changes that may promote increased food intake.

Accumulating evidence suggests dietary fatty acids (FAs) may be sensed in the oral cavity. However, the effective cues have not been characterized. In particular, influences from other sensory cues have hampered identification of an independent gustatory contribution. Experiment 1 examined techniques to minimize the formation of FA oxidation products and improve the homogeneity of water/lipid emulsions to be used as stimuli in Experiment 2, a psychophysical study to determine FA detection thresholds in humans. Through sonication of chilled samples held in polypropylene labware and the addition of 0.01% ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, calcium disodium salt, homogenous emulsions of unoxidized linoleic and oleic FAs were obtained. Spectrophotometric analysis revealed no oxidation product formation over a 24-h period. Coupled with these techniques, a masking approach was used to minimize other sensory cues imparted from linoleic, oleic, and stearic FAs. Concentration ranges from 0.00028% to 5% (w/v) were prepared in mixtures with 5% mineral oil (w/v) and 5% gum acacia (w/v) to mask lubricity and viscosity effects, respectively. Testing was conducted under red light with nares blocked to eliminate visual and olfactory cues. Oral rinses with 20 ppm capsaicin were administered to desensitize participants to selected irritation effects prior to remeasuring linoleic acid detection thresholds. To determine if the effective stimulus was an oxidation product, oxidized linoleic acid was included among the test stimuli. Detection thresholds were obtained using a 3-alternative, forced-choice ascending-concentration presentation procedure. The mean detection threshold for linoleic acid pre-desensitization was 0.034 +/- 0.008%, for linoleic acid post-desensitization was 0.032 +/- 0.007%, for oleic 0.022 +/- 0.003%, for stearic 0.032 +/- 0.005%, and oxidized linoleic 0.025 +/- 0.005%. The results suggest that linoleic, oleic, stearic, and oxidized linoleic acids are detectable in the oral cavity of humans with minimal input from the olfactory, capsaicin, and viscosity-assessing tactile systems.

Objective: This study evaluated the effects of acute and chronic consumption of higher dietary protein on energy expenditure, macronutrient use, appetite, and appetite-regulating hormones during weight loss in women., Research Methods and Procedures: Thirty-eight women chronically consuming a 750 kcal/d energy-deficit diet with a protein content of 30% (higher protein-chronic diet, HP-CD, n = 21) or 18% (normal protein-chronic diet, NP-CD, n = 17) for 9 weeks were tested. On separate days, metabolic, appetite, and hormonal responses were measured over 4 hours when the women consumed a higher protein-acute meal (HP-AM) (30% of energy as protein) or a normal protein-acute meal (NP-AM) (18% of energy as protein)., Results: With chronic diet groups combined, HP-AM led to lower respiratory exchange ratio (0.829 +/- 0.005 vs. 0.843 +/- 0.008; p < 0.05), lower carbohydrate oxidation (p < 0.05), and higher fat oxidation (p < 0.05) compared with NP-AM. HP-AM also led to reduced self-reported postprandial hunger (p < 0.001) and desire to eat (p < 0.001) and lower postprandial ghrelin (252 +/- 16 vs. 274 +/- 18 ng/mL x 240 minutes, p < 0.05) compared with NP-AM. No differences in postprandial energy expenditure (PPEE) occurred between meals. When combining acute meals, respiratory exchange ratio was lower (p < 0.05) and protein oxidation (p < 0.001) was higher in the HP-CD vs. NP-CD. An acute meal-by-chronic diet interaction was observed with PPEE such that HP-AM led to greater PPEE in the HP-CD vs. NP-CD (28.7 +/- 2.7 vs. 19.9 +/- 2.7 kcal/min for 195 minutes; p < 0.05)., Conclusions: During weight loss, thermogenesis and protein use appear to be influenced by chronic protein intake, while appetite and ghrelin are more responsive to acute protein intake.

Evidence supporting a taste component for dietary fat has prompted study of plausible transduction mechanisms. One hypothesizes that long-chain, unsaturated fatty acids block selected delayed-rectifying potassium channels, resulting in a sensitization of taste receptor cells to stimulation by other taste compounds. This was tested in 17 male and 17 female adult (mean +/- SE age = 23.4 +/- 0.7 yr) propylthiouracil tasters with normal resting triglyceride concentrations (87.3 +/- 5.6 mg/day) and body mass index (23.3 +/- 0.4 kg/m(2)). Participants were tested during two approximately 30-min test sessions per week for 8 wk. Eight stimuli were assessed in duplicate via an ascending, three-alternative, forced-choice procedure. Qualities were randomized over weeks. Stimuli were presented as room-temperature, 5-ml portions. They included 1% solutions of linoleic acid with added sodium chloride (salty), sucrose (sweet), citric acid (sour), and caffeine (bitter) as well as solutions of these taste compounds alone. Participants also rated the intensity of the five strongest concentrations using the general labeled magnitude scale. The suprathreshold samples were presented in random order with a rinse between each. Subjects made the ratings self-paced while wearing nose clips. It was hypothesized that taste thresholds would be lower and absolute intensity ratings or slopes of intensity functions would be higher for the stimuli mixed with the linoleic acid. Thresholds were compared by paired t-tests and intensity ratings by repeated measures analysis of variance. Thresholds were significantly higher (i.e., lower sensitivity) for the sodium chloride, citric acid, and caffeine solutions with added fatty acid. Sweet, sour, and salty intensity ratings were lower or unchanged by the addition of a fatty acid. The two highest concentrations of caffeine were rated as weaker in the presence of linoleic acid. These data do not support a mechanism for detecting dietary fats whereby fatty acids sensitize taste receptor cells to stimulation by taste compounds.

Objective: To examine whether solid versus liquid meal-replacement products differentially affect appetite and appetite-regulating hormones in older adults., Methods: On two occasions, 9 subjects (age: 61+/-3 years; BMI: 25.6+/-1.3 kg/m (2)) consumed 25% of daily energy needs as solid or liquid meal-replacements of similar energy contents. Blood and appetite ratings were collected over 4 hours., Results: The post-prandial hunger composite (area under the curve) was lower following the solid versus liquid meal-replacement (p<0.005) and remained below baseline over 4 hours (p<0.05). Similar responses were observed with the desire to eat. The insulin and ghrelin composites were lower following the solid trial compared to the liquid [insulin: 5825 (range: 4676-11639) VS. 7170 (4472-14169) uIU/l x 240 min, p<0.01; ghrelin: -92798 (range: -269130-47528) VS. -56152 (range: -390855-30840) pg/ml x 240 min, p<0.05]. Ghrelin also remained below baseline over 4 hours (p<0.05). No differences in cholecystokinin and leptin were observed between products., Conclusion: The consumption of comparable meal-replacement products in solid versus liquid versions with similar energy contents led to differential appetitive responses and should not be viewed as dietary equivalents in older adults.

Selected free fatty acids (FFAs) are documented effective somatosensory and olfactory stimuli whereas gustatory effects are less well established. This study examined orthonasal olfactory, retronasal olfactory, nasal irritancy, oral irritancy, gustatory, and multimodal threshold sensitivity to linoleic, oleic, and stearic acids. Sensitivity to oxidized linoleic acid was also determined. Detection thresholds were obtained using a three-alternative, forced-choice, ascending concentration presentation procedure. Participants included 22 healthy, physically fit adults sensitive to 6-n-propylthiouracil. Measurable thresholds were obtained for all FFAs tested and in 96% of the trials. Ceiling effects were observed in the remaining trials. Greater sensitivity was observed for multimodal stimulation and lower sensitivity for retronasal stimulation. There were no statistically significant correlations for linoleic acid thresholds between different modalities, suggesting that each route of stimulation contributes independently to fat perception. In summary, 18-carbon FFAs of varying saturation are detected by multiple sensory systems in humans.

Objective: To determine whether the daily intake of 2,092 kJ (500 kcal) from peanuts will improve the lipid profiles and diet quality of healthy Ghanaians., Design: A 30-week, randomized, cross-over trial study was conducted with healthy adults., Method: There were three treatment arms: Treatment 1 (T1), subjects were provided 2,092 kJ/day (500 kcal/day) peanuts to incorporate into their daily diet for 8 weeks at any time and in any form they chose; Treatment 2 (T2), subjects were provided 2,092 kJ/day (500 kcal/day) peanuts and were instructed to consume them in addition to their customary daily diet for 3 weeks; Treatment 3 (T3), substitution of 2,092 kJ/day fat, with energy from peanuts. Total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and triglyceride were measured at baseline, week 4 and week 8 (T1 and T3) or at baseline and week 3 (T2). Three-day dietary intake records were kept during each treatment., Results: There was significant decrease in total cholesterol (7.2%) and triacylglycerol (20.0%) after T1. However, individually, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol levels did not change significantly. Total fat intake increased by 9%, due to elevations of monounsaturated fatty acid of 60% and polyunsaturated fatty acid of 50%. Similar non-significant trends were observed during T2 and T3., Conclusion: The results suggest that regular consumption of peanuts lowers the total cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations among healthy Ghanaians. Regular consumption of peanuts should therefore be encouraged.

Appetite management may aid energy balance through moderation of the size (satiation) and/or frequency (satiety) of eating occasions. This double-blind, randomized, cross-over design study explored the effects of the addition of alginate and guar gum to a breakfast bar on appetite and food intake. Following baseline evaluations of health, appetite and diet, participants were randomized to receive the fiber containing bar or control bar. They reported to the laboratory after an overnight fast, rated their appetite and consumed the relevant 55 g bar within 10 min in place of their normal breakfast meal. Appetite ratings were again made immediately after consuming the bar and at 30 minute intervals for 5 h. This was repeated for 5 consecutive days (Monday-Friday) followed by a 9-day washout period and a similar 5-day treatment period with the alternate bar. Gastrointestinal tolerance was rated daily. Sensory ratings of the bars were obtained on the first and fifth study days. Twenty-four-hour diet recalls were conducted on three random days during baseline and each intervention period. No significant treatment effects were observed in self-reported appetitive sensations over each 5-hour post-loading period. There also was no evidence of a cumulative effect over the five treatment days. Daily energy intake was not different on the two treatments. Although these data do not support the efficacy of including guar and an alginate fiber combination in a solid food matrix for moderation of appetite and acute food intake, further testing of the concept under different conditions and with different forms of guar and alginate may prove worthwhile.

Objective: The primary aim of this study was to assess the effects of dietary protein intake on energy restriction (ER)-induced changes in body mass and body composition. Clinical markers of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases were also measured., Design: 54 postmenopausal women, age 58 +/- 2 y, body mass index 29.6 +/- 0.8 kg/m(2), were assigned to one of four groups. For 9 weeks, three ER groups ate a 1000 kcal/d lacto-ovo vegetarian basal diet plus 250 kcal/d of either beef (BEEF, n = 14), chicken (CHICKEN, n = 15), or carbohydrate/fat foods (CARB (lacto-ovo), n = 14), while a control group (CON, n = 11) consumed their habitual diets., Results: Energy intake was lower in the ER groups compared to CON (BEEF, 1114 +/- 155 kcal/d, CHO: PRO: FAT, 46:24:30 % of energy intake; CHICKEN, 1098 +/- 203 kcal/d, 51:25:24; CARB 1158 +/- 341 kcal/d, 59:17:24; CON, 1570 +/- 633 kcal/d, 47:20:33), but did not differ among ER groups. For all ER subjects combined, body mass (-6.7 +/- 2.4 kg, 9 %), fat mass (-4.6 +/- 1.9 kg, 13 %), and fat-free mass (-2.1 +/- 1.1 kg, 5 %) decreased. These responses did not differ among the ER groups, except for body mass (CHICKEN -7.9 +/- 2.6 kg(a); BEEF -6.6 +/- 2.7 kg(a,b); CARB -5.6 +/- 1.8 kg(b); CON -1.2 +/- 1.2 kg(c); values with a difference superscript differ, p < 0.05). From PRE (week 0) to POST (week 9), total and LDL cholesterol decreased approximately 12%, with no differences among groups. Triacylglycerol, HDL cholesterol, C-reactive protein (CRP), glucose, insulin, leptin, and adiponectin were not changed over time or differentially affected by diet., Conclusions: Overweight postmenopausal women can achieve significant weight loss and comparable short-term improvements in body composition and lipid-lipoprotein profile by consuming either a moderate-protein (25% of energy intake) poultry- or beef-containing diet or a lacto-ovo vegetarian protein (17% of energy intake) diet.

The concurrent increases of snacking and obesity suggest the possibility for some form of inter-meal oral stimulation with high satiety value to moderate rising obesity rates. This study explored the influence of sweetened chewing gum on appetitive ratings, meal patterning and food intake. Three test conditions were imposed after a fixed lunch preload: no gum chewing, gum chewing 2 h after lunch and gum chewing when hungry. Forty-seven participants, 29 males and 18 females, completed each treatment, one day a week for three weeks. Participants were fed lunch in a laboratory setting, and after being instructed on that day's test procedures, they were allowed to leave the laboratory. Throughout the remainder of the day, appetitive, mood and intake data were self-reported. The results indicate appetite ratings, meal patterning and food intake do not differ among the three treatment conditions. While these results did not support an effect of brief chewing of a sweetened gum, further exploration of variations of the sensory properties of gum and exposure patterns may still prove worthwhile.

Objective: To examine the effects of dietary protein and obesity classification on energy-restriction-induced changes in weight, body composition, appetite, mood, and cardiovascular and kidney health., Research Methods and Procedures: Forty-six women, ages 28 to 80, BMI 26 to 37 kg/m(2), followed a 12-week 750-kcal/d energy-deficit diet containing higher protein (HP, 30% protein) or normal protein (NP, 18% protein) and were retrospectively subgrouped according to obesity classification [pre-obese (POB), BMI = 26 to 29.9 kg/m(2); obese (OB), BMI = 30 to 37 kg/m(2))., Results: All subjects lost weight, fat mass, and lean body mass (LBM; p < 0.001). With comparable weight loss, LBM losses were less in HP vs. NP (-1.5 +/- 0.3 vs. -2.8 +/- 0.5 kg; p < 0.05) and POB vs. OB (-1.2 +/- 0.3 vs. -2.9 +/- 0.4 kg; p < 0.005). The main effects of protein and obesity on LBM changes were independent and additive; POB-HP lost less LBM vs. OB-NP (p < 0.05). The energy-restriction-induced decline in satiety was less pronounced in HP vs. NP (p < 0.005). Perceived pleasure increased with HP and decreased with NP (p < 0.05). Lipid-lipoprotein profile and blood pressure improved and kidney function minimally changed with energy restriction (p < 0.05), independently of protein intake., Discussion: Consuming a higher-protein diet and accomplishing weight loss before becoming obese help women preserve LBM. Use of a higher-protein diet also improves perceptions of satiety and pleasure during energy restriction.

The chemical senses (taste, smell, and chemical irritation) convey information from the external to the internal environment. This information influences an organism's quality of life, safety, reproductive function, and, to the present point, nutritional status. To illustrate this role, the effects of chemosensory stimulation on food choice, gastrointestinal function, and energy balance will be briefly reviewed. Each role is achieved, in part, by the chemosensory cue initiating anticipatory responses for an impending homeostatic challenge, a meal.

Objective: Peanut consumption may improve lipid profiles without promoting weight gain. Both properties have been attributed to their high-unsaturated fat content. Mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids reportedly hold stronger satiety value than saturated fats and may help appetite control. This study investigated the effects of chronic peanut oil consumption on appetite and food choice., Research Methods and Procedures: A total of 129 healthy adults from three countries (Brazil, Ghana and US) were randomly assigned to one of four treatment arms: consumption of peanut oil, olive oil or safflower oil as 30% of individual resting energy expenditure (REE) for 8 weeks or no dietary intervention. Participants received no other dietary guidance. They completed appetite questionnaires eliciting information about hunger, fullness, desire to eat, and prospective consumption during all waking hours for 1 day at weeks 2 and 6 and for 1 or 3 days at weeks 0, 4 and 8. Diet records were completed at weeks 0, 4 and 8., Results: No differences in appetitive ratings were observed over the 8-week trial. There were no significant treatment by time interactions. Total caloric intake was significantly higher at week 8 relative to baseline (F=10.08, P<0.05). The increases for each treatment were: peanut oil=197+/-114; olive oil=237+/-121; safflower oil=274+/-90; control=75+/-71. Free-feeding intake, an index of dietary compensation, was reduced significantly at weeks 4 and 8 compared to baseline (F=9.08, P<0.00). The declines (compensation scores) were (kcals): peanut oil=-208+/-105 (46%); olive oil=-235+/-105 (50%); safflower oil=-186+/-102 (44%). There were no significant differences across countries in appetite ratings., Discussion: A prior intervention with whole peanuts reported a dietary compensation score of 66% over 8 weeks, this compares to a 46% compensation score observed with peanut oil. Our data suggests that the lipid fraction in peanuts elicits a weak effect on satiety.

Dietary and body fat are essential for life. Fatty acids modulate fat detection, ingestion, digestion, absorption and elimination. Though direct effects occur throughout the body, much of this regulation stems from signals originating in the oral cavity. The predominant orosensory cue for dietary fat is textural, but accumulating electrophysiological, behavioral and clinical evidence supports olfactory and gustatory components. Orosensory stimulation with long-chain unsaturated, but possibly also saturated, fatty acids elicits an array of cephalic phase responses including release of gastric lipase, secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes, mobilization of lipid stored in the intestine from the prior meal, pancreatic endocrine secretion and, probably indirectly, altered lipoprotein lipase activity. Combined, these processes influence postprandial lipemia. There is preliminary evidence of marked individual variability in fat "taste" with uncertain health implications. The possibility that fat taste sensitivity reflects systemic reactivity to fat warrants further evaluation.

The global prevalence of overweight and obesity is growing. Correction of the problem through dietary intervention has been disappointing and has prompted research into variations of diet composition or pattern to promote negative energy balance. Limited research suggests that selected approaches, such as low-carbohydrate diets, augment weight loss and offer an advantage over conventional low-fat diets. This has led to the hypothesis that although in theoretical terms a calorie is a calorie, in practice this is not the case. Support for such views and plausible mechanisms exist. Although any advantage may augment weight management, reported discrepancies between theoretical and observed effects are small. Thus, energy-restricted diets should be based primarily on energy intake and expenditure.

Objective: High glycemic index (GI)/load (GL) diets reportedly enhance appetite and promote positive energy balance. Support for this hypothesis stems largely from acute feeding trials and longer-term studies lacking control over the macronutrient composition and palatability of test foods. This study evaluated the effects of consuming high- and low-GI/GL meals, matched on macronutrient composition and palatability, plasma glucose and insulin, appetite, and food intake., Research Design and Methods: Thirty-nine healthy adults consumed only low- or only high-GI foods ad libitum in the laboratory for 8 days in either high (three foods per meal)- or low (one food per meal)-variety conditions. Glucose and insulin concentrations as well as appetitive sensations were determined before and for 2 h following breakfast and lunch on days 1 and 8. Energy intake was monitored daily., Results: There were no significant differences in plasma glucose or insulin responses, appetitive ratings, or food intake between treatments., Conclusions: These data indicate that the differential glycemic response of foods tested in isolation under fixed time are not preserved under conditions of chronic ad libitum consumption of mixed meals.

The effects of food unit size (FU) and energy density (ED) on food consumption were explored in 20 adults using a within subjects 2 x 2 design study. The four food treatment combinations were provided in the laboratory in random order on four non-consecutive days. The foods differed in FU (small food unit (SFU) or customary food unit (CFU)) and energy density, by manipulating fat content (low (LED) or high (HED)). Appetitive responses and total grams and kilocalories consumed were monitored. Hunger, fullness, desire to eat and prospective consumption ratings were not significantly different between treatments. Gram weight of food consumed was constant across all treatments. Energy intake of HED foods was greater than LED foods independent of food unit size for breakfast (F(1,17) = 11.77, p < 0.001), lunch (F(1,17) = 4.70, p < 0.05) and the 24 h period (F(1,17) = 8.99, p < 0.001) but only tended to be increased at dinner. In summary, appetitive sensations were not markedly altered by food unit size or energy density. The daily gram weight of food consumed and appetitive ratings were relatively consistent across treatments resulting in higher energy intake with HED foods.

Ginkgo biloba is reported to enhance cognitive function in patients with selected neural disorders. Its effects in healthy, young adults are less well characterized. This work explored whether Ginkgo biloba could ameliorate decrements in alertness post-prandially and/or enhance chemosensory function. Both are functions that could be influenced by enhanced cerebral blood flow and neuronal metabolism, reported properties of the compound. A double-blind placebo-controlled study was conducted with 19 males and 20 females with a mean age of 23.6 +/- 5.4 years and mean weight of 70.0 +/- 1.9 kg. Participants were supplemented for 13 weeks with either Ginkgo biloba (mean dose 184.5 mg/d (range 130-234 mg/d)) or placebo and administered various alertness, performance, affective state and chemosensory tests at weeks 1, 5, 9 and 13. Participants did experience the post-prandial affective state decrement (i.e. post-lunch dip), but not the performance decrement. Performance on the chemosensory tests improved over the 13-week study. However, Ginkgo biloba was ineffective at alleviating the symptoms of the post-lunch dip or at enhancing taste and smell function., (Copyright 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Background: Diets containing nuts reduce cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. This has primarily been attributed to their fatty acid composition, but other constituents may also contribute. Peanuts, the most widely consumed "nut" (actually a legume), are a rich source of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), magnesium and folate, but their effects on CVD risk factors are poorly characterized., Objective: This study determined the effects of chronic peanut consumption on diet composition as well as serum lipids, magnesium and homocysteine concentrations in free-living subjects under different conditions of peanut intake., Design: Fifteen normolipidemic adults participated in a 30-week cross-over intervention. Subjects were provided 500 (+136) kcal as peanuts during an eight-week free feeding (FF) diet. The same amount of peanuts was added during a three-week addition (ADD) diet or replaced an equal amount of other fats in the diet during an eight-week substitution (SUB) diet., Results: Energy intake from fat was increased through greater intake of MUFA and polyunsaturated fatty acids, while saturated fatty acid intake remained relatively stable under all conditions. Triacylglycerol (TAG) was reduced by 24% during ADD (p < 0.05), by 17% during SUB (p < 0.05) and by 14% during four-weeks of FF, but then rebounded to baseline by week 8. Dietary fiber, magnesium, folate, alpha tocopherol, copper and arginine increased during all treatments (p < 0.05). Serum magnesium increased in 13 of 15 subjects during FF (p < 0.05). No changes were found in total plasma homocysteine concentration., Conclusions: Regular peanut consumption lowers serum TAG, augments consumption of nutrients associated with reduced CVD risk and increases serum magnesium concentration.

Objective: There are inconsistent reports on the satiety value of different fatty acids. This study compared the appetitive effects of two fat sources rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (peanut oil and canola oil) with a source rich in saturated fatty acids (butter)., Research Methods and Procedures: After an overnight fast, lean participants completed a questionnaire eliciting information about hunger, fullness, desire to eat, and prospective consumption. They then consumed one of the preloads (muffins containing 40 g of each fat source or no fat) and 150 mL of water within 15 minutes. Questionnaires were completed again 30, 60, and 120 minutes after preload ingestion. Participants kept dietary records during the subsequent 24 hours., Results: Canola and peanut oil muffins resulted in higher fullness, and butter, canola, and peanut oil muffins resulted in lower hunger ratings 30, 60, and 120 minutes after preload ingestion compared with the fat-free preload. No differences were observed among the fat-containing loads. Although energy intake 24 hours after consumption of the preloads was also comparable on days the three fat-containing loads were consumed, energy consumption after each study session was higher when the fat-free muffins were provided. However, total energy intake, including the calories provided by the preloads, was similar across treatments., Discussion: These data do not support a differential satiety effect of fat sources rich in monounsaturated fatty acids relative to one rich in saturated fatty acids.

Oral exposure to dietary fat (through modified sham feeding, which entails mastication and expectoration of foods) augments the postprandial triacylglycerol (TAG) concentration, in part, though augmented lipid absorption. This study was designed to characterize early events in this process. At 2200 h, 25 healthy adults (13 men, 12 women) consumed 80 g of almonds (high oleic acid content) and fasted until approximately 0700 h. After placement of a catheter in a hand vein and 4 blood draws at 10-min intervals, 50 1-g safflower oil (high linoleic acid content) capsules were consumed. After another blood draw, modified sham feeding was initiated with a cracker only or cracker with cream cheese in random order with 1 wk between trials. Oral exposures occurred at 5-min intervals for 60 min then at 15-min intervals from min 60 to 120. Additional blood draws occurred at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 30, 60, 120, 240, 360 and 480 min. Oral stimulation, especially by fat, prompted the rapid (mean approximately 23 min) release of lipid stored from the previous meal (almonds) in all participants. This resulted in multimodal postprandial triacylglycerol (TAG) peaks generally occurring at 0-30 min, 60-120 min and 240-480 min after loading and initiation of oral stimulation. TAG magnitudes during these times were correlated (r = 0.40-0.89, P < 0.001-P = 0.053). It is proposed that the sensory-enhanced release of lipid from the residual pool initiates an early TAG rise, which augments the peak attributable to absorption of meal lipid; this in turn supplements a later peak associated with release of endogenously synthesized TAG because lipid from all three sources competed for a common clearance mechanism. If substantiated, additional understanding of the behavioral factors (e.g., eating patterns) that initiate this cascade will be warranted.

Objectives: The primary aim was to determine whether ready-to-eat cereal used as a portion-controlled, meal replacement promotes weight loss. Additional aims were to determine whether weight loss differed if the cereal was provided as a single brand or variety of brands and whether this use of ready-to-eat cereal promotes continued weight loss following transition to a high-fiber, high-volume (Volumetric) diet., Methods: Body composition was measured and diet records, appetite questionnaires and activity logs were completed during baseline and end of intervention weeks 2 and 6. Participants were assigned to one of four treatment groups. Group 1 (6 M, 22 F, mean age 43.0 +/- 1.9 years, mean initial BMI 28.9 +/- 0.4 kg/m(2)) consumed a serving of a single brand of ready-to-eat cereal with 2/3 C skim milk and a 100 Kcal portion of fruit for breakfast and as a replacement for either lunch or dinner for weeks 1 and 2. No restrictions were placed on the non-cereal meal. They then followed the Volumetric diet for weeks 3 to 6 with a target energy restriction of 500 kcal/day. Group 2 (3 M, 25 F, mean age 40.9 +/- 2.3 years, mean initial BMI 29.39 +/- 0.6 kg/m(2)) followed the same protocol, but was permitted to select from a variety of ready-to-eat cereals during weeks 1 and 2. Group 3 (7 M, 19 F, mean age 41.6 +/- 2.4 years, mean initial BMI 29.3 +/- 0.6 kg/m(2)) received no dietary instruction during the six-week study and Group 4 (9 M, 18 F, mean age 38.2 +/- 2.8 years, mean initial BMI 29.3 +/- 0.6 kg/m(2)) received no intervention prior to adoption of the Volumetric diet for weeks 3 to 6., Results: The cereal interventions resulted in 640 +/- 109 and 617 +/- 105 kcal/day reductions of energy intake in Groups 1 and 2, respectively, during the two-week cereal intervention. This led to comparable mean weight losses (1.91 +/- 0.19 kg-Group 1, 1.37 +/- 0.15 kg-Group 2) that were significantly greater than that observed in Group 3 (0.08 +/- 0.15 kg). The losses were primarily of fat mass. No significant changes of total body water were observed. Weight loss continued during the Volumetric diet in Groups 1 and 2. The changes were comparable to those observed in Group 4, and all were significantly greater than that of Group 3. Self-reported hunger was slightly, but significantly higher than baseline in Groups 1 and 2 during the cereal intervention, but similar to baseline in Groups 1, 2 and 3 during the Volumetric diet. Based on predicted weight loss, compliance with the Volumetric diet was similar and limited in all three intervention groups., Conclusions: Ready-to-eat cereals may be used to promote weight loss when consumed as a portion-controlled, meal replacement. Provision of a variety of brands does not compromise efficacy. Weight losses may be maintained or increased after transition to the Volumetric diet. The later regimen effectively controls hunger and may lead to weight loss, but compliance is limited.

Maintenance of reduced body weight following intentional weight loss is often unsuccessful. Identification of behaviors associated with sustained reductions should aid in dietary weight management. This survey assessed associations between an array of appetitive indices and weight loss outcomes in a sample of 80 adults participating in an open-labeled, unsupervised weight management program over a 64-month period. Participants were divided into maintainers (weight loss >5 kg at Year 1, sustained reduction >75% at Month 64), rebounders (weight loss >5 kg at Year 1, <75% reduction at Month 64), and nonresponders (weight loss <5 kg at Year 1). Nonresponders spent significantly more time shopping for food weekly, tended to have the highest total exposure time to food and to eat with fewer people than the other groups. Maintainers reported higher mean hunger over the course of a day, tended to spend more time preparing food and consumed less energy from fat and foods that they rated as predominantly bitter. Rebounders had significantly lower dietary restraint scores and tended to have less control over the purchase and preparation of foods in their diet. Individuals with different long-term weight loss outcomes possess distinct feeding-related attributes that may provide a basis for improved intervention strategies.

This study assessed the effects of orosensory stimulation by equipalatable stimuli that differed in macronutrient content (lipid and carbohydrate) on postprandial thermogenesis. Sixteen healthy, normal-weight adults (eight males, eight females) participated in six test sessions conducted weekly. The test sessions were administered randomly after overnight fasts and included: ingestion of 50 g of butter in capsules (to avoid oral stimulation with lipids) and 500 ml of water in 15 min followed by no oral stimulation or oral stimulation with a cracker or one of the following foods on a cracker-butter, unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) margarine, jelly, UFA margarine+jelly. Sensory stimulation entailed masticating and expectorating approximately 5.0 g samples of each stimulus every 3 min for 110 min. Blood was drawn immediately after preload ingestion and at minutes 35, 85, 200, 320, and 440 postloading and was analyzed for insulin, glucagon, and glucose. No significant treatment differences were observed for thermogenesis or oxidation of carbohydrate or lipid. Insulin, glucagon, and glucose concentrations were not different between treatments. These data suggest that orosensory stimulation with stimuli differing in lipid and carbohydrate content, but rated similarly in palatability, does not elicit an increased or differential diet-induced thermogenic response.

Accumulating evidence indicates that energy-yielding beverages evoke weaker appetitive responses than more solid food items, but the properties responsible have not been characterized. The present study attempted to isolate an influence of viscosity. At weekly intervals, 84 adults ingested 325-ml (220 kcal) shakes that were matched on weight, volume, temperature, energy, macronutrient content, energy density, rate of consumption, cognitive expectations, palatability, appearance, and requirements for mechanical processing, but varied in viscosity. Twice appetitive ratings were obtained over the subsequent 4 h, while all intake was proscribed, and twice ratings were kept until the first spontaneous eating occasion comprised of > or =100 kcal. Dietary intake was recorded over the 24 h after shake ingestion. Significantly greater and more prolonged reductions of hunger were observed with the thicker shake. No significant differences were noted in the size or time to first meal or 24 h energy intake. These data indicate viscosity exerts an independent inverse effect on hunger in humans.

Objective: To determined whether the nature of the lipid in an oral stimulus modifies postprandial triacylglycerolemia., Methods: Sixteen healthy adults (eight male, eight female) participated in six test sessions conducted weekly. The test sessions were administered randomly after overnight fasts and included: ingestion of 50 grams of butter in capsules (to avoid oral stimulation with lipids) and 500 mL of water in 15 minutes followed by oral stimulation with one of the following foods on a cracker: butter, unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) margarine, jelly, UFA margarine + jelly, cracker alone or no oral stimulation. Sensory stimulation entailed masticating and expectorating approximately 5.0 g samples of each stimulus every three minutes for 110 minutes. Blood was drawn immediately after preload ingestion and at minutes 35, 85, 200, 320, and 440 post loading and analyzed for serum triacylglycerol (TAG), insulin and glucose concentrations., Results: Only the oral samples containing the UFA margarine led to significant elevations of serum TAG concentration compared to baseline (p < 0.05). Maximum change of TAG concentrations were greater following orosensory stimulation with UFA margarine compared to orosensory stimulation with butter, jelly or UFA margarine + jelly. No differences were observed relative to vehicle alone or no orosensory stimulation, but this is due to lower nadir values for these treatments. Insulin and glucose concentrations were not different between treatments., Conclusion: Oral exposure specifically to an unsaturated dietary lipid augments the postprandial rise of TAG, compared to baseline.

To explore the contributions of taste and smell stimulation by dietary fat on the postprandial rise of serum triacylglycerol (TAG), 19 healthy, overnight-fasted adults received lipid loads (50 g safflower oil in capsules) followed by oral (i.e., taste and smell) or odor-only stimulation with cream cheese on crackers or no load with odor or no stimulation. In eight participants, lipid loading was followed by taste-only stimulation. Stimulation was provided (where applicable) at 3-min intervals for 60 min and 15-min intervals for an additional 60 min. Blood was drawn at stipulated times. Fat loading with oral stimulation led to serum TAG concentrations that were significantly elevated over baseline at 2, 4, and 6 h. Fat loading with odor stimulation led to a significant rise only at 4 h. No significant elevation was observed with either no-load treatment. Taste-only treatment led to a significantly higher TAG response than all other treatments except loading with oral stimulation. These data provide additional evidence supporting a taste component for human fat perception.

Oral exposure to dietary fat augments the postprandial triacylglycerol (TAG) concentration. We investigated the TAG response after oral exposure to butter and selected fat replacers. At 2200 h, 17 healthy adults consumed 80 g of almonds and fasted until 0700 h. Safflower oil (50 g in 1-g capsules) was then consumed. Oral stimulation was provided periodically for 2 h as potatoes, potatoes containing butter or one of three fat replacers or no oral stimulation in random order at weekly intervals. Blood was collected at stipulated intervals for 8 h. Oral exposure to butter led to a significantly longer postprandial TAG elevation than the other treatments. The results could not be explained by differential stimulus ingestion, palatability or perceived fat content. There was no significant treatment effect on concentrations of serum oleic acid, apolipoprotein (apo)B-48 or apoB-100, suggesting any oral exposure influence on release of dietary lipid stored in the lacteals or chylomicron and VLDL particle number contributed little to the postprandial TAG rise. In summary, oral exposure to butter elicited a greater postprandial TAG elevation than the tested fat replacers, possibly due to reduced TAG clearance.

Ethanol is a common dietary constituent, but knowledge of its chemosensory properties and their relationship to its ingestion is limited. Twenty-five male and 25 female, light-regular ethanol consumers participated in five test sessions. Sessions involved determination of taste, olfactory and nasal irritation thresholds for ethanol, taste thresholds for tetralone, suprathreshold intensity and quality judgements, determination of phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) taster status, acute oral exposure effect of ethanol on ratings for sucrose, NaCl, citric acid and quinine hydrochloride and hedonic judgments of beers. Questionnaires on personality traits, diet and health were also completed and body composition determined. Diet histories were obtained on three random days. A randomized subset of sensory tests and questionnaires were administered each session. The rank order of ethanol thresholds was taste>nasal irritancy>olfaction and the predominant taste near threshold was bitter. Except for a lower taste threshold in females, no other effects of gender, PTC taster status, ethanol use or body composition were observed. Acute exposure to ethanol suppressed the bitterness of quinine, but enhanced its bitter aftertaste. Ethanol use was not associated with differences in dietary, sensory or textural characteristics. Thus, among light to regular ethanol consumers, no substantive association was observed between sensory responses to ethanol and diet.

(-)-Hydroxycitric acid (HCA) reportedly promotes weight loss, in part, through suppression of hunger. However, this mechanism has never been evaluated in humans in a controlled study. Eighty-nine mildly overweight females were prescribed 5020-kJ diets for 12 weeks as part of a double-blind, placebo-controlled parallel group study. Forty-two participants ingested 400-mg caplets of Garcinia cambogia 30-60 min prior to meals for a total dose of 2.4 g/day (1.2 g/day HCA). Forty-seven participants ingested matched placebos. Weight and body composition were assessed at baseline and every other week for 12 weeks. Food intake and appetitive variables were assessed at baseline and monthly for 12 weeks. Both groups lost body weight with the active group achieving a significantly greater reduction (3. 7+/-3.1 kg versus 2.4+/-2.9 kg). No effects of the HCA were observed on appetitive variables. The active treatment group did not exhibit better dietary compliance or significant correlations between appetitive variables and energy intake or weight change. This study does not support a satiety effect of HCA.

Objective: To assess the effects of negative energy balance on the metabolic response of a meal containing either glucose or fructose as the primary source of carbohydrate after exercise in obese individuals in energy balance, or negative energy balance., Research Methods and Procedures: Fourteen adults with mean body mass index (BMI) 30.3 +/- 1 kg/m2, age 26 +/- 2 years, and weight 93.5 +/- 5.4 kg, adhered to an energy-balanced (EB) or a negative energy-balanced (NEB) diet for 6 days. On Day 7, subjects exercised at 70% VO2peak for 40 minutes then consumed either high glucose (50 g of glucose, HG) or high fructose (50 g of fructose, HF) liquid meal. Substrate utilization was measured by indirect calorimetry for 3 hours. Blood samples were collected before exercise and 0, 30, 60, 120, and 180 minutes after consuming the meal., Results: The HG produced 15.9% greater glycemic (p < 0.05) and 30.9% larger insulinemic (p < 0.05) responses than the HF under both EB and NEB conditions. After the NEB diet, carbohydrate and fat oxidation did not differ for HG and HF. In contrast, carbohydrate oxidation increased 31%, and fat oxidation decreased 39% with HF compared with HG after the EB diet. Thus, HF and HG consumed after exercise produced marked differences in macronutrient oxidation when obese subjects followed an EB diet, but no difference when adhering to a NEB diet., Discussion: The data suggest that the use of fructose in supplements/meals may provide no additional benefit in terms of substrate utilization during a weight loss program involving diet and exercise.

The rapid release of saliva following cognitive or sensory stimulation is termed the cephalic phase salivary response. Optimal methods and conditions for measuring the cephalic phase salivary response have not been established. Consequently, determination of the extent to which the large inter and intra-individual variability reflect biological or procedural influences is not possible. The nutritional significance of the response may be great due to the multiple roles played by saliva in food selection and digestion. The cephalic phase salivary response has been proposed as an objective index of various individual states (e.g. hunger) and characteristics (e.g. dietary restraint, extroversion), but its value for such purposes requires further verification., (Copyright 2000 Academic Press.)

In an attempt to better characterize the subjective experience of hunger, we assessed the locus and extent of sensations associated with varying degrees of hunger. In the first study, 83 subjects indicated by marking on a drawing of a human figure where they felt hungry under hypothetical conditions of slight to extreme hunger. Approximately 55% of subjects indicated an abdominal locus with slight hunger, a proportion which increased somewhat with increasing levels of imagined hunger. The proportion of subjects indicating other or additional body sites grew significantly with increasing hunger states; for example, those identifying the head region increased from about 10-35%. In a second study, 14 subjects were fasted for 22 h and then refed. Using the drawn figures, they outlined body areas where they experienced hunger during and after fasting. The size of the abdominal area and the total body area associated with hunger sensations expanded with increasing food deprivation and contracted after refeeding. The size of the area of hunger sensation did not necessarily correlate with the degree of hunger as assessed by standard rating scales. The results indicate that the extent and locus of hunger sensations vary with fasting and feeding, and suggest that the site and size of the body areas associated with hunger sensations may provide qualitative and quantitative measures of the subjective experience of hunger not captured by analogue rating scales., (Copyright 1999 Academic Press.)

The objectives of this study were to assess the reliability, sensitivity and specificity of salt-sensitivity classification in normotensive adults and to determine the predictive power of four clinical indices for salt-sensitivity. A total of 66 healthy, normotensive, free-living adults were administered 11-day salt-sensitivity diagnostic dietary salt challenges on two occasions to permit assessment of classification test-retest reliability. An oral glucose tolerance test, an acute saline loading test, gustatory testing and determination of salivary flow and sodium concentration were carried out to assess (by correlation analysis) their predictive power for salt-sensitivity. Following these procedures, 21 participants followed a reduced-sodium diet for 4 months, during which blood pressure was monitored monthly to allow evaluation of salt-sensitivity classification sensitivity and specificity. Regression was used to develop a predictive model for salt-sensitivity. Salt-sensitivity classification was not highly reliable (kappa-value=0.38), sensitive (0.73) or specific (0.60). No single index was highly predictive of classification status, but a model composed of five indices accounted for 92% of the variance in blood pressure response to acute salt challenge. The dietary salt challenge procedure used here for salt-sensitivity classification of normotensive adults had low test-retest reliability. While a battery of easily measured attributes may facilitate rapid salt-sensitivity classification, such a diagnosis provides only limited insight regarding blood pressure responsiveness to chronic dietary salt restriction in normotensive adults.

Little is known about the customary level of sodium intake by salt-sensitive people and the nature of obstacles they face in the adoption of a reduced-sodium diet. These issues were addressed with 12 salt-sensitive (SS) and 9 salt-insensitive (SI) normotensive adults. Information about sodium consumption, taste, and blood pressure and concerns about following a diet reduced in sodium were collected at baseline and monthly while participants followed a 100 mmol Na/day diet for 4 months. Mean sodium intakes of both groups were comparable at baseline and were reduced significantly during diet. The principal dietary concerns were reduced food availability, increased food costs, and reduced food palatability. There were no group differences. Ratings declined over time, but only the food palatability issue did so significantly because of a shift by the SI only. While the predictive value of SS classification remains uncertain, these data indicate that dietary change is feasible in SS subjects.

Objective: High concentrations of fructose enhance postprandial lipemia following lipid loading whereas glucose exerts a negative or minimal effect. This study evaluated the effect of lower sweetener concentrations and the contribution of their sweetness level and palatability., Methods: At each of four test sessions, twelve male and ten female healthy adults ingested one of four milkshakes containing 108 g dairy cream alone or supplemented with 30 g fructose, 17.5 g glucose or 1 g aspartame. Blood samples were collected at baseline, two, four, six and eight hours after ingestion. Sensory discrimination tests were conducted after the last two sessions., Results: Fructose and glucose led to 37% (p = 0.03) and 59% (p = 0.08) rises in triacylglycerol area under the curve (TG AUC) when compared to the plain milkshake, respectively. Although the sweetened shakes were equisweet and were more palatable than the plain shake, the TG rise after the aspartame milkshake did not differ from the plain milkshake., Conclusions: These data indicate that low levels of glucose and fructose consumed with lipid enhance postprandial lipemia. Sweetness and palatability did not account for the effect.

Objective: To investigate the chemosensory function and food attribute preferences of individuals with Prader-Willi Syndrome., Design: Cross-sectional, matched-groups comparison., Subjects: Fifteen (eight female and seven male) individuals with Prader-Willi Syndrome and an age- and sex-matched non-affected sample., Measurements: Intensity ratings of taste and odor stimuli and hedonic ranking of 20 foods varying in sensory attributes (e.g. taste familiarity)., Results: Sensory test performance was comparable in the PWS and control groups. In addition, individuals with Prader-Willi Syndrome showed a pattern of food preferences that was similar to their non-affected counterparts., Conclusion: Abnormal chemosensory function does not underlie the ingestive behavior of individuals with Prader-Willi Syndrome.

Objective: To evaluate the effect of sweet taste stimulation in augmenting the reported growth-enhancing effects of nonnutritive sucking in preterm infants who are gavage-fed., Design: Random assignment of preterm infants to receive stimulation by one of three methods during each feeding until totally orally fed., Setting: Hospital intensive-care and infant transitional units., Patients: Eligibility criteria included body weight greater than or equal to 1,250 g, gestational age younger than 34 weeks, growth parameters appropriate for gestational age, tolerating at least 100 kcals/kg/day by gavage feeding with evidence of weight gain, and no clinical evidence of health complications. Data are presented for 42 infants who completed 14 days of treatment., Interventions: Exposure to a sweet pacifier, a latex pacifier, or maternal heartbeat sounds during gavage feedings., Main Outcome Measures: Growth, time to total oral feeding, and sucking responses., Results: No significant differences in sucking measures were noted among treatment groups. Differences in progression time to total oral feedings and weight gain favored the sweet-pacifier group but were not statistically significant., Conclusions: Oral stimulation of gavage-fed, preterm infants during a 2-week hospitalization was not sufficient to elicit a significant improvement in growth efficiency, progression to total oral feedings, or sucking maturation. Additional studies may show a beneficial effect of chemosensory stimulation in preterm infants.

Dietary compensation for energy provided as ethanol is reportedly limited. Whether this is a function of the ethanol or other aspect of the medium in which it is ingested is not known. Eight male and eight female adults ingested 1.08 liters of beer (5.0% ethanol w/v, 1891kJ), light beer (2.9% ethanol w/v, 1197kJ), no-alcohol beer (0.1% ethanol w/v, 816kJ), cola (1749kJ) or carbonated water (0kJ) every 3-4 days with a midday meal. Diet records were kept the preceding day and day of beverage ingestion. Energy intake was significantly higher each day an energy-bearing beverage was consumed relative to its preceding day. A literature review revealed dietary compensation for modifications of energy intake via fluids is less precise than when solid foods are manipulated. These findings demonstrate dietary adjustment for energy derived from ethanol is imprecise, but also indicate energy from carbohydrate elicits little dietary response when ingested in a beverage.

Alterations of chemosensory function have been noted in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients, but their frequency, severity, and relationship to diet have not been adequately assessed. Odor and taste identification tests and a taste-intensity scaling task were administered to 25 men who were HIV-infected but otherwise healthy. Responses were compared to those of 49 comparably aged male control subjects. Dietary information was obtained by questionnaire. Although 72% of HIV-infected patients reported some chemosensory alteration, no significant differences in taste identification ability or intensity ratings were observed between patients and controls. Twelve percent of patients had poor odor identification scores, but the group mean was similar to that of controls. Neither measured nor self-reported sensory indices were significantly related to any variable of health (e.g., HIV helper cell (CD4) count, body weight, or body composition), treatment, or diet.

Bitterness is generally viewed as an undesirable attribute of foods and beverages, yet segments of the population regularly ingest items with a prominent bitter taste. The influence of taste sensitivity, exposure, selected personality traits (i.e., neophobia, variety seeking, sensation seeking) and pharmacological reactivity on alcohol and caffeine consumption, two widely consumed bitter substances, was assessed in 20 healthy adults (10 male, 10 female). Self-reported alcohol use was positively correlated with measured ethanol taste detection threshold and pharmacological reactivity (self-reported behavioral effects). The latter accounted for 23% of the variance in alcohol intake. Caffeine intake was significantly associated with personality traits. Sensation seeking status and self-reported reactivity to caffeine accounted for 46% of the variance in caffeine intake. Pleasantness ratings for novel bitter and sour foods were unaffected by 10 exposures whereas increased ratings were given to sweet and salty items. Variation in the influence of these factors between individuals and across products may explain individual differences in the acceptability and use of foods and beverages containing alcohol, caffeine and other bitter compounds.

Appetite stimulation by cannabinoids is highly variable. Four within-subject design studies explored the effects of age, gender, satiety status, route of drug administration, and dose on intake. One study involved a single oral administration of active drug (15 mg males, 10 mg females) or placebo to an age and gender stratified sample of 57 healthy, adult light marijuana users. Eleven subjects received single doses by oral, sublingual, and inhaled routes in a second study. In the third study, 10 subjects ingested a single oral dose in fasted and fed states. A 2.5 mg dose was administered b.i.d. for 3 days by oral and rectal suppository routes in the fourth study. Mean daily energy intake was significantly elevated following chronic dosing by rectal suppository, but not oral capsule, relative to all acute dosing regimens except inhalation. Total daily energy intake was comparable on fed and fasted days, suggesting satiety mechanisms were not impaired by the drug. Subject age, gender, reported "high," and plasma drug level were not significantly associated with drug effects on food intake.

Cannabinoids purportedly improve taste responsiveness and enhance the sensory appeal of foods. These properties and a commonly cited oral drying effect were evaluated in a series of studies with 'light' marijuana users. The first was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, acute oral dosing trial, involving an age and gender stratified sample of 57 adults. An influence of route of drug delivery was explored in another 11 individuals who were administered a single dose orally, sublingually and via cigarette. To explore effects following chronic administration, six additional individuals were dosed twice per day for 3 days orally and by rectal suppository. Taste intensity and hedonic responses for sweet, sour, salty and bitter food stimuli were monitored at baseline, 2, 4 and 6 hours post-dosing in the acute studies, and daily in the chronic study. Stimulated saliva samples were collected at these same times. Salivary flow rate was significantly negatively correlated with plasma drug levels, and reported 'high' 2 and 4 h post-dosing. No effects of the drug were observed on taste responses. Self-reported shifts in taste responsiveness and hedonics may be related to alterations of memory and cognition, rather than gustatory function.

Objective: To identify individuals who are at nutritional risk because of taste and/or smell disorders., Design: Patients referred by a private physician for evaluation of a chemosensory complaint underwent an extensive battery of taste and smell tests, otorhinolaryngologic tests, and, in some cases, periodontal examinations and completed a dietary/health questionnaire, a 24-hour recall, and a 2-day diet record., Setting: Patients were interviewed at the Monell-Jefferson Chemosensory Clinical Research Center, Philadelphia, Pa., Subjects: We studied 310 patients (142 men and 168 women) with a primary complaint of chemosensory disorder. Mean age was 50.5 +/- 15.7 (range = 15 to 93 years). Normative data were provided by an additional 79 healthy control subjects (42 men and 37 women) with no taste or smell complaint. Their mean age was 48.8 +/- 18.8 years (range = 20 to 83 years)., Main Outcome Measures: Chemosensory disorder-related changes in food habits (determined by questionnaire responses), nutrient intake (analysis of 3-day food records), and body weight (self-reported)., Statistical Analyses: Analysis of covariance, followed by post hoc analysis of adjusted means with the Tukey honestly significant difference test, was used to explore group differences in nutrient intake and body weight. chi 2 Analysis and the Pearson correlation coefficient were used to evaluate relationships between variables., Results: When groups were classified according to chemosensory diagnosis, group differences were observed on global appetitive questions, but complaints were high in all groups. Approximately 65% (203 of 310) of patients had self-reported body weights within 5% of their predisorder weight, but clinically meaningful weight gains or losses were observed in each group. Patients with multiple chemosensory disorders were most likely to lose weight, whereas the incidence of weight gain was highest in patients with anosmia. Patient report of a change in eating patterns was the best predictor of weight change among the variables examined., Conclusions: Dietary responses to chemosensory disorders vary widely and may place patients at nutritional risk. Until better prognostic indexes are identified, dietitians should query patients about disorder-related alterations in eating patterns and provide appropriate individualized counseling.