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William Alexander Hammond (1828–1900) was the only US Army Surgeon General to suffer the indignity of a court-martial and removal from office. Nevertheless, he became a seminal figure in the development of neurology in the USA, and his innovative organizational leadership produced new military and civilian specialty hospitals, significant improvements in military hygiene, a postgraduate medical school, and various other institutions and professional medical organizations. Hammond's leadership successes were balanced by significant failures, though, and more than a century after his death his legacy remains complicated and controversial. Hammond was indeed a colorful and complex character with both considerable attributes and faults: a brilliant organizer and administrator, an outstanding teacher and apostle of neurology, and a prolific author, but at best a mediocre scholar, and an audacious, contentious, boastful, and arrogant individual.

In November 2012 736th Main Center of State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation celebrates 40th anniversary. It is a multidisciplanary prevention and treatment facility of high level standing at the top of the sanitary-epidemiological institutions of the army and navy. The Main Center is included into a united, centralized system of state sanitary-epidemiological control of Russia with the main purpose--organization and conduction of surveillance and anti-epidemic (preventive) measures in the army and navy. The article provides a consistent presentation of historical perspective of creation and development of the institution and its mission today.

The impact of temperature and storage time on military packaged water (MPW) quality was examined at four temperatures (23.0 °C to 60.0 °C) for 120 days. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles were filled in California and Afghanistan with unbuffered water treated by reverse osmosis. The US military's water pH long-term potability standard was exceeded, and US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) and US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) drinking water pH and odor intensity limits were also exceeded. During a 70 day exposure period, Port Hueneme MPW total organic carbon and total trihalomethane levels increased from

To study a serviceman's satisfaction with how nutrition was organized, the author elaborated a questionnaire containing the sections "nutrition organization quality assessment" and "mess food intake condition quality assessment". Different categories of military men taking food were inquired in a mess. The affirmation "I have no after-meal heartburn" became evidence that the sample was heterogeneous. For detailed analysis, the total sample was divided into two subgroups: those who had (Subgroup 1) and had not (Subgroup 2) a burning sensation after eating. Subgroup II servicemen gave lower scores on the questions about the comfort of food intake, the quality of dishes, a general attitude towards nutrition organization in the mess than did Subgroup I. The study has verified that the developed subsistence quality assurance system is of importance. The questionnaire has provided a valid assessment of the quality of the services given by the mess and revealed a reason for low scores.

Objective To gain a better understanding of genitourinary (GU) health during deployment in the context of a military culture. Design An ethnographic study design was selected to understand how military women managed GU symptoms during deployment. Setting The deployed experiences were recalled from various locations around the world. Participants The final sample consisted of 43 military women from the U.S. Army, Air Force, and Navy who were either deployed or had been deployed within the past year. Methods Audio recorded interviews ranged from 30 to 75 min in length. Semistructured interviews were used to gather women's stories about their illness behaviors in the deployed setting. Formal interviews, informal interviews, and field notes were included in the data analysis. Results Three themes were identified: (a) life in the deployed setting described the location women were referring when they experienced GU symptoms; (b) the dynamics of trust described individuals or entities that were trusted sources of information, supplies, or support; and (c) the sphere of control described the activities utilized to maintain health or manage GU symptoms. Conclusion This study is significant to nursing research because it exposes the influence of culture on GU symptom management. Recommendations from this investigation include the following: provide better incremental, predeployment, and in‐theater education for women and medics; inform leaders about the need to ensure the supply of self‐care treatments and women's feminine hygiene products are available; and promote the role of family support stateside as a resource for information, supplies, and emotional support.

Economic crisis phenomena primarily affect negatively the consumer market of foods. And a human being needs adequate nutrition. In adolescence, the growing organism is most susceptible to imbalanced and physical activity-inadequate nutrition. The authors propose to use the Quetlet body mass index estimated in draftees for the sociohygienic monitoring of the population's well-being and an actual and economic access to foodstuffs in the broad segments of the population. The efficiency of the approach has been demonstrated during a long-term follow-up of navy draftees (about 150 thousand recruits in 1995-2010).

The article presents the current issues hygiene mechanical prevention of disease in the younger generation in re-formation of the Russian Armed Forces, the economy, health, education and ecological trouble.

The aim of this paper is to present the program of diagnostic examinations regarding the detection and following treatment of intestinal parasitic diseases in the population of Polish soldiers serving in different climatic and sanitary conditions. Intestinal parasitoses remain one of the health problems of soldiers participating in contemporary military operations. This fact mainly results from unsatisfactory sanitary and hygienic standards in the regions where troops are deployed, contamination of water and soil, inappropriate processes of purifying drinking water, and the terrible condition of sewage systems, water purification plants, or sewage treatment facilities. The occurrence of such diseases is further facilitated by disregard of some basic principles of food and feeding hygiene. Mass examinations of Polish troops to find the prevalence of intestinal parasitoses will cause a decrease in the morbidity rate of parasitic diseases among Polish soldiers deployed in military operations. They can also lead to a decrease in expenditure on medical treatment of disease-related complications and on damages awarded to soldiers who have developed a serious disease while being engaged in a mission abroad.

Radiative and hygienic passportization is one of the most actual pattern of socio and hygienic monitoring in Armed Forces. Radiative and hygienic passport is the main document which characterizes the safety control in military unit and uses the sources of ionizing radiation. Sanitary and epidemiologic institutions were imputed to control the formation of radiative and hygienic passports, analysis and generalization of its data, formation of conclusions about the condition of radiation security in the military units. According to radiative and hygienic passportization, which took place in 2009, the radiation security in the Armed Forces and organizations is satisfactory, but there are some problems of providing of radiation security of personnel under the professional and medical radiation. The salvation of its problems requires the effective work of official functionary of radiac object and institutions of state sanitary and epidemiological supervision in Armed Forces of Russian Federation.

This article examines major epidemics of bacillary dysentery in the German army as well as among civilians in eastern Europe and in Germany during World War I. These epidemics were all the more surprising in light of prewar advances in understanding the disease and limiting dysentery outbreaks. Three major reasons are adduced for the incapacity of German military hygienists to prevent wartime epidemics. First was the difficulty of bacteriological testing at the front, especially early in the war, with negative consequences for diagnosis, therapy, and disease control. Second was inadequate hygiene including major shortcomings in latrine cleanliness and attempts to grapple with the "fly plague." Third was the lack of a Pasteur-type vaccine until late in the war. Susceptibility to dysentery was also heightened by war-related nutritional deficiencies. Taking off from an article by the English medical historian Roger Cooter, this article shows that the concept of "war dysentery" was socially constructed and served a variety of professional interests but at the same time takes issue with Cooter's arguments against linking "war" and "epidemics" pathogenetically.

In spring 1989, a random, Army-wide sample of 15,364 enlisted and 4, 529 officer personnel was surveyed on dental utilization. Results show no difference in annual dental utilization between officer and enlisted personnel when age is controlled. Because annual dental utilization increases with age and enlisted ranks contain a disproportionately large number of younger personnel, a difference in annual dental utilization between enlisted and officer personnel emerges when age is not controlled. Check-ups are the most common reason for dental visits. Nearly all soldiers seek care exclusively in military dental clinics. Non-use is highest among 18-19 year olds (12.2%). Dental utilization, Active duty soldiers, Mix of dental services consumed.

In 1 9 4 3 A m e r i c A n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t Margaret Mead was in Britain on an important wartime mission: her task was to study the interactions between American servicemen and local residents. In the monograph she published describing the experience Mead uncovered an important cultural difference between the two societies, a source of continual misunderstanding and conflict: e nglish girls didn’t know how to date! When it came to dating, a practice that Mead argued American boys and girls began “in the early teens, long before they are emotionally mature enough to be interested in each other for anything really connected with sex,” young e nglish people didn’t have a clue. Why was there this difference? Mead concluded that British society was more sex segregated than the United States. In fact, she opined, British boys didn’t really enjoy the company of girls, and “if they just want to spend a pleasant evening, more often they spend it with other boys.”

Besides his hospital appointments during World War I, Osler helped educate the public and the military about the dangers of disease in wartime. In this pamphlet, taken from one of his addresses to British troops, he talked about the perils of dysentery, pneumonia, and typhoid fever (enteric), and urged his listeners to get vaccinated against typhoid.

Professor Dobroslavin A.P.--the founder of scientific military hygiene in Russia, pioneer of hygiene preparedness of military physicians. His "Course of military hygiene"--is the first Russian edition on this topic.

There was exposed in brief the history of "The 1321" Center of state sanitation-and-epidemiological control of Privolzhsky-Ural military region". Nowadays it's a profile institute, where high-qualified and low-grade physicians are working. The Center successfully solves the tasks of securing of sanitarium-epidemiological well-being of regional troops, realizes a grand volume of education-methodical, science-practical and info-analyzing work.

military during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Historians have written extensively on this subject, beginning with the Contagious Diseases Acts, which was intended to protect the fighting power of the British military forces during the late nineteenth century, and ending with what Lucy Bland has called the "militarization" of venereal disease in the mid-1980s.' Because the control of women, particularly prostitutes, was an obvious and visible part of gender bias in the military campaign, it has drawn attention from historians in New Zealand and other countries.2 We have learned a lot

In the history of the intersections between war, gender, and sexuality, historians have debated the degree to which the age of total war represented a step toward "remasculinization," a process by which traditional constructions of masculinity are bolstered and strongly redefined as a reaction to a breakdown of hegemonic conceptions of masculinity. In German society the First World War led to particularly intense debates over whether or not combat had been essentially healthy or destructive for the male psyche and body. On the brink of 1914 doctors and critics anticipated that the war would reinvigorate men weakened by decades of peace and the accelerated pace of modernity. The brutality and stress of modern warfare, however, seriously tested traditional gender norms and boundaries. The postwar milieu was wrenched by cultural debates over the social effects of the war, intensified by the political divisions in the wake of defeat and revolution. Conflicts over the rise of the "new woman" and debates over the memory of the war as something either horrifying or laudable culminated with the Nazi seizure of power. The Nazi state aimed unprecedented violence against men and women who failed to conform to the regime's social and sexual ideals. Through remilitarization and war Nazi ideologues hoped to counter allegedly degenerative behaviors like homosexuality and restore the health of the male body and psyche.

THE FIRST AMERICAN TROOPS CAME to Northern Irish shores on 26 January 1942. Their numbers peaked at 120,000 in December 1943, which represented the equivalent of one tenth of the total population before the start of World War II and, in some areas, even more.' Troops were stationed all over Northern Ireland. The U.S. Air Force was based at Langford Lodge on the shore of Lough Neagh, with airbases across the province, including at Toome, Greencastle near Kilkeel, and Maghabery. Londonderry served as naval headquarters and was the main U.S. communications base in Europe during the war as well as being the largest convoy escort base in the U.K. Finally, the army was stationed all over Northern Ireland, often in rural areas.2 The arrival of these troops was code-named Operation MAGNET.3 The stationing of U.S. troops around the world during the Second World War and their subsequent interactions with the local public has generated much scholarly discussion.4 The involvement of women in both Britain and

Contrary to stereotypes that represent it primarily as an expression of machismo or romantic chivalry, military honour in early modern England was professional, moral, utilitarian, and a force for social stability. It was pragmatic as well as idealistic. It shared attributes of civilian honour but also comprehended rules and obligations specific to soldiers. Professional honour required that the soldier should know and observe the codes and practices of his métier. To do so satisfied his internal sense of personal integrity and brought external reputation. Honour also had a broader social value. Mutuality and utility marked its operation in the English civil war. This mutuality safeguarded practices both sides found useful, such as prisoner exchanges, for the honour of each side was engaged in observance of the relevant rules. The survival of a bipartisan soldiers' honour ameliorated relations between enemies. It helped to prevent irrevocable social divisions, to sustain social order, and to enable previously warring Englishmen to live together with tolerable equanimity.