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Although Palaeolithic bone retouchers have been the object of both specific and large-scale studies in recent years (work of Auguste, Mallye, Hutson and their collaborators), the percussive stone tools used for knapping actions have only been analyzed from a partial and limited perspective. However, the characterization of the latter as tools for developing knapping techniques in different Prehistoric periods, and more specifically in the Middle Palaeolithic, is crucial. Percussive stone tools are analyzed here according to the physical features (measures, weight and raw material) of the selected blanks (usually cobbles and pebbles) and the percussive action modes recorded on them, as observed in the macroscopic use-wear traces and their location on the tools' surfaces (referred here as "active zone of percussion" [ZAP]). The direction of use is inferred from these two parameters. Our study is based on the analysis of 12 Middle Palaeolithic assemblages from the Iberian Peninsula. These assemblages are located in sites with different geographical and geological contexts, showing different types of occupational and technological contexts, and comprising different chrono-cultural periods. This exhaustive analysis, including up to 202 percussive tools gathered in a wide geographic and chronological framework, has allowed us to define the factors involved in tool selection, and especially the patterns of use related to technological choices regardless of other factors, such as the lithological context. Our results show that the type of occupation and the knapping technical system were the most determinant factors in the selection and use of percussive stone tools during the Iberian Middle Palaeolithic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigations of organic lithic micro-residues have, over the last decade, shifted from entirely morphological observations using visible-light microscopy to compositional ones using scanning electron microscopy and Fourier-transform infrared microspectroscopy, providing a seemingly objective chemical basis for residue identifications. Contamination, though, remains a problem that can affect these results. Modern contaminants, accumulated during the post-excavation lives of artifacts, are pervasive, subtle, and even "invisible" (unlisted ingredients in common lab products). Ancient contamination is a second issue. The aim of residue analysis is to recognize residues related to use, but other types of residues can also accumulate on artifacts. Caves are subject to various taphonomic forces and organic inputs, and use-related residues can degrade into secondary compounds. This organic "background noise" must be taken into consideration. Here we show that residue contamination is more pervasive than is often appreciated, as revealed by our studies of Middle Palaeolithic artifacts from two sites: Lusakert Cave 1 in Armenia and Crvena Stijena in Montenegro. First, we explain how artifacts from Lusakert Cave 1, despite being handled following specialized protocols, were tainted by a modern-day contaminant from an unanticipated source: a release agent used inside the zip-top bags that are ubiquitous in the field and lab. Second, we document that, when non-artifact "controls" are studied alongside artifacts from Crvena Stijena, comparisons reveal that organic residues are adhered to both, indicating that they are prevalent throughout the sediments and not necessarily related to use. We provide suggestions for reducing contamination and increasing the reliability of residue studies. Ultimately, we propose that archaeologists working in the field of residue studies must start with the null hypothesis that miniscule organic residues reflect contamination, either ancient or modern, and systematically proceed to rule out all possible contaminants before interpreting them as evidence of an artifact's use in the distant past. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose a predator–prey model to explain diachronic changes in Palaeolithic diet breadth. The fraction of rapidly-reproducing hard-to-catch hares and birds among small animals in the hominin diet shows a significant increase between the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic in the Levant, with an associated decrease in slowly-reproducing easily-caught tortoises. Our model interprets this fraction in terms of foraging effort allocated to, and foraging efficiency for each of these two classes of resource, in addition to their abundances. We focus on evolutionary adjustments in the allocation of foraging effort. The convergence stable strategy (CSS) of foraging effort and the dietary fraction of hares/birds are both highly sensitive to variation in the foraging efficiencies, which may have been upgraded by advanced technology introduced from Africa or developed locally. A positive correlation (not necessarily a cause and effect relationship) is observed between this fraction and forager population when the foraging efficiency for hares/birds is varied. Overexploitation can however result in a reduction of both diet breadth and forager population, as can food sharing within the forager group. Food sharing is routine among recent (and perhaps also Palaeolithic) foragers. We speculate that some controversial issues regarding this public goods problem might be resolved if we could incorporate sexual selection into our model. • We propose a predator–prey model to explain changes in Palaeolithic diet breadth. • We interpret the diachronic increase in fraction of hares/birds among small animals. • Diet breadth so specified is predicted to correlate with forager population. • Technology advance may initially expand but eventually reduce diet breadth. • Food sharing will reduce both forager population and diet breadth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Western Tian Shan piedmont, due to its high mountainous nature, is an exceptionally difficult area in which to conduct systematic surface research. In response to the specificities of the landscape, we decided to attempt to use predictive modelling to select sites with the greatest potential for the occurrence and preservation of Pleistocene layers and Palaeolithic sites. The aim of the project was to determine to what extent the high‐mountain areas of the Tian Shan piedmont were penetrated and inhabited by Palaeolithic humans. On the basis of the devised model, areas were selected for further prospecting in the field, which allowed the search area to be narrowed by a factor of five. In the course of surveying carried out on the selected areas, it was possible to locate nine new Palaeolithic sites and 18 settlement spots within one season, significantly increasing the number of known open‐air sites in the region. The results presented show the usefulness of this method, revealing the potential for its application in other similar areas, but also indicate the intensity of, in particular, Middle Palaeolithic or Middle/Upper Palaeolithic transitional settlement in the high‐mountain regions of Central Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple factors have been proposed to explain the disappearance of Neandertals between ca. 50 and 40 kyr BP. Central to these discussions has been the identification of new techno-cultural complexes that overlap with the period of Neandertal demise in Europe. One such complex is the Châtelperronian, which extends from the Paris Basin to the Northern Iberian Peninsula between 43,760–39,220 BP. In this study we present the first open-air Châtelperronian site in the Northern Iberian Peninsula, Aranbaltza II. The technological features of its stone tool assemblage show no links with previous Middle Paleolithic technology in the region, and chronological modeling reveals a gap between the latest Middle Paleolithic and the Châtelperronian in this area. We interpret this as evidence of local Neandertal extinction and replacement by other Neandertal groups coming from southern France, illustrating how local extinction episodes could have played a role in the process of disappearance of Neandertals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Variations in the cross-sectional properties of long bones are used to reconstruct the activity of human groups and differences in their respective habitual behaviors. Knowledge of what factors influence bone structure in Homo sapiens and Neandertals is still insufficient thus, this study investigated which biological and environmental variables influence variations in the femoral robusticity indicator of these two species. The sample consisted of 13 adult Neandertals from the Middle Paleolithic and 1959 adult individuals of H. sapiens ranging chronologically from the Upper Paleolithic to recent times. The femoral biomechanical properties were derived from the European data set, the subject literature, and new CT scans. The material was tested using a Mantel test and statistical models. In the models, the polar moment of area (J) was the dependent variable; sex, age, chronological period, type of lifestyle, percentage of the cortical area (%CA), the ratio of second moment areas of inertia about the X and Y axes (Ix/Iy), and maximum slope of the terrain were independent covariates. The Mantel tests revealed spatial autocorrelation of the femoral index in H. sapiens but not in Neandertals. A generalized additive mixed model showed that sex, %CA, Ix/Iy, chronological period, and terrain significantly influenced variation in the robusticity indicator of H. sapiens femora. A linear mixed model revealed that none of the analyzed variables correlated with the femoral robusticity indicator of Neandertals. We did not confirm that the gradual decline in the femoral robusticity indicator of H. sapiens from the Middle Paleolithic to recent times is related to the type of lifestyle; however, it may be associated with lower levels of mechanical loading during adolescence. The lack of correlation between the analysed variables and the indicator of femoral robusticity in Neandertals may suggest that they needed a different level of mechanical stimulus to produce a morphological response in the long bone than H. sapiens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine Isotopic Stage 5 is associated with wetter climatic conditions in the Saharo-Arabian deserts. This stage also corresponds to the establishment of Middle Paleolithic hominins and their associated material culture in two geographical provinces in southwest Asia—the Eastern Mediterranean woodland and the Arabian Peninsula desert. The lithic industry of the Eastern Mediterranean is characterized by the centripetal Levallois method, whereas the Nubian Levallois method characterizes the populations of the Arabian desert. The Negev Desert, situated between these regions is a key area to comprehend population movement in correlation to climatic zones. This investigation addresses the nature of the Middle Paleolithic settlement in the Negev Desert during MIS 5 by studying the site of Nahal Aqev. High resolution chronological results based on luminescence dating and cryptotephra show the site was occupied from MIS 5e to MIS 5d. The lithic industries at Nahal Aqev are dominated by centripetal Levallois core method. These data demonstrate that Nahal Aqev is much closer in its cultural attributes to the Eastern Mediterranean Middle Paleolithic than to the Arabian Desert entity. We conclude that Nahal Aqev represents an expansion of Middle Paleolithic groups from the Mediterranean woodland into the desert, triggered by better climatic conditions. These groups possibly interacted with hominin groups bearing the Nubian core tradition from the vast region of Arabia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a list of >100 publicly known late Quaternary proboscidean sites that have certain or possible traces of hominin utilization in Africa, Europe, and Asia, along with a sample of references, chronometric or estimated ages, and brief descriptions of the associated materials and bone modifications. Summary discussions of important sites are also presented. Lower Palaeolithic/Early Stone Age hominins created far fewer proboscidean site assemblages than hominins in later Palaeolithic phases, in spite of the time span being many times longer. Middle Palaeolithic/Middle Stone Age hominins created assemblages at eight times the earlier hominin rate. Upper Palaeolithic/Later Stone Age hominins created site assemblages at >90 times the rate of Lower Palaeolithic hominins. Palaeoloxodon spp. occur in nearly one third of the sites with an identified or probable proboscidean taxon and Mammuthus species are in nearly one half of the sites with identified or probable taxon. Other identified proboscidean genera, such as Elephas, Loxodonta, and Stegodon, occur in few sites. The sites show variability in the intensity of carcass utilization, the quantity of lithics bedded with bones, the extent of bone surface modifications, such as cut marks, the diversity of associated fauna, and mortality profiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lateral Gallery 1 (GL1) in Cova del Gegant is a Middle Palaeolithic assemblage yielding diagnostic Neanderthal remains, together with Mousterian tools and faunal remains. It is a good archive for evaluating the environmental conditions of the coastal areas during MIS 4 and MIS 3 in the NE of the Iberian Peninsula, and also the Neanderthals' behaviour and mobility. Here we provide a comprehensive assessment of all of the data available from GL1, such as lithics, human remains, fauna and chronostratigraphic details. The biotic ecofacts studied point to the development of a coastal plain in front of the cave and indicate that local conditions likely favoured a large variety of ecosystems characterised by open environments and woodland-edge taxa, and favoured repeated visits by humans during the Middle Palaeolithic. The evidence suggests that the gallery was mainly used by carnivores, such as hyenas, and also by Neanderthals as a brief stopping place, in view of the presence of transported and abandoned ergonomic lithic artifacts and/or the placement of bodies (or parts of bodies). The regional context suggests high human mobility and emphasises the variability of Neanderthal behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Is it possible that the origin of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection was around 70,000 years before the common era? At that time Homo sapiens was just another primate species with discrete growth and a very low-density geographic occupation. Therefore, it is difficult to understand the origin of a highly virulent obligate human pathogen. We have designed a new SEIR model (TBSpectr) that allows the differentiation of smear-positive and -negative tuberculosis. The model reconciles currently accepted growth rates for the Middle Paleolithic (0.003%/year) and Neolithic (0.1%/year). The obtained data link the origin of Mtb infection in the Middle Paleolithic to the induction of smear-negative TB, and reveal that its persistence required interrelations among hunter–gatherer groups, while the risk of human extinction was negligible. It also highlights the number of people infected per case and the fast progression to disease for Mtb infection maintenance, as well as the link between poor health in the Neolithic with the increased incidence of more severe forms of TB (smear-positive). In conclusion, our data support the origin of TB as a well-tolerated, highly persistent disease, even in low-density populations, showing the difficulty of its eradication and highlighting the necessity for providing better health conditions to humans to reduce its severity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research in the southern Central Balkans has resulted in the discovery of the first Middle Paleolithic sites in this region. Systematic excavations of Velika and Mala Balanica, and Pešturina (southern Serbia) revealed assemblages of Middle Paleolithic artifacts associated with hominin fossils and animal bones. This paper focuses on Pešturina Layer 4, radiometrically and biostratigraphically dated to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5, which yielded traces of temporary hunting camps. The remains of large ungulate prey are associated with predominantly Quina-type artifacts made of quartz. Artifacts from Pešturina Cave have no parallels at Mousterian sites in the Balkans but are rather similar to the Central European Charentian, which demonstrates that this cultural unit was widespread during MIS 5, not only in the southern Pannonian Basin but also in the Central Balkans. The position of the site – on the outskirts of the known spread of the Quina model of techno-economic behavior during MIS 5 – raises several questions related to population movements, residential mobility, and technological variability in the early Middle Paleolithic of Central and Southeast Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The preventive archaeological excavation of the Bois de l'Hôpital site (Saint-Sulpice-la-Pointe, Tarn, France), between November 2015 and April 2016 (Bernard-Guelle et al. 2016), uncovered several archaeological layers dating back to the Upper Pleistocene set in an unprecedented/original context for the Tarn's lower valley's Middle Paleolithic. The main level (archeological unit UA3) displays a lithic industry mainly manufactured on quartz, sometimes quartzite or flint, related to a Mousterian technological complex. The product of anvil discoid and Levallois debitage technique, the tools made from flakes (mostly scrapers and denticulates) coexist with pebble tools. Rarely the subject of a detailed study - particularly in Mousterian collections - the pebble tools' operating chain (chaîne opératoire) has been described, functional purposes included. This technological, morphological and functional analysis identifies several tool groups and is able to link some of them to specific mode of action on material, comparing them with an experimental data repository. The study of the macro-tools from archaeological unit UA3 emphasizes: 1) their high proportion among the tools; 2) an important structural variety among those specific tools; and that 3) most of them are consistent with a cast percussion motion, possibly related to bone-fracturing process. These results prompt us to continue developing the technological and morphological analysis of those tools, whose inherited or reinvested (compared to Lower Paleolithic technological complexes) or alleged functions seem to result in a lack of interest from the researchers. They call for the collection of more experimental data repositories in order to compare other quartz and quartzite macro-tools sets, often described in the Tarn basin during MIS5 and MIS3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Samples of bone and teeth from the Middle Paleolithic open-air site of Rozhok I, located on the Gulf of Taganrog, were dated by radiocarbon (14C). We obtained 26 accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dates on a large sample of nonhuman bone and teeth recovered by N. D. Praslov during 1961–1962 from 5 of the 6 occupation horizons at Rozhok I. Two rigorous pretreatment methods were applied to the samples: ultra-filtration and XAD resin. The 14C ages from the uppermost two layers (Horizons 1 and 2) are infinite with the exception of one age near the limit of the 14C method. By contrast, the dates from Horizon 3 and the two lowermost layers (Horizons 5 and 6) are all finite ages and some are less than 45,000 BP (uncalibrated). While there is evidence of some post-depositional disturbance, there is no evidence of a stratigraphic reversal of the cultural layers. The simplest explanation for the pattern is that bones and teeth in the lower layers have been contaminated by groundwater containing young carbon. We conclude that Rozhok I probably antedates 50,000 cal BP and is beyond the range of 14C dating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition, between 50 000 and 40 000 years ago, is a period of important ecological and cultural changes. In this framework, the Rock Shelter of Uluzzo C (Apulia, southern Italy) represents an important site due to Late Mousterian and Uluzzian evidence preserved in its stratigraphic sequence. Here, we present the results of a multidisciplinary analysis performed on the materials collected between 2016 and 2018 from the Uluzzian stratigraphic units (SUs) 3, 15 and 17. The analysis involved lithic technology, use‐wear, zooarchaeology, ancient DNA of sediments and palaeoproteomics, completed by quartz single‐grain optically stimulated luminescence dating of the cave sediments. The lithic assemblage is characterized by a volumetric production and a debitage with no or little management of the convexities (by using the bipolar technique), with the objective to produce bladelets and flakelets. The zooarchaeological study found evidence of butchery activity and of the possible exploitation of marine resources, while drawing a picture of a patchy landscape, composed of open forests and dry open environments surrounding the shelter. Ancient mitochondrial DNA from two mammalian taxa were recovered from the sediments. Preliminary zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry results are consistent with ancient DNA and zooarchaeological taxonomic information, while further palaeoproteomics investigations are ongoing. Our new data from the re‐discovery of the Uluzzo C Rock Shelter represent an important contribution to better understand the meaning of the Uluzzian in the context of the Middle/Upper Palaeolithic transition in south‐eastern Italy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims to delve into the reality of glacial refuges of forests and tree species (including conifers, mesothermophilous angiosperms and xerothermic scrub) during the cold dry phases of the Iberian Pleistocene in which there is evidence of occupation of Middle Palaeolithic people. The research framework focuses on the eastern sector of the Iberian Peninsula due to the physiographic, palaeobotanical and archaeological peculiarities, substantiated by recent studies. We contend that some Neanderthal occupations developed in the context of high geobiological complexity, high biological diversity and highly structured forest ecosystems. We highlight the importance of glacial refuges as local anomalies that, however, would be contingent on vegetational development, and on the survival of Palaeolithic groups in areas with a broad diversity of natural resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in the Balkan, Italian and Iberian peninsulas of southern Europe, late Neanderthal and early Anatomically Modern Human (AMH) populations may have overlapped in some capacity. Many of the hypotheses and models for the transition interval suggest that Neanderthal populations remained in, or migrated to, refugial zones while AMHs colonized areas not suitable for, or abandoned by, Neanderthals. However, many hypotheses and models have not been conclusively tested due to general issues impeding a clear understanding of the relevant archeological record and because of a lack of specificity in defining and applying the term 'refugium'. This paper briefly summarizes what is known about the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in southern European Peninsulas and discusses some new directions in the use of refugium concepts in the study of Neanderthal extinction and AMH dispersal. We highlight the complexity of the archeological record in each region and in the studies of refugia more generally. Finally, we make an appeal for generating local, multi‐proxy paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic records to address these complexities so that hypotheses and models integrating refugial concepts in explanations of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition can be properly formulated and tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Porto Selvaggio in southern Italy is where the Uluzzian culture was first identified and documented, providing key insights into the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic. The area has also yielded evidence for continuous occupations by Neanderthals spanning between Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 and 3. Situated in the Natural Regional Park of Porto Selvaggio, different sites were excavated by Borzatti von Löwenstern in the 1960 and 1970s. As one of the initiatives in the research program of the Museo della Preistoria di Nardò, we have revisited the artifact assemblages from these caves. Based on the lithic analysis of production sequences, we document the development of Levallois and laminar methods before MIS 3 when this form of reduction sequence presumably dominated in the region according to the previous research. The review of the lithic assemblages is combined with the contextualization of chronostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental study in the region to consider the possible role that this region had for Neanderthals during unfavorable climatic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation to Late Pleistocene climate change is an oft‐cited potential contributor to Neanderthal disappearance in Eurasia. Accordingly, research on Neanderthal behaviour – including subsistence strategies, mobility, lithic technology, raw material procurement and demography – often focuses on linking changes observable in the archaeological record to specific phases of climate and environmental change. However, these correspondences are often tenuous because palaeoclimatic and archaeological records are rarely available on the same scale. In Iberia, a critical location for understanding the demise of Neanderthals, some research indicates that Neanderthal populations were unable to recover from environmental degradations known as Heinrich Events, while other studies suggest that enclaves of Neanderthal populations survived for several millennia longer in refugial zones. Here, we present a palaeoenvironmental reconstruction study using analysis of δ13C and δ18O of herbivore tooth enamel recovered from two Mousterian deposits at Lapa do Picareiro, a site located in Portuguese Estremadura. We then use these data, combined with other site‐based palaeoenvironmental indicators, to assess whether central Portugal acted as a refugium during periods of unfavourable climate, and to test whether Neanderthals in Portuguese Estremadura reorganised their mobility strategies after severe climate episodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has long been proposed that during Pleistocene climatic perturbations the Balkan peninsula sustained refugial areas for fauna, flora, and potentially, hominins. In this study, we explore Middle Palaeolithic subsistence at the peninsula's southern end, Greece, and discuss how the evidence contributes to our understanding of the region's character as a refugium. We present new data from the recent reanalysis of the fauna from Asprochaliko rockshelter and the ongoing zooarchaeological investigations at Lakonis Cave 1 and compare them with published analyses from Klissoura Cave 1. We employ taxonomic abundance and diversity indices, as well as mortality profiles, to investigate hominin prey choice. Additional taphonomic observations provide further information on carcass exploitation. We examine changes in the faunal composition of the three sites in an attempt to identify the extent to which climate might have influenced resource availability and diversity in the region, stimulating resource intensification or diversification processes. Our results suggest that Middle Palaeolithic hominins consistently acquired high‐ranked prey through time. However, interregional differences in resource exploitation indicate that local topography and microclimate mediated prey choice and availability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents evidence about the Middle Palaeolithic and Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition interval in the karst area of the Danube Gorges in the Lower Danube Basin. We review the extant data and present new evidence from two recently investigated sites found on the Serbian side of the Danube River – Tabula Traiana and Dubočka‐Kozja caves. The two sites have yielded layers dating to both the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic and have been investigated by the application of modern standards of excavation and recovery along with a suite of state‐of‐the‐art analytical procedures. The presentation focuses on micromorphological analyses of the caves' sediments, characterisation of cryptotephra, a suite of new radiometric dates (accelerator mass spectrometry and optically stimulated luminescence) as well as proteomics (zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry) and stable isotope data in discerning patterns of human occupation of these locales over the long term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents palaeoecological reconstructions and late Neanderthal responses to environmental conditions in two different palaeoecological zones (continental south‐central Europe and the eastern Adriatic) during MIS 3. Our interpretations are based on the available records of climatic conditions, characteristics of Mousterian industries and site characteristics. A variety of data obtained by different methods of analyses (sediments and biological remains) were used for palaeoecological reconstructions, while hominin behaviour was examined from various perspectives based on lithic remains (technology, typology, raw material use), subsistence strategies, land use and site structures. In both regions, Neanderthals practised a broad exploitation of different faunal and lithic resources available to them and successfully adapted to local environments. Based on a variety of evidence, we offer a new synthesis and examine whether continental south‐central Europe and the Adriatic really acted as refugia during the time of late Neanderthal occupations. We also consider the possible causes and/or timing of Neanderthal disappearance in these regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The word 'refugium' is often used to describe patterns of human settlement during various parts of the Palaeolithic. While, classically, a refugium is a location which supports an isolated population of a once more widespread species, some have argued that discrepancies in how this term is used have led to methodological confusion and a weakening of its meaning. Differences in the spatial and temporal scales of how refugia are defined, as well as in the specifics of how they operate, mean that many so‐called refugia serve different biological functions and have different implications for long‐term species survival (Ashcroft, 2010). In this article, I review four questions that may shape individual refugia. I then use the late Middle Palaeolithic record of peninsular southern Europe to explore how attention to these questions may help to advance Middle–Upper Palaeolithic research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the last interglacial [Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5e] Europe was affected by several harsh climatic oscillations. In this context southern Italy acted, like the rest of peninsular Mediterranean Europe, as a 'glacial refugium', allowing the survival of various species, and was involved in the spread of 'cold taxa' (e.g. woolly mammoth and woolly rhino) only during the coldest phases (MIS 4 and MIS 2). Both late Mousterian and early Upper Palaeolithic sites testify to a human occupation continuity in southern Italy and especially in Apulia in this time span. Here we present a focus on three key Apulian Palaeolithic sequences (Grotta di Santa Croce, Riparo L'Oscurusciuto and Grotta del Cavallo – layers F‐E) jointly spanning from the late MIS 4 to the demise of Neanderthals around 43 ka. Novel chronological, sedimentological and zooarchaeological data are discussed for the first time in the light of the palaeoenvironmental information provided by recent analyses carried out on a speleothem from Pozzo Cucù cave (Bari) and the results of the magnetic susceptibility analysis from Riparo L'Oscurusciuto. This integrated reading allows a better understanding of the role played by the Apulian region as both a refugium for late Neaderthals and a suitable habitat for the early settling of modern humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently available data on the Pleistocene human occupation of the westernmost territories of Iberia attest to the presence of Middle Palaeolithic industries from c. 240 ka cal bp until c. 37 ka cal bp. Previous studies focusing on this time frame have suggested that Middle Palaeolithic populations were highly mobile and predominately utilised locally available raw materials, with many cave and open‐air sites being located near fluvial settings. Other than these observations, no specific studies have focused on exploring the factors influencing human site location choice during that time range. Employing statistical and GIS approaches, this paper provides an initial assessment of spatial patterning in human settlement during the Middle Palaeolithic of westernmost Iberia. Results show that site locations are biased towards lower elevations and riverine settings and suggest that distance to rivers might have impacted the diversity and specific types of lithic raw materials used at each site. These results help to shed light on the particularities of Neanderthal adaptations in a region regarded as a refugium during periods of unfavourable climate during the Middle Palaeolithic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The history of the idea of Neanderthal/Mousterian refugia on the Iberian Peninsula over the past three decades is reviewed. Despite the recent re‐datings of several key sites that have cast doubt on late survivals, it continues to seem to be the case that Aurignacian (sensu lato) industries appeared relatively early in northern Spain, but not in southern Spain or Portugal. Although arguments for extremely late survival in Gibraltar are questioned, new information from sites in Murcia and a more conservative reading of the Gorham's Cave record seem to support the thesis of late Middle Paleolithic survival and late early Upper Paleolithic arrival in the south. Major problems continue to be the lack of either Neanderthal or Cro‐Magnon human remains of late Middle Paleolithic or early Upper Paleolithic age in Iberia and the ambiguity of the Châtelperronian record in northern Spain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neanderthals and modern humans from the Early Upper Palaeolithic had a highly developed knowledge of their environment, where they found the essential resources for their subsistence. Therefore, changes in the local landscape and available resources should have influenced their behaviour, as indicated by faunal and plant remains recovered from archaeological sites. In the central‐eastern Iberian Mediterranean region, the archaeological sites of Cova Negra, Abrigo de la Quebrada, Cova de les Malladetes and Cova de les Cendres have provided wood charcoal, seeds and fauna. The combination of these data allows an accurate reconstruction of the regional landscape from MIS 5 to the beginning of MIS 2. The available evidence suggests that this region could be defined as a refugium in which biodiversity persisted. This type of refugium, containing a high diversity of biotopes and some endemic species, which has lasted until the present day, can be seen at a regional scale, but also locally, especially near the coast. These special characteristics of the region – relatively stable climatic conditions with oscillations mainly in aridity and humidity, and a high diversity of flora and fauna – could explain the high density of Palaeolithic sites throughout Middle and Upper Palaeolithic here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of the late Levantine Middle Palaeolithic record, which is characterised by a wide range of Levallois strategies[29]-[31], a more detailed presentation of the data and specific attributes is required to assess the presence of Nubian technology as distinct from other Levallois methods at Shukbah. In the absence of direct refits, Usik et al. do not consider Nubian points to be distinguishable from the end-products of centripetal Levallois reduction; they observe only that "the Nubian Levallois method is based on the production of elongated Levallois points or pointed flakes"[20]. No convincing data are presented to justify the identification of Nubian Levallois artefacts Nubian Levallois technology is regarded as a distinct method of Levallois reduction; Levallois cores with distal and lateral preparation are not necessarily Nubian cores and can equally be attributed to the Levallois bidirectional and centripetal modes of core preparation[17]-[19]. Given that the analysed artefacts are not shown to fulfil the criteria for Nubian Levallois technology and instead represent other Levallois methods, the conclusion that "Nubian Levallois reduction strategies form part of a wider Levallois point production strategies, rather than a discrete technological approach" [ref.[1] SI7: 20] is contained in the methodological premises and, thus, inevitable. [Extracted from the article]

As a result, the use of Nubian Levallois technology by other populations that employ Levallois reduction methods and focus on the production of points is, perhaps, unsurprising. Increasing sample sizes within and between sites will undoubtedly enhance precision of comparative studies, yet our results provide the means to test key hypotheses - whether Nubian Levallois is discrete from other Levallois technologies. Conclusion Amongst the plurality of definitions of Nubian Levallois technology in the literature, the basis upon which Usik and colleagues[11] determined the criteria they set out is opaque, prohibiting clear differentiation from other Levallois methods. This remarkable absence of comparative studies prohibits acceptance that Nubian Levallois technology is inherently discrete from other Levallois methods. [Extracted from the article]

The use of birch tar can be traced back to the European Middle Palaeolithic and is relevant for our understanding of the technical skills and cognitive abilities of Neanderthals. Due to the lack of archaeological evidence, it remains unknown what techniques were used for birch tar making. Efficiency was recently used as a proxy to determine the method most likely used in the Middle Palaeolithic. Todtenhaupt et al. have proposed a technique employing a groove-like structure that is comparable with the recently presented condensation method. The groove method resulted in higher tar yields compared to other experimental aceramic production processes. However, the implications for Palaeolithic tar making remain unclear because some of the materials used in the experiment were not available then (polished granite slabs). To approach this problem, we replicated the groove with river cobbles and, in a second experiment with flint fragments, to evaluate whether similar results can be obtained. We were successful in producing birch tar in multiple runs with the cobble- and flint-grooves, which, in addition, proved to be more efficient than the condensation method in terms of tar yield per bark input. Our experimental study provides an additional possibility to make prehistoric birch tar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resnik is the first underwater Paleolithic site in Croatia to be systematically investigated. The site is located in the Kaštela Bay in central Dalmatia which, like the rest of the Adriatic Basin, has undergone geomorphological changes caused, among other factors, by marine transgression. Sea level rise at the Pleistocene to Holocene transition destructively affected the Pleistocene strata and caused the submergence of the site. The lithic finds are typologically placed in the Mousterian culture, with the exception of a few finds belonging to the Upper Paleolithic. The paper presents the results of technological and typological analysis of findings collected by I. Svilan in Kaštela Bay and, for the first time, raw material analysis of lithic finds from systematic research but also from the collection of I. Svilan, which confirm that Neanderthals occupied Kaštela Bay during the Middle Paleolithic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Große Grotte is one of the few Middle Paleolithic sites in the Swabian Jura where it is possible to perform intraspatial analyses based on stratigraphic, chorological and chronological observations. In this paper, the spatial use of the site is discussed. This is of great importance both for the interpretation of the site use and for the understanding of the settlement system in general. The settlement remains in Große Grotte were distributed in individual concentrations within the ten Middle Paleolithic layers and were also not found diachronically at the same spot. The settlement shifted successively over time towards the northern cave wall. The layers were deposited during the time span between MIS 5 and 3. Regarding the stone artifacts of the respective layers, a diachronic increase in complexity and diversity is evident. Due to the location of the cave within the landscape, the site can be considered primarily as a base for observing the migration of animal herds. The site was not usable all year because of hibernating cave bears, indicating seasonal use of the location by humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is dedicated to the Paleolithic open-air site of Feldberg "Steinacker", located between the Rhine and the Black Forest near Freiburg/Breisgau in South-West Germany. The site was discovered by W. Mähling in 1969 and is primarily known for the presence of tanged points (Font-Robert type), as well as a possible connection via raw material transport to the cave sites of the Swabian Jura. However, stratigraphic context, site formation processes and site function remained unclear. In 2018, the Heritage Management of Baden-Wuerttemberg and the University of Rostock began the first scientific investigations at the site. It was possible to document a knapping area from the Gravettian, presumably in situ. The excavations also revealed a Middle Paleolithic occupation, making "Steinacker" for the moment the only open-air site in South-West Germany where a stratification of Middle to Upper Paleolithic is present. The investigations were accompanied by additional analyses related to site-formation processes and artefact morphology. Geomagnetic and geoelectric prospection as well as sedimentological drilling revealed a complex paleo-relief that was very different from the current topography. Micromorphology and optically stimulated luminescence dating confirmed that the excavated archaeological stratigraphy was largely intact. Moreover, use-wear analysis showed that pieces with strong indications of frost alterations were possibly used on a regular basis at the site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, the body of evidence from Croatian sites contributing to the understanding of Middle Palaeolithic behaviours has been significant. However, the data has been biased towards cave sites. Until recently open-air sites have exclusively been identified on the basis of surface finds, which often raise questions regarding assemblage integrity. Rescue excavations in the Istrian peninsula have recently brought to light the open-air site of Campanož and a substantial amount of new data. The site is a large and densely packed lithic scatter found stratified between two horizons of typical Mediterranean terra rossa soil. Among the lithic finds there is a large presence of nodular chert fragments and a smaller proportion of classifiable chert artefacts, which have been recognized as Middle Palaeolithic based on both typological and technological characteristics. A preliminary analysis shows that the blank production methods are coherent at the site. There are few flaking methods in the sample, with most being related to different modes of discoid reduction. Middle Palaeolithic toolmakers repeatedly procured raw materials and produced blanks on-site. Evidence points to the production of small tools, and also indicates recycling of previously discarded artefacts. Although these data are preliminary, the evidence seems to suggest an expedient and flexible technology may have been present in the Middle Palaeolithic of the Northeastern Adriatic. Despite the limited data on age and site formation processes, the site represents a valuable source of information in our understanding of Middle Palaeolithic technological behaviour and land use in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Archivo de Prehistoria Levantina is the property of Museu de Prehistoria de Valencia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Archivo de Prehistoria Levantina is the property of Museu de Prehistoria de Valencia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Lithic industries from the region to the west of Krumlovský les and the Rokytná River canyon fuse the Middle Palaeolithic method of discoid and irregular cores with Levalloisian method and prismatic cores of Upper Palaeolithic character. In this area, the Levallois method appears in its entirely typical representation, both the classical Middle Palaeolithic and the late ("Bohunician") that has its analogies in the Near East. One of these sites, Jamolice I, otherwise shows a clearly Middle Palaeolithic character, although without bifacial forms and flat retouch. The other sites belong to the EUP but they differ from the assemblages with the Levallois-leptolithic method in the scarcity of cherts from Stránská skála. Hence a concept presents itself that this is where an autonomous region of EUP with the Levalloisian method occurs whose roots could be traced to the Middle Palaeolithic industry from Jamolice I. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Stratum Plus Journal is the property of P.P. Stratum plus and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Stratum Plus Journal is the property of P.P. Stratum plus and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Stratum Plus Journal is the property of P.P. Stratum plus and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Stratum Plus Journal is the property of P.P. Stratum plus and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Stratum Plus Journal is the property of P.P. Stratum plus and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Stratum Plus Journal is the property of P.P. Stratum plus and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Horashim East is a newly discovered Middle Palaeolithic open‐air occurrence in central Israel, revealed during a thematic prehistoric survey. Hundreds of lithic items were found, including an early‐stage biface, Levallois cores and products. As only a few open‐air settlements are known from the Middle Palaeolithic Levant, the discovery of Horashim East sheds new light on human land‐use patterns during this period and reinforces the notion that central‐eastern Israel was favourable for human settlement throughout the Palaeolithic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multidisciplinary investigations into Paleolithic sites make it possible to identify all the main stadials in the Late Pleistocene history of the North Caucasus, including Heinrich stadials 6 (ca. 63–60 kyr) and 5 (ca. 48–47 kyr) for the Middle Paleolithic. Most of the coolings correlate with volcanic events. The results of geochemical and microprobe research into the deposits and volcanic glasses from cave sites in the northwest and northern central Caucasus are published for the first time. On some multilayer sites, changes in lithic industries by the end of the Middle Paleolithic are revealed. The results of a genetic study of a Neanderthal individual from layer 2 of Mezmaiskaya Cave and several later Neanderthals from Europe showed that, by the end of the Middle Paleolithic, a large-scale genetic turnover of the Neanderthal population was likely to occur. The global cooling of Heinrich 4 was a frontier where the Middle Paleolithic industries vanished and evidence of the penetration of the Upper Paleolithic industries associated with Homo sapiens first emerged in the northwest Caucasus. These industries appear as a completely established cultural tradition. The migration of modern humans to the Caucasus from the Near East is confirmed by the results of studying obsidian transport. The Last Glacial Maximum is the main climatic event during the Upper Paleolithic era. Paleoclimate events of this period had a great impact on the human settlement of the Caucasus. After the Last Glacial Maximum, the Epi-Paleolithic culture of the Caucasus shows numerous innovations in technology. One important result of the interdisciplinary research of the Late Pleistocene sites in the North Caucasus is understanding the impact made by climatic stresses and coolings associated with intensification of volcanic activity on the ecological niches of the ancient population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

El Niño cave, located on the south-eastern border of the Spanish Meseta, hosts a discontinuous sequence including Middle Palaeolithic and Neolithic levels, along with Upper Palaeolithic and Levantine style paintings. It is a key site for understanding human occupations of inland Iberia during the Palaeolithic and early prehistory. This paper summarises the main results of a multidisciplinary project aimed at defining the prehistoric human occupations at the site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the flint assemblages that were excavated from the excavation sites at Kerem Maharal in Israel, particularly on various stratigraphic contents like fills inside caves, dark clay soil within U-shaped cupmarks and cavities in limestone exposures. Also cited are a tool kit dominated by microliths, notches and denticulates, and the Chalcolithic sherds.

This paper addresses ongoing work on the Palaeolithic archaeology of the Wainganga basin, Central India, focusing on investigating the nature of the occupation, technological changes, and transitions through time, with a view towards understanding Palaeolithic behaviour. Surveys conducted over an area of 19,696 sq. km in this region, led to the discovery of 30 sites of the Acheulian and Late Palaeolithic with sparse evidence, as yet of the Middle Palaeolithic. Acheulian sites are deeply stratified within regoliths, but owing to recent exposures, several sites could be investigated in detail. This paper addresses preliminary research at a few of the Acheulian sites in this region, establishing their stratigraphic context and lithic assemblage structure. The assemblages studied suggest deliberate choices in the selection of raw materials involving the transport of tools/flakes for more than 15 km to specific sites where they were used. This is reflected by the absence of giant cores and sparse waste products at several sites studied. There is a preference for cleavers and the use of Kombewa technologies. The paper discusses the technological aspects of the assemblages and the importance of studying micro-regions when investigating broader patterns of hominin behavioral changes in the South Asian Acheulian. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Prehistory, Paleolithic stone toolkits are allotted to distinct cultural phases, explained through a periodization that has been adopted as a strategic reference by specialists in lithic studies, based on: 1) the categorization of morpho-types observed in the assemblages; 2) the dominant manufacture technologies and 3) temporal categorizations based on geo-archeological data. Significant changes in toolkits are observed through time, signaling variations in extinct hominin behavioral configurations. They characterize the denominative classifications of the techno-complexes, presently defined under consensus. Applying the Homogeneity, Variability, Diversity, Multiplicity (HVDM) paradigm as a conceptual scheme for understanding the structural evolution of human technologies, we define the Multiplicity phase, exploring the techno-social consequences of changes materialized in the Late Acheulian of Western Europe, presaging the Middle Paleolithic world of the Neandertals and the arrival on the scene of our own species; Homo sapiens. During this period, in Western Europe, Homo heidelbergensis was undergoing biological transformations, which appear to have fused into a range of hominin forms, raising questions of intra-species contacts and cultural exchange on a backdrop of branching evolutionary configurations. Beyond handaxe production, this period is marked by significant social and behavioral revolutions: changes in landscape use, high population mobility and inter-connectivity, tool-type diversity, technological innovations, as well as the expansion of distinct hominin clades throughout the Old World. We examine the impulses for these changes, in particular, the prominent role played by the mastery of fire in revolutionizing human socialization processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iberia, a natural cul-de-sac peninsula, plays a major role in the study of the Neanderthals demise and its eventual relationship with the spread of Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH) in Europe. The site of Cova Eirós (Galicia, Spain), located in NW Iberia, contains Middle and Upper Palaeolithic levels, based on the cultural remains recovered at the site. No human remains directly associated with those levels were discovered yet. The available radiocarbon dates from the levels 2 (c. 35 ka cal BP, Early Upper Paleolithic) and 3 (c. 41 ka cal BP, Late Middle Paleolithic), point to a late survival of Neanderthal groups in North Iberia and to a relative quick arrival of the AMH, c. 35-36 ka cal BP, with respect to other territories of the Iberian Peninsula. The archaeological record shows clear differences between the Middle and the Upper Palaeolithic occupations, regarding raw-material acquisition, lithic technology and subsistence strategies. The location of Cova Eirós in the westernmost margin of the Cantabrian Rim and in the Atlantic Façade, makes this site a key place to understand the spread of the first AMH and the progressive demise of Neanderthal populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The region of western Georgia (Imereti) in the Southern Caucasus has been a major geographic corridor for human migrations during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic. Data of recent research and excavations in this region display its importance as a possible route for the dispersal of anatomically modern humans (AMH) into northern Eurasia. Nevertheless, within the local research context, bone-working and personal ornaments have yet contributed but little to the Upper Palaeolithic (UP) regional sequence's characterization. Here we present an archaeozoological, technological and use-wear study of pendants from two local UP assemblages, originating in the Dzudzuana Cave and Satsurblia Cave. The ornaments were made mostly of perforated teeth, though some specimens were made on bone. Both the manufacturing marks made during preparation and use-wear traces indicate that they were personal ornaments, used as pendants or attached to garments. Detailed comparison between ornament assemblages from northern and southern Caucasus reveal that they are quite similar, supporting the observation of cultural bonds between the two regions, demonstrated previously through lithic techno-typological affinities. Furthermore, our study highlights the importance attributed to red deer (Cervus elaphus) by the UP societies of the Caucasus in sharing aesthetic values and/or a symbolic sphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]