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Background and Aim: There is an agreement on impression of environment on the development in different ways. The environment effect could be passive or active. The environment enrichment is a passive method which is used to show the effect of environment on the development during infancy. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of early perceptual-motor enrichment on later fine motor development process of infants. Materials and Methods: Fifteen 5 to 8-months-old healthy infants participated randomly in this study. According to their age, participants were divided homogenously in two groups: training (n=8, ages=6.5±2) and non-training (n=8, ages=6.5±2). Training group had 36 training sessions(3 times in a week) for an hour at a perceptual-motor enrichment environment (involve vary manipulation and locomotion tools). After 36 training sessions, at the first assessment stage, infant fine motor skills were evaluated by Peabody motor development scale. Three months later, all infants were kept in similar and normal condition. At the later assessment stage, after this three months, infant fine motor skills were evaluated by same scale. Data were analyzed by mixed ANOVA2 (group) x (stage). Results: Results indicated that in fine motor age equivalent, main effect of group(F(1,10)=10.53, P=.009 ) and main effect of assessment stages(F(1,10)=96.33, P=.001) was significant. Interaction between groups and assessment stages (F(1,10)=2.58, P=.13)was not significant. Also, in fine motor scaled score, main effect of group(F(1,10)=6.65, P=.02) and main effect of assessment stages (F(1,10)=32.93, P=.001) was significant. Interaction between groups and assessment stages (F(1,10)=.24, P=.63)was not significant. Conclusion: Generally, results show that training and experience have positive effect on later fine motor skills development of infant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behaviors emerge, in part, from the interplay of infant abilities and caregiver-infant interactions. Cross-cultural and developmental studies suggest caregiver handling and positioning influence infant development. In this prospective, longitudinal study, the effects of 3 weeks of enhanced handling and positioning experiences provided to 14 infants versus control experiences provided to 14 infants at 2 months of age were assessed with follow-up through 15 months of age. Behaviors in prone were immediately advanced. Short-term advancements occurred in multiple behaviors, including prone, head control, reaching, and sitting behaviors. Longer term advancements, up to 12 months after the experience period, occurred in object transfer, crawling and walking behaviors. This suggests broad and long-lasting changes can arise via brief periods of change in caregiver-infant interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This longitudinal study examined the development of communicative gesture in 16 preterm children and two groups of full term children at 12, 18 and 24 months of age. Children''s spontaneous communicative gestures were analyzed during mother–child observation sessions. Preterm children''s motor, mental and linguistic development were also measured. The development of gestural communication did not significantly differ between the groups except for the use of gesture-plus-word combinations at 18 and 24 months, when full term children produced significantly more combinations than preterm children. For preterm children, the production of pointing at 12 months was positively associated with lexical skills at 24 months as was the use of gestures-plus-word utterances at 18 months with morphosyntactic skills at 24 months. Our analyses also revealed a subgroup of preterm children characterized by a low birth-weight and mental scores who demonstrated an enduring increase in communicative gesture production over time. This profile could be associated with later delays in language acquisition. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Although information is sparse, research suggests that affordances in the home provide essential resources that promote motor and cognitive skills in young children. The present study assessed over time, the association between motor affordances in the home and infant motor and cognitive behavior. Thirty-two (32) infants were assessed for characteristics of their home using the Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development – Infant Scale and motor and cognitive behavior with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development – III. Infant''s home and motor behavior were assessed at age 9 months and 6 months later with the inclusion of cognitive ability. Results for motor ability indicated that there was an overall improvement in performance from the 1st to the 2nd assessment. We found significant positive correlations between the dimensions of the home (daily activities and play materials) and global motor performance (1st assessment) and fine-motor performance on the 2nd assessment. In regard to cognitive performance (2nd assessment), results indicated a positive association with fine-motor performance. Our results suggest that motor affordances can have a positive impact on future motor ability and speculatively, later cognitive behavior in infants. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

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OBJECTIVES: to verify the influence that properties of objects have on the reaching and grasping adjustments made by infants with and without Down syndrome (DS) between four to eight months of age. METHODS: 16 infants, eight typical and eight with DS, were evaluated once a month from months 4 to 8. Four spherical objects (large soft, small soft, large hard and small hard) were offered and the first five valid movements were recorded for analysis of the variables: proximal adjustment (uni- and bimanual), distal adjustments (palm orientation, hand opening) and grasping of the object. RESULTS: the typical infants displayed greater bimanual adjustment for large objects at six and eight months and those with DS at seven months. As for distal adjustments, typical infants varied their behavior while DS showed predominant use of the oblique position. In general, the typical group had greater success in grasping all hard and small soft objects when compared to the infants with DS. CONCLUSIONS: infants with Down syndrome showed a smaller variety of adjustments, which led to lower success in grasping, possibly due to the intrinsic limitations of DS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction The study of the early neonatal and infant behavior has called the attention of several researchers with the purpose of establishing an early diagnostic of neurological damage. Ferenc Katona identifies, from the 28th week of gestation to the third month of extrauterine life, a group of locomotion and verticalization innate behaviors which are called Complex Elementary Movements (CEM). These sequences of generalized motor activity of central origin, with automatic movements, generate sensory impulses to the spinal cord, brainstem and superior systems in response to gravitational and acceleration stimulus. These impulses cause continuous and repetitive movements of the head, trunk and limbs, and lead to verticalization and locomotion. They also prefigure the human behavior by organizing structures and cerebral functions ontogenetically mature at birth and with greater resistance to damage. In normal European neonates and infants, the constancy and stability has allowed for the diagnose of early Nervous System dysfunction (SN). European researchers have applied procedures that include CEM for neurohabilitation. Katona explains that when CEM are induced, they stimulate the vestibular system performance. The repetitive and/or sustained muscular contractions of trunk and extremities during the attempts of verticalize or locomotion, transmit new stimulus that strengthen the initial stimulation. During the time that the infant maintains the pattern activation, the thalamus, basal ganglia and cerebral cortex are stimulated, simultaneously and proportionally, occurring changes in the muscular tone, the movement dynamics and posture within a critical period of cerebral plasticity. The movements of head, trunk and extremities are refined or reorganized as in normal child maturity (development). This prevents and avoids risks and altered functions. In Mexico, according to the information sources reviewed, there are no studies describing the normal postnatal development variations. It is important to differentiate normal movements from the pathological ones to make early diagnosis of neurological damage in Mexican populations. Material and methods The Tlalpan outpatient family medicine clinic of the Institute of Security and Social Services for State Employees (ISSSTE)referred 25 infants, considered with low perinatal biological risk, residents Of Mexico City. The Heinz Prechtl neurological sieve was applied to each infant to Confirm an adequate neurological maturity. Fifteen infants fulfilled the inclusion criteria, the parents of nine infants agreed on their child participation in four evaluations, scheduled monthly, according to the day of birth. The parents signed the informed consent letter, to each evaluation, the ten maneuvers of activation were applied twice. They were distributed 6 at the first month, 9 at 2 and 3 months, and 8 at 4 months. Five maneuvers were applied to activate locomotion: Mcgraw, Bauer, reinforced Bauer, crawling on an inclinate slide and assisted crawling. Also five maneuvers were put into practice for verticalization: carry sitting, antigravity verticalization, stand up reaction, elementary walking and sitting in the air. Five behaviors and movements were described: crying, visual behavior (eyes closed or open with or without visual fixation), limbs, trunk and head movements. The evaluations were recorded in 8mm digital format and reviewed instantly during the evaluation. The camera's timer was used to measure the time they took to activate movements of locomotion or verticalization, To calculate frequencies and central tendency measures, the SAS statistical software JMP, version 7.0 was used. Results 320 activating maneuvers were used, 82.5% activated locomotion and 58% verticalization. The children awaked spontaneously with rude movements and cried, in 63% of the evaluations including the five locomotion patterns: 58.7% in the Alternating Cross Pattern (ACP), 10% for the Incomplete Simultaneous Pattern (ISP), 10% in the Lower Limb Alternating Pattern (LLAP), 1.25% on Complete Simultaneous Pattern (CSP) 2.5% and Homolateral Pattern (HP). The most frequent pattern observed was the Alternate Cross Pattern (PAC) 58.7% was the Homolateral Pattern (PH) 1.25%. In verticalization two patterns were observed: 58% with complete trunk and head alignment, 42% with incomplete alignment. The latencies to enable MEC were from 0-120 seconds, with M 27.7, DE ±48.8 for locomotion and M 9.43, DE ±20.7 for verticalization. Opening the eyes and visual fixation in the locomotion maneuvers occurred in the 43%, 20% in the first month. 31% in the 2nd month, 42% in the 3rd month and 75% in the 4th month. Verticalization maneuvers occurred in 64%, 47% in the first month, 49% in the second month, 64% in the 3rd month and 95% in the 4th month. As the children grew, the open eye and visual fixation conducts increased in presence. Locomotion appeared in the 43% of the children and verticalization in 64%. Discussion Katona reports that the MEC activation is given from birth to three months, with exception in two maneuvers: crawling on an inclined slide that appears until two months and on the four month the manifestation of elementary march. In this research, the locomotion and verticalization patterns appeared sometimes until the fourth month, with frequencies that change in 12% to 100% of the cases according to the maneuvers form. Two patterns were identified but not described, the PH with a case frequency of 1.25% and the PSC with 2.5%. Katona suggested that infants up to three months old are able to activate several seconds to complete verticalization due to vestibular activity. In our experience, until two months they are mainly short and incomplete patterns of vertical integration then completed and sustained during the third and fourth month. Concerning the time required to activate MEC. Katona reported latencies of 5-1 O0 sec. with absence of responses until the 4th month Except for elementary walking, we observed that the latency time varies with age. n this investigation the locomotion time was 27.7 sec average, founding 0-120 sec intervals. In verticalization, latencies were faster than the average latency time of 9.43 sec. With intervals of latency in the first two months of age of 0-19 sec. elementary walking and the stand up reaction with age took but in activating and to the fourth month in several cases no longer they appeared. Katona reported that the newborn is capable of a brief visual fixation with the presentation of the face or with a flashing object 20cm away. The results of the locomotion and verticalization maneuvers showed that the behavior was present in the first month, in less of the 50% locomotion assessments and in less of 70% in verticalization. When the maneuver allowed controlling the head or maintaining the face to face line sight, the infant opened and fixed visually. Conclusions n the nine Mexican infants explored, variations were reported in the postnatal MEC evolution, with respect to the age of appearing, patterns type, trunk and limbs movements, time required For activation (latencies), visual activity and crying presence were not observed. If these variations are confirmed we could establish more accurate reference parameters and analyze their relationship with biological and environmental factors. Thus, to strengthen a prevention method in neurohabititation/neurorehabilitation for high-risk population benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: It continues to be a challenge for clinicians to identify preterm infants likely to experience subsequent neurodevelopmental deficits. The Test of Infant Motor Performance (TIMP) and the assessment of spontaneous general movements (GMs) are the only reliable diagnostic and predictive tools for the functionality of the developing nervous system, if applied before term. Aim: To determine to what extent singular preterm assessments of motor performance can predict the neurodevelopmental outcome in 14-month olds. Methods: Thirty-seven preterm infants born <34weeks gestational age were recruited for the study at the NICU of the São Lucas University Hospital, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. At 34weeks, their GMs were assessed; and the Test of Infant Motor Performance (TIMP) was applied. A prospective design was used to examine (A) the association between the GM assessment and the TIMP; and (B) the relation between GMs or the TIMP and the developmental status at 14months, assessed by means of Alberta Infant Motor Scales (AIMS) and the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory (PEDI). Results: Nineteen infants (41%) had abnormal GMs; only one scored within the TIMP average range. Hence, GMs and TIMP were not related. Children with cramped-synchronized GMs at 34weeks preterm had a lower AIMS centile rank than those with poor repertoire or normal GMs. There was a marginal association between cramped-synchronized GMs and a lower PEDI mobility score. Conclusions: A single preterm GM assessment is only fairly to moderately associated with the 14-month motor development. The TIMP is not suitable as a complementary assessment tool at such a young age. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Recent work implicates a link between action control systems and action understanding. In this study, we investigated the role of the motor system in the development of visual anticipation of others' actions. Twelve-month-olds engaged in behavioral and observation tasks. Containment activity, infants' spontaneous engagement in producing containment actions; and gaze latency, how quickly they shifted gaze to the goal object of another's containment actions, were measured. Findings revealed a positive relationship: infants who received the behavior task first evidenced a strong correlation between their own actions and their subsequent gaze latency of another's actions. Learning over the course of trials was not evident. These findings demonstrate a direct influence of the motor system on online visual attention to others' actions early in development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To compare Alberta Infant Motor Scale scores for Brazilian infants with the Canadian norm and to construct sex-specific reference curves and percentiles for motor development for a Brazilian population. Methods: This study recruited 795 children aged 0 to 18 months from a number of different towns in Brazil. Infants were assessed by an experienced researcher in a silent room using the Alberta Infant Motor Scale. Sexspecific percentiles (P5, P10, P25, P50, P75 and P90) were calculated and analyzed for each age in months from 0 to 18 months. Results: No significant differences (p > 0.05) between boys and girls were observed for the majority of ages. The exception was 14 months, where the girls scored higher for overall motor performance (p = 0.015) and had a higher development percentile (0.021). It was observed that the development curves demonstrated a tendency to nonlinear development in both sexes and for both typical and atypical children. Variation in motor acquisition was minimal at the extremes of the age range: during the first two months of life and from 15 months onwards. Conclusions: Although the Alberta Infant Motor Scale is widely used in both research and clinical practice, it has certain limitations in terms of behavioral differentiation before 2 months and after 15 months. This reduced sensitivity at the extremes of the age range may be related to the number of motor items assessed at these ages and their difficulty. It is suggested that other screening instruments be employed for children over the age of 15 months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Fields studying movement generation, including robotics, psychology, cognitive science, and neuroscience utilize concepts and tools related to the pervasiveness of variability in biological systems. The concept of variability and the measures for nonlinear dynamics used to evaluate this concept open new vistas for research in movement dysfunction of many types. This review describes innovations in the exploration of variability and their potential importance in understanding human movement. Far from being a source of error, evidence supports the presence of an optimal state of variability for healthy and functional movement. This variability has a particular organization and is characterized by a chaotic structure. Deviations from this state can lead to biological systems that are either overly rigid and robotic or noisy and unstable. Both situations result in systems that are less adaptable to perturbations, such as those associated with unhealthy pathological states or absence of skillfulness. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objective: to access motor performance in premature newborns with risk to motor development impairment. Method: Prospective study carried between June 2007 and December 2008 with newborn infant (NI) by spontaneous breathing in air environment and corrected age until 120 days old. The study consisted on assessment of the motor performance through the Infanty Motor Performance Test (TIMP), applied for physiotherapist on the discharge hospital. Data were presented as descriptive statistics and measures of sensibility, specifics and predictive positive and negative values. Results: We studied NI with gestational age (GA) average of 32.61 ± 2.69 weeks and birth weight of 1207 ± 380.14 grams, with predominance of the masculine sex (62%) and the adequate for gestational age (66,6%). The population studied (56 NI) presented punctuation on average, 7 presented punctuation below standard and 6 presented score below standard. The NI with punctuation on average presented GA average of 34.44 ± 0.59 weeks, birth weight of 1355.5 ± 294.26 grams and remain on the average of 11.22 ± 7.07 days on oxygen inhaled. The NI that acquittal below standard presented GA average of 32 ± 2.59 weeks, birth weight of 1180 ± 334.16 grams and remained 8.2 ± 4.24 days under mechanical ventilation (MV); the NI with punctuation was below standard presented GA average of 28.76 ± 2.54 weeks, birth weight of 28.76 ± 2.54 grams and remained on average of 42.5 ± 18.93 days under mechanical ventilation. We verified 54.5% sensibility, 71.4% specifics and predictive positive and negative values of 75% and 100%, respectively. Conclusion: The premature newborn infants who presented worse motor performance remained on prolonged ventilator support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To learn from conspecifics, infants would be greatly advantaged by knowing when to seek information from them. Although in prior work infants used a labeler's gaze direction to infer the referent of a novel label, it was unclear whether infants in these studies recognized that they needed information or were happening upon the information by simply orienting to the labeler's voice. To address this issue,we presented 13- and 18-month-olds with either one or two novel objects and provided a novel label. If infants seek referential information, they should look more to the labeler in the presence of two objects relative to one object, because the labeler's intended referent is highly ambiguous in the two-object case. This prediction was confirmed in two studies. In contrast, infants' looking was equivalent in the presence of one vs. two objects in a baseline phase, when no labels were provided. Thus, 13- and 18-month-olds actively seek clarifying gaze information to resolve ambiguous learning situations. Word learning appears to be a rich pragmatic process as early as the end of the first year of life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors developed a method useful for home measurement of temperature, activity, and sleep rhythms in infants under normal-living conditions during their first 6 mos of life. In addition, parametric and nonparametric tests for assessing circadian system maturation in these infants were compared. Anthropometric parameters plus ankle skin temperature and activity were evaluated in 10 infants by means of two data loggers, Termochron iButton (DS1291H, Maxim Integrated Products, Sunnyvale, CA) for temperature and HOBO Pendant G (Hobo Pendant G Acceleration, UA-004-64, Onset Computer Corporation, Bourne, MA) for motor activity, located in special baby socks specifically designed for the study. Skin temperature and motor activity were recorded over 3 consecutive days at 15 days, 1, 3, and 6 mos of age. Circadian rhythms of skin temperature and motor activity appeared at 3 mos in most babies. Mean skin temperature decreased significantly by 3 mos of life relative to previous measurements ( p == .0001), whereas mean activity continued to increase during the first 6 mos. For most of the parameters analyzed, statistically significant changes occurred at 3--6 mos relative to 0.5--1 mo of age. Major differences were found using nonparametric tests. Intradaily variability in motor activity decreased significantly at 6 mos of age relative to previous measurements, and followed a similar trend for temperature; interdaily stability increased significantly at 6 mos of age relative to previous measurements for both variables; relative amplitude increased significantly at 6 mos for temperature and at 3 mos for activity, both with respect to previous measurements. A high degree of correlation was found between chronobiological parametric and nonparametric tests for mean and mesor and also for relative amplitude versus the cosinor-derived amplitude. However, the correlation between parametric and nonparametric equivalent indices (acrophase and midpoint of M5, interdaily stability and Rayleigh test, or intradaily variability and P1//Pultradian) despite being significant, was lower for both temperature and activity. The circadian function index (CFI index), based on the integrated variable temperature-activity, increased gradually with age and was statistically significant at 6 mos of age. At 6 mos, 90%% of the infants' rest period coincided with the standard sleep period of their parents, defined from 23:00 to 07:00 h (dichotomic index I < O; when I < O == 100%%, there is a complete coincidence between infant nocturnal rest period and the standard rest period), whereas at 15 days of life the coincidence was only 75%%. The combination of thermometry and actimetry using data loggers placed in infants' socks is a reliable method for assessing both variables and also sleep rhythms in infants under ambulatory conditions, with minimal disturbance. Using this methodological approach, circadian rhythms of skin temperature and motor activity appeared by 3 mos in most babies. Nonparametric tests provided more reliable information than cosinor analysis for circadian rhythm assessment in infants. (Author correspondence: ) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To trace a reference curve for motor development from birth up to 12 months of corrected chronological age in infants born preterm and low birth weight. This is a cross-sectional study with a sample of 308 preterm infants (53% boys) weighing <2500 g at birth. The Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) was used for motor development assessment. Comparing the motor performance of preterm infants with infants from a standardized sample on the AIMS, it was found that, except for the age group of the newborn, preterm infants showed lower motor development scores in comparison with the AIMS normative sample in all age groups between 1 and 12 months. The curve of motor development showed a continuous increase in the number of motor skills of preterm infants during their first 12 months of age. However, the average of motor acquisitions of preterm infants showed a nonlinear pattern with a standard indicator of stabilization between 8 and 10 months of age. Preterm infants, 1-12 months of age, showed motor development AIMS scores lower than the standards established in the normative sample. The findings may contribute as norm-reference for assessing the motor development of preterm infants in follow-up programmes in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors aimed to investigate proximal and distal adjustments of reaching behavior and grasping in 5-, 6-, and 7-month-old preterm infants. Nine low-risk preterm and 10 full-term infants participated. Both groups showed the predominance of unimanual reaching, an age-related increase in the frequency of vertical-oriented and open hand movement, and also an increase in successful grasping from 6 to 7 months. The frequency of open hand was higher in the preterm group at 6 months. Intrinsic restrictions imposed by prematurity did not seem to have impaired reaching performance of preterm infants throughout the months of age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The present study examined 7- to 11-month-old infants’ anticipatory and reactive reaching for temporarily occluded objects. Infants were presented with laterally approaching objects that moved at different velocities (10, 20, and 40cm/s) in different occlusion situations (no-, 20cm-, and 40cm-occlusion), resulting in occlusion durations ranging between 0 and 4s. Results show that except for object velocity and occlusion distance, occlusion duration was a critical constraint for infants’ reaching behaviors. We found that the older infants reached more often, but that an increase in occlusion duration resulted in a decline in reaching frequency that was similar across age groups. Anticipatory reaching declined with increasing occlusion duration, but the adverse effects for longer occlusion durations diminished with age. It is concluded that with increasing age infants are able to retain and use information to guide reaching movements over longer periods of non-visibility, providing support for the graded representation hypothesis () and the two-visual systems model (). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

There is no tool that is considered the 'gold' standard for identifying children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and various techniques have been reported in the research literature. The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of DCD in a cohort of extremely low birth weight (ELBW; birth weight ≤ 1,000g) children at age 5 years using various methods including standardized motor assessment measures, an established clinic protocol, and a parent report. We also examined the association between selected neonatal risk factors and severity of the motor impairment. Four methods were used to assess motor functioning: (1) the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (Movement ABC); (2) a motor assessment battery, which included the Movement ABC, the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration, and the Developmental Test of Visual Perception-2; (3) a Perinatal Follow-up Clinic protocol, which included the Geometric Design and the Mazes subtests of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised, the Fine and Gross Motor subscales of the Child Development Inventory, and a pediatric neuromotor exam; and (4) a parent completed questionnaire (i.e., Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ)). The prevalence of motor impairment in ELBW children was 64% on the Movement ABC, 67% on the motor assessment battery, 66% on the Perinatal Follow-up Clinic protocol, and 26% on the DCDQ. Sensitivity ranged from 36% to 100% and specificity from 65% to 92% using the Movement ABC as the reference standard. Neonatal risk factors associated with increased severity of motor impairment were bronchopulmonary dysplasia, postnatal steroids, and increasing gestational age. Children with birth weights ≤1,000 g are at considerable risk for motor impairment; therefore, developmental evaluations should include an assessment of motor functions. A standardized motor assessment test such as the Movement ABC appears to be the most effective and efficient means of identifying motor impairment in this high-risk population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Reaching and grasping skills have been described to emerge from a dynamic interaction between intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the interaction between such an intrinsic factor, Down syndrome, and extrinsic factors, such as different object properties. Seven infants with Down syndrome and seven infants with typical development were assessed at the ages of 4, 5 and 6 months. The findings showed that object size influenced the kinematics of reaching for the infants with Down syndrome and the grasping frequency for the typical infants. The object rigidity was shown to have a major influence on grasping frequency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Hand shaping is an important part of many skilled hand movements and includes a number of hand shapes prominent amongst which is collection. In collection, the hand is held with the digits lightly closed and flexed. It occurs when the hand is at rest and it occurs as the hand is transported to a target in behaviors such as reaching for an object, crawling, and climbing a ladder. Collection also frequently precedes hand gestures associated with speaking. The development of collection in infancy has not been described but it might be predicted that collection should develop before grasping and reaching movements. The present study examines the development of collection and arm position during the first 6 months of infant development. Infants were filmed while awake and photographed while asleep and hand shape and the hands location relative to the torso was documented. Collection associated with a relaxed position of the arm became increasingly prominent over the first 4 weeks of life in both awake and sleeping infants. It replaces a clenched (spastic) fist that was typically held proximal to the upper torso. The results are discussed in relation to the idea that the development of collection is an important antecedent to other hand shaping movements, especially skilled movements of grasping and reaching. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objective Neuromuscular characteristics in Down syndrome result in generalized muscular hypotonia, developmental delays and sensory integration deficits. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of simultaneous sensory stimulations and current occupational therapy approaches on motor functions development of infants with Down syndrome. Materials & Methods Eighteen infants with Down syndrome, aged 6 -18 months, were evaluated in two groups: intervention group (simultaneous sensory stimulation and occupational therapy) and control group (occupational therapy alone). They attended the program 3 times a week for 6 months and each session lasted 45 minutes. Motor functions were assessed before, during, and after intervention in the two groups, using GMFM test. Results Mean motor function increased in both groups according to the GMFM test(P = 0.000). Comparison of the changes showed that although the mean difference of this variable was higher in the intervention group, the difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.576). Mean motor deficit reduced in both groups during the period of the study, which was statistically significant (P < 0.05). Comparison of the difference in mean motor deficit in the first and last evaluations showed that this difference was more in the intervention group but statistically insignificant (P = 0.617) Conclusion Early use of simultaneous sensory stimulations can improve the quality of motors kills in Down syndrome infants. It is suggested that it may be used as an early intervention in association with other methods in the rehabilitation of these patients. However, more studies in this regard are warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Research has identified a relationship between social–emotional problems and motor impairment in both pre-school and school-age children. The aim of the current study was to determine how motor performance in infancy and early childhood is related to levels of anxious and depressive symptomatology at age 6–12years. Fifty participants were assessed by their parents 11 times between the ages of 4months and 4years using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ), and once between the age of 6 and 12years using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). The ASQ scores were used to obtain the stability (variance) of fine and gross motor performance. Once gestational age, sex and age of testing were taken into account, the stability of gross motor scores predicted both the anxiety/depression measure and the anxious score from the CBCL. It appears that how variable a young child’s gross motor development is from 4months to 4years predicts the level of anxious/depressive symptoms at school age. These findings may assist in the early identification of children at risk of anxiety disorders and depression at school age. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Background: Pre-term infants are at high risk for motor disabilities. Postural control, the basis for motor development, develops rapidly during the first year of life. An early start to extra-uterine life with an immature motor system may influence a pre-term infant''s postural control. Aims: To identify important prognostic factors and determine the difference in postural control between full-term and pre-term infants. Method: Medical records of 93 pre-term infants with birth weight of less than 1501g (mean birth weight=1136.03±243.86g; mean gestational age=29.14±2.78weeks) were reviewed. Data was collected from the preemie clinical follow-up program at the National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan. Results: Results demonstrated that pre-term infants had poorer postural control than full-term infants both at 6 and 12months adjusted age, and that medical complication as measured by the Neonatal Medical Index was the best predictor of postural control in pre-term infants in the first year of life. In addition, our findings confirmed that the development of postural control at 6months adjusted age predicts the development of postural control at 12months adjusted age after controlling for prognostic factors. Conclusions: Both biological and social environmental factors appeared to be associated with pre-term infants'' postural control at 6 and 12months adjusted age. The development of postural control at 6months adjusted age predicted the development of postural control at 12months adjusted age. This suggested the value of early follow-up examinations at 6months adjusted age. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Surface electromyography (SEMG) can be used as a tool to help gain the return/discovery of motor function in those with disabilities. This article presents the case of ''Joey,'' an 18-month-old toddler. An already challenging case due to age is made even more difficult considering his genetically based multiple impairments. SEMG provided a window of opportunity, previously unavailable, to allow Joey to demonstrate the new motor skills that he was capable of learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Radial optic flow is one of the crucial cues for the perception of motion-in-depth and contributes to our daily adaptive actions such as locomotion or postural control. Although many researchers have examined the development of radial motion perception and that of adaptive motor actions, no valid developmental model for visuo-motor coordination has been proposed. In the present study, we tried to propose a developmental framework for the interactive process between visual radial motion perception and the adaptive motor actions in infancy, with a brief review of the previous psychophysical, psychophysiological, and neurophysiological studies. The effect of the functional development of the posterior parietal cortex, which might be induced by the experiences of ego motion in particular developmental periods, on visuo-motor coordination was discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability to understand the actions of others is crucial for all social species. Recent electrophysiological and neuroimaging studies indicate that understanding the actions of others is mediated by the mirror neuron system (MNS), in which an observed action is mapped onto the observer's own motor representation of that action. Although there has been considerable progress in elucidating the mechanisms and functions of the direct-matching process, we still know little about its developmental aspects. In this article, we first provide a brief overview of the functions of the direct-matching process in the MNS. Next, we review the neurophysiological and behavioral evidence for the developmental aspects of the direct-matching process, indicating that it is already functional at least by the age of 6 months, and that perception and action are mutually influenced and directly linked in early infancy. Finally, we discuss the unresolved questions about the onset of the direct-matching process and suggest directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article investigates the influences of infant age and mother-child hearing status and intuitive parenting behaviors during the 18 months of deaf children. Study shows that these children become fully developed toddlers, asserting for their own autonomy, and their desire to explore greater things. It points out that each of their developmental changes brings new adaptations by parents who respond to interests and emergent skills. Maintaining the visual attention through the period when immobile infant becomes an active toddler is considered as the most difficult problem.

Abstract: The motor skills of patients with spinal muscular atrophy, type I (SMA-I) are very limited. It is difficult to quantify the motor abilities of these patients and as a result there is currently no validated measure of motor function that can be utilized as an outcome measure in clinical trials of SMA-I. We have developed the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Infant Test of Neuromuscular Disorders (“CHOP INTEND”) to evaluate the motor skills of patients with SMA-I. The test was developed following the evaluation of 26 infants with SMA-I mean age 11.5months (1.4–37.9months) with the Test of Infant Motor Performance and The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Test of Strength in SMA, a newly devised motor assessment for SMA. Items for the CHOP INTEND were selected by an expert panel based on item mean and standard deviation, item frequency distribution, and Chronbach’s alpha. Intra-rater reliability of the resulting test was established by test–retest of 9 infants with SMA-I over a 2month period; Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) (3,1)=0.96. Interrater reliability was by video analysis of a mixed group of infants with neuromuscular disease by 4 evaluators; ICC (3,4)=0.98 and in a group of 8 typically developing infants by 5 evaluators ICC (3,5)=0.93. The face validity of the CHOP INTEND is supported by the use of an expert panel in item selection; however, further validation is needed. The CHOP INTEND is a reliable measure of motor skills in patients with SMA-I and neuromuscular disorders presenting in infancy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The purpose of this study was to examine, using a modified visual cliff apparatus, possible perceptual differences at crawling age between infants born preterm and infants born at term without documented visual or motor impairments. Sixteen infants born at term and 16 born preterm were encouraged to crawl to their caregivers on a modified visual cliff. Successful trials, crossing time, duration of visual attention, duration of tactile exploration, motor strategies, and avoidance behaviors were analyzed. A significant surface effect was found, with longer crossing times and longer durations of visual attention and tactile exploration in the condition with the visual appearance of a deep cliff. Although the two groups of infants did not differ on any of the timed measures, infants born at term demonstrated a larger number of motor strategies and avoidance behaviors by simple tally. This study indicates that infants born at term and those born preterm can perceive a visual cliff and adapt their responses accordingly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objective: Coordinating sucking, swallowing and breathing to achieve effective sucking is a complex process and even though sucking is essential for nutrition, little is known about sucking patterns after birth. Our objective was to study sucking patterns in healthy fullterm infants and to describe the age-specific variations. Method: We studied the sucking patterns of 30 healthy, fullterm infants longitudinally from 2 or 3 days after birth to 10 weeks of age. During this time we recorded five to seven feeding episodes that we assessed off-line with the Neonatal Oral-Motor Assessment Scale (NOMAS). Results: We found a normal sucking pattern on the second or third day after birth in 27 out of 30 infants. During the following weeks we found abnormal sucking patterns in 23 out of 171 feeding episodes (14%) and normal patterns in 148 episodes (86%). Altogether, between 38 and 50 weeks’ postmenstrual age (10 weeks after birth), 10 infants displayed a deviating, arrhythmical sucking pattern. Dysfunctional sucking patterns and problems of coordinating sucking, swallowing and breathing did not occur. Birth weight, gestational age, type of labour and gender did not influence sucking patterns. Arrhythmical sucking was seen more often in bottle-fed infants. Conclusion: Our study demonstrated that practically all healthy fullterm infants started off with a normal sucking pattern soon after birth. One-third of the infants displayed one or more deviating episodes up to the age of 10 weeks. Apart from bottle-feeding, no other factors were found that influenced sucking patterns. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Background: Long term effects of massage therapy in very preterm newborns infants are still to be described. Few studies evaluated neurodevelopment just at six months, and included late preterm infants. Objective: To study the effect of massage therapy on neurodevelopment of very low birth weight infants at two years corrected age. Study design: Newborns with birth weight between ≥750 and ≤1500g and gestational age ≤32weeks were randomly assigned to massage therapy by mothers plus skin-to-skin care (Intervention Group) or just skin-to-skin care (Control Group) during their hospital stay. Growth and neurodevelopment outcome were evaluated at 2years corrected age. Results: We followed 73 newborns (35 in Intervention Group, and 38 in Control Group). Both groups were similar in neonatal data. Growth at 2years corrected age was similar in both groups. Intervention Group had borderline higher Psychomotor Development Index and significantly higher Mental Development Index scores than Control Group. Conclusions: We suggest that massage therapy by mothers combined to skin-to-skin care during neonatal hospital stay improves neurodevelopment outcome at 2years corrected age. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

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The article reports on the use of electroencephalographs to measure changes in sensorimotor alpha band activity during the observation of predictably occurring actions in nine-month-old infants. A motor activation in the infant brain resulted from the observation of a grasping action. Infants' understanding of a forthcoming action drives the display of overlapping neural activity during execution and observation of actions. The exploration of the ontogeny of action mirroring is possible through the measurement of changes in sensorimotor alpha activity.

Background. Infants born preterm are at risk for developmental impairments related to postural control. Objective. The purpose of this study was to determine whether infants born preterm and infants born at full term differed in postural control at 1 to 3 weeks after term age. Design. This study included 17 infants born preterm (mean gestational age=319 weeks, range=25.0-34.6) and 15 infants born at full term (mean gestational age=38.9 weeks, range=37.3-40.6). All infants were without diagnosed neurological or genetic conditions. Measurement. Center-of-pressure (COP) data were recorded at 5 Hz while each infant was positioned supine on a pressure-sensitive mat in an alert behavioral state. Root mean square (RMS) displacement and approximate entropy (ApEn) were used to describe the COP movement variability in the time series. Differences between groups were identified using independent t tests. Results. The COP time series were found to be deterministic, suggesting order in the time series. Infants born preterm exhibited significantly larger RMS values in the caudal-cephalic direction than infants born at full term (1.11 and 0.83 cm. respectively; t=--2.6, df=30, P=.01). However, infants born at full term had significantly larger ApEn values in the caudal-cephalic direction (1.19 and 1.11, respectively; t=2.4, df=30, P=.02). The 2 groups did not differ in RMS or ApEn values in the medial-lateral direction or the resultant. Conclusions. Infants born at full term exhibited COP displacements in the caudal-cephalic direction that were smaller in amplitude, but may be considered more complex or less predictable, than those of infants born preterm. One explanation is that infants born preterm exhibited more Stereotypic patterns of movement, resulting in large, but repetitive, COP excursions. A combination of linear and nonlinear measures may provide insight into the control of posture of young infants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study investigated the role of timing on infant self-perception. We tested whether 3-, 6- and 9-month-olds are able to discriminate between real-time and delayed visual feedback of their leg movements. Infants watched their legs simultaneously on two monitors. Initially both monitors presented their legs in real time. After 60 seconds one monitor switched to the presentation of visual feedback delayed by 3 seconds. Preferential looking was coded. Three-month-olds looked equally long at both displays. Although, the 6-month-olds tended to look longer at the delayed presentation, only the 9-month-old infants significantly preferred the delayed video display, indicating that they detected the difference in the timing of the feedback. This finding suggests that the use of timing in self-perception becomes increasingly robust by the end of the first year of life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study which examined the relationship between very preterm birth and very low birth weight (VLBW) and motor development. Data resources included the computerized databases EMBASE, PubMed, and Web of Knowledge. The tests used by the researchers included the Bayley Scales of Infant Development version II and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children. It was found by the researchers that very preterm and VLBW children obtained lower scores on all motor tests compared with term-born peers.

Background. Previous work has shown that full-term infants who were healthy contacted a toy with their feet several weeks before they did so with their hands and that movement training advanced feet reaching. Certain populations of preterm infants are delayed in hand reaching; however, feet reaching has not been investigated in any preterm population. Objective. The primary purpose of this study was to determine whether preterm infants born at less than 33 weeks of gestational age contacted a toy with their feet at 2 months of corrected age, before doing so with their hands, and whether movement training advanced feet reaching. Design. This study was a randomized controlled trial. Methods. Twenty-six infants born preterm were randomly assigned to receive daily movement training or daily social training. During the 8-week training period, the infants were videotaped in a testing session every other week from 2 to 4 months of age. Results. Both groups contacted the toy with their feet at 2 months of age during the first testing session prior to training, at an age when no infants consistently contacted the toy with their hands. After 8 weeks of training, the movement training group displayed a greater number and longer duration of foot-toy contacts compared with the social training group. Conclusions. These results suggest that movement experiences advance feet reaching as they do for hand reaching. For clinicians, feet-oriented play may provide an early intervention strategy to encourage object interaction for movement impairments within the first months of postnatal life. Future studies can build on these results to test the long-term benefit of encouraging early purposeful leg movements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Upright sitting is one of the first motor skills an infant learns, and thus sitting postural control provides an early window into the infant motor development. Early identification of infants with motor developmental delay, such as infants with cerebral palsy, allows for early therapeutic intervention by physical therapists. Early intervention is thought to produce better outcomes, due to greater neural plasticity in younger infants. Postural sway, as measured by a force plate, can be used to objectively and quantitatively characterize infant motor control during sitting. Pathology, such as cerebral palsy, may alter the fractal properties of motor function. Often physiologic time series data, including infant sitting postural sway data, is mathematically non-stationary. Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) is useful to characterize the fractal nature of time series data because it is does not assume stationarily of the data. In this study we found that suitable selection of the order of the detrending function improves the performance of the DFA algorithm, with a higher order polynomial detrending better able to distinguish infant silting posture time series data from Brown noise (random walk), and first order detrending better able to distinguish infants with motor delay (cerebral palsy) from infants with typical development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deferred imitation is used to assess declarative memory in infants. Although a lot of studies show that infants from 6 months onwards are able to re-enact actions following a delay, only a few studies describe early declarative memory longitudinally. From a variable-centred approach, these studies found a modest relationship between measurement occasions that increases with age. However, no studies have analysed the differential aspect of memory development from a person-centred perspective. The present study analyses memory stabilities both from a variable-centred and person-centred approach within a sample of N = 87 infants of a 2-wave longitudinal design (12- and 18-month-olds). From a variable-centred perspective, the results indicate that, first, there was a significant increase in infants' memory performance and, second, that although reliable, the stability of infants' memory performance was relatively low. From a person-centred perspective two vs. three groups of infants were differentiated showing different developmental growth trajectories and stability correlations but no differences in language, cognitive and motor development. The implications of those results in terms of further test development are discussed. Furthermore, important methodological expansions for the analysis of infants' memory data are presented and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the influence of the acoustic properties of vowels on 6- and 10-month-old infants’ speech preferences. The shape of the contour (bell or monotonic) and the duration (normal or stretched) of vowels were manipulated in words containing the vowels /i/ and /u/, and presented to infants using a two-choice preference procedure. Experiment 1 examined contour shape: infants heard either normal-duration bell-shaped and monotonic contours, or the same two contours with stretched duration. The results show that 6-month-olds preferred bell to monotonic contours, whereas 10-month-olds preferred monotonic to bell contours. In Experiment 2, infants heard either normal-duration and stretched bell contours, or normal-duration and stretched monotonic contours. As in Experiment 1, infants showed age-specific preferences, with 6-month-olds preferring stretched vowels, and 10-month-olds preferring normal-duration vowels. Infants’ attention to the acoustic qualities of vowels, and to speech in general, undergoes a dramatic transformation in the final months of the first year, a transformation that aligns with the emergence of other developmental milestones in speech perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently it has been claimed that infants with congenital muscular torticollis (CMT) are at risk of a delay in early motor milestones. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether infants with CMT are indeed at risk in comparison with a control group of healthy infants. A second aim was to investigate whether the time spent in a prone position and plagiocephaly had any influence on motor development. Eighty-two infants with CMT (35 females and 47 males) were compared with 40 healthy infants (18 females and 22 males). Motor development was assessed with the Alberta Infant Motor scale (AIMS). Multiple regression showed that infants in the CMT group had a significantly lower AIMS score than the control group at 2 months ( p=0.03) and 6 months of age ( p=0.05). Infants who spent at least three occasions daily in a prone position when awake had significantly higher AIMS scores than infants who spent less time prone at 2 months ( p=0.001), 6 months ( p<0.001), and 10 months of age ( p<0.001). The CMT group achieved early motor milestones significantly later than the control group until the age of 10 months, but the risk of delay seems to be more strongly associated with little or no time prone when awake than with CMT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To compare motor performance in supine position at the age of 4-months corrected age (CA) in very preterm (VPT) infants cared for in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) before and after the implementation of the Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program (NIDCAP). Methods: Assessments of motor performance in supine position according to level of motor development and quality of motor performance were made, using the Structured Observation of Motor Performance in Infants (SOMP-I). Subjects: VPT infants cared for in a NICU at a Swedish university hospital before, Group A (n = 68), and after, Group B (n = 58), the implementation of developmentally supportive care based on NIDCAP. Results: The infants who were treated after the introduction of NIDCAP showed higher level of motor development in the arms/hands and trunk. No significant group differences were noted in total deviation score for the respective limbs, but lower frequency of lateral flexion in head movements, extension–external rotation–abduction, extension–internal rotation–adduction and varus and valgus position in the feet was found in the NIDCAP group, compared with those treated before the introduction. Conclusion: The infants who were treated after NIDCAP care had been implemented showed a higher level of motor development in arms/hand and trunk and fewer deviations in head, legs and feet at 4-months CA than infants treated before NIDCAP implementation. The observed changes may be due to NIDCAP and/or improved perinatal and neonatal care during the studied time period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Animal models of neonatal stress, like maternal separation, may provide important correlation with human stress-related disorders. Early maternal deprivation has been shown to cause several short- and long-term neurochemical and behavioral deficits. Little is known about the early neurobehavioral development after postnatal stress. The aim of the present study was to investigate the development of reflexes and motor coordination in male and female pups subjected to maternal deprivation. Pups were removed from their mothers from postnatal day 1–14, for 3h daily. Somatic development (weight gain, eye opening, ear unfolding, incisor eruption) and reflex development was tested during the first 3 weeks. The appearance of the following reflexes was investigated: crossed extensor, grasping, placing, gait, righting and sensory reflexes, and negative geotaxis. Timely performance of negative geotaxis, righting and gait were also tested daily during the first 3 weeks. Motor coordination and open-field tests were performed on postnatal weeks 3–5 (rotarod, elevated grid-walk, footfault, rope suspension, inclined board and walk initiation tests). The results revealed that a 3-h-long daily maternal separation did not lead to a marked delay or enhancement in reflex development and motor coordination. A subtle enhancement was observed in the appearance of hindlimb grasp and gait reflexes, and a better performance in footfault test in male rats suffering from maternal deprivation. In contrast, female maternally deprived (MD) rats displayed a slight delay in forelimb grasp and air righting reflex appearance, and surface righting performance. Open-field activity was not changed in maternally deprived rats. In summary, our present observations indicate that maternal deprivation does not induce drastic changes in early neurodevelopment, therefore, further research is needed to determine the onset of behavioral alterations in subject with maternal deprivation history. Gender differences described in this study could help to understand how gender-specific differences in early life experience-induced stress-related disorders appear in adult life. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Background/aims: Post-asphyxia neonatal encephalopathy (NE) is one of the main causes of disabilities in term-born infants. This review attempted to investigate the developmental outcomes of term-born infants with post-asphyxia NE. Method: An electronic search on various databases identified 13 empirical studies against the selection criteria modified from the consensus statement from the International Cerebral Palsy Task Force. Results: The overall quality of methodology of these studies was average. The random effect meta-estimate of the proportion of infants having adverse developmental outcomes such as death, cognitive impairment, sensory-motor impairments was 47% (95% CI 36–57%). Significant heterogeneity (I 2 =87.7%, p <0.00001) between studies indicated variations in number of subjects in studies and their characteristics. For those studies using the Sarnat grading of NE, the proportion of infants with adverse outcomes was nil in stage 1 (mild) NE, 32% in stage 2 (moderate) and almost 100% in stage 3 (severe) NE. Conclusions: At present, researchers are using very loose diagnostic criteria of perinatal asphyxia and post-asphyxia NE, making the study samples heterogeneous. Clinicians and researchers are urged to make use of the recent consensus statement regarding diagnostic criteria for intrapartum asphyxia and to identify these high-risk infants for early intervention. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Purpose: to check the performance of the linguistic, cognitive, motor, self-care and socialization development abilities in premature children. Methods: 30 premature children participated, of both genders, from 6 to 24 months. The evaluation procedures consisted of an anamnesis interview and Operating Portage Inventory (OPI) (Wilhiams & Aiello, 2001) application. The children were divided in two groups, according to age group, for statistical data analysis, considering the age groups from 6 to 11 months and from 12 to 24 months. Data analysis was accomplished through Manny-Whitney test application, comparing the values obtained in the premature children's group with scores foreseen for typical children. Results: the results indicate that the more altered areas of the group in the age group from 6 to 12 months were linguistics and self-care and in the age group from 12 to 24 months the more altered areas were linguistic, cognitive and self-care. Conclusion: the need for a newly born premature rigorous attendance, through the development of continuation programs and a multidisciplinary team is emphasized in order to promote precocious detection and intervention, minimizing the impact of problems in these children's global development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background:Infants born preterm are at risk of both transiently reduced thyroid hormone levels and impaired neurocognitive development, including attention deficits. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of reduced thyroid hormone levels on general neurodevelopment and attention at 3 months corrected age.Methods:Sixty-four infants born 24 to 35 weeks gestation were stratified into four gestational age groups: Group A, 23–26 weeks (n= 10); Group B, 27–29 weeks (n= 23); Group C, 30–32 weeks (n= 20); Group D, 33–35 weeks (n= 11). Controls were 33 healthy infants born full-term (Group E). In preterm only, free thyroxine (FT4), triiodothyronine (T3), and thyrotropin (TSH) were measured at 2 and 4 weeks of life and at 40 weeks postconceptional age. At 3 months corrected age, all infants were assessed with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development—Second Edition (BSID-II), from which both mental development index (MDI) and psychomotor development index (PDI) scores and four indices of attention were derived: sustained attention, selective attention, attention shift, and total attention.Results:Gestational age–stratified preterm groups differed significantly in T3and FT4levels at 2 and 4 weeks of life in infants born less than 27 weeks gestation. Preterm infants overall scored significantly below full-term on BSID-II MDI and PDI, selective, sustained, and total attention scales. In the preterm group, FT4levels were positively associated with PDI and selective, sustained, and total attention.Conclusions:Reduced levels of thyroid hormone in the neonatal period in preterm infants are associated with a reduced neurocognitive outcome in the attention domain at 3 months corrected age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: to check the parameters of breastfed babies' oral motor sensory development in their third month of life, with and without the pacifier use and identify the periodicity of pacifier use amongst infants being exclusively breastfed and those who already started weaning. Methods: an observational study with transversal cut, involving 74 babies born at the Public Maternity, in Recife-PE, and being followed by the Child Welfare Service entity. Data were obtained through interviews with the mothers, followed by observation of the infants during their routine out-patient consultations. Results: in this study, the Infants who do not regularly use pacifier, showed standard symmetric global posture, better response to oral reflexes and more posteriorized tongue (p=0.034). The non-usage of pacifier by exclusively breastfed children was predominant. Conclusion: it was verified that infants who did not use pacifier showed better oral structures posture, as well as better response in relation to oral reflexes. There was a statistically significant association between exclusive breastfeeding and the non-usage of pacifier (p=0.001). On the other hand, among children in weaning, pacifier usage was more frequent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of additional weight load on reaching movement characteristics in 4–6-month-old infants over age. The task-load provided adaptedness on infant reaching movements, especially influencing to optimal interlimb coupling in bimanual reaches. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Toddlers grasp a tool more effectively when it is self-directed (e.g., spoon) than other-directed (e.g., hammer), possibly because the consequences of self-directed actions are more obvious. When the negative consequences of an inefficient grip were made equally salient, the self-directed versus other-directed differences remained. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effects of an intentional infant sign language program on mother–infant interactions were studied. Design was quasi-experimental, longitudinal, descriptive and comparative. The sample was composed of 14 mother–infant dyads, with the infants being between 5 and 9 months at the beginning of the study. The participants were middle or upper-middle socio-economic status. The interactions were evaluated through observations of free play and analyzed using a Grid to analyze early interactions. The frequency and duration of synchronic interactions were compared across experimental and control groups at 12–14 and 18–20 months of age using non-parametric Mann–Whitney tests. The results suggested significant differences between groups on visual and tactile synchronic interactions, and a tendency for vocal interactions, in the direction of higher frequencies in the experimental group. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]