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Children's drawings of common object categories become dramatically more recognizable across childhood. What are the major factors that drive developmental changes in children's drawings? To what degree are children's drawings a product of their changing internal category representations versus limited by their visuomotor abilities or their ability to recall the relevant visual information? To explore these questions, we examined the degree to which developmental changes in drawing recognizability vary across different drawing tasks that vary in memory demands (i.e., drawing from verbal vs. picture cues) and with children's shape-tracing abilities across two geographical locations (San Jose, United States, and Beijing, China). We collected digital shape tracings and drawings of common object categories (e.g., cat, airplane) from 4- to 9-year-olds (N = 253). The developmental trajectory of drawing recognizability was remarkably similar when children were asked to draw from pictures versus verbal cues and across these two geographical locations. In addition, our Beijing sample produced more recognizable drawings but showed similar tracing abilities to children from San Jose. Overall, this work suggests that the developmental trajectory of children's drawings is remarkably consistent and not easily explainable by changes in visuomotor control or working memory; instead, changes in children's drawings over development may at least partly reflect changes in the internal representations of object categories.

Young children have informal knowledge of fractions before learning about fraction symbols in school. In the current study, we followed 103 children in the Mid-Atlantic United States from the fall to the spring of first grade to characterize the development of individual differences in early informal fraction knowledge, as well as its relation to other mathematical and cognitive skills. Most children in our sample showed some early fraction knowledge at the beginning of first grade, especially with nonsymbolic fractions and halving, and this knowledge improved over the school year without explicit instruction in fractions. However, there were large individual differences in early fraction knowledge at the start of first grade, which explained significant variance in math achievement at the end of first grade, even when controlling for whole number knowledge and a variety of cognitive skills. Start-of-year whole number knowledge, but not spatial scaling or proportional reasoning, also predicted early end-of-year fraction knowledge. These data can inform activities for learning in the early years to foster both early fraction and integer knowledge in parallel, which may better prepare students for later formal instruction in fractions.

Background: Previous research has examined the use of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) in English language teaching. However, to the best of our knowledge, none of the earlier studies that investigated integrating AR and VR "wearables" into teaching and learning English based on the attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction (ARCS) motivation model compared the differences in learning motivation and performance between traditional teaching methods and those using AR- and VR-based using wearables. Objectives: To create a thematic learning environment based on learners' lived experiences and provide them with an immersive English course that extends textbook knowledge using a technology-assisted real-life learning context. Method: This study used a quasi-experimental research design. A total of 119 participants were spilt into three learning groups based on teaching tools: traditional methods and AR- and VR-based wearable devices. The performance of each group was evaluated through three stages using appropriate educational tools for traditional, AR-, and VR-based classrooms, followed by semistructured interviews. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to investigate the inference learning performance (remembering and analysing) of the four ARCS dimensions with the three teaching methods. Results: The results showed that confidence and relevance were positively correlated with learning performance in the VR-based wearable group. In the context of the ARCS model, learners' confidence predicted learning performance and the remembering subdimension when VR-based learning materials were used. Implications: These results suggest that, compared to traditional teaching methods, VR-based wearables make it easier to create a highly immersive learning environment and are more likely to help learners find the correct words, improve their accuracy, and increase their confidence and sense of accomplishment in the entire learning process.

Background: Retrieval practice promotes retention of learned information more than restudying the information. However, benefits of multiple-choice testing over restudying in real-world educational contexts and the role of practically relevant moderators such as feedback and learners' ability to retrieve tested content from memory (i.e., retrievability) are still underexplored. Objective: The present research examines the benefits of multiple-choice questions with an experimental design that maximizes internal validity, while investigating the role of feedback and retrievability in an authentic educational setting of a university psychology course. Method: After course sessions, students answered multiple-choice questions or restudied course content and afterward could choose to revisit learning content and obtain feedback in a self-regulated way. Results: Participants on average obtained corrective feedback for 9% of practiced items when practicing course content. In the criterial test, practicing retrieval was not superior to reading summarizing statements in general but a testing effect emerged for questions that targeted information that participants could easily retrieve from memory. Conclusion: Feedback was rarely sought. However, even without feedback, participants profited from multiple-choice questions that targeted easily retrievable information.

Data reported from memory can be unreliable. A simple activity lets students experience this firsthand.

This article introduces collective rationality and comparative advantage into understanding household financial decision-making responsibility allocation and its relationship to wealth accumulation. Evidence from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) shows that conscientiousness, memory, and numeracy are favorable personal attributes for household financial decision-making. Greater relative advantages in these attributes predict a higher probability of assuming financial responsibility. Households that assign the disadvantaged spouse as the financial decision-maker tend to have a lower total net worth and a lower financial net worth. Our results suggest that it is critical for financial planning professionals to engage both spouses in the initial discussion of household finances and to assess the efficiency of the status quo financial decision-making responsibility allocation.

Despite extensive use of online language learning during the pandemic of COVID, there is insufficient research on what factors influence students' foreign language achievements in online learning conditions. This article investigated the roles of language aptitude and online self-regulated learning in foreign language achievement in mainland China. 76 freshmen from two classes at a university in Jiangxi participated in this study. They were required to complete an aptitude test of MLAT and a questionnaire on online self-regulated learning. The results showed that: (1) The students' language aptitude is at a relatively low level, and their online self-regulated learning is at an intermediate level; (2) A positive correlation is detected between language aptitude, online self-regulated learning, and their English achievements (r=0.621 & 0.583 respectively); (3) Language aptitude alone (grammatical sensitivity and associative memory ability) accounts for 38.9% variance in English achievement. Language aptitude and online self-regulated learning contributed 52.4% of the variance to their English achievements. Overall, the findings of the study confirm the high predictive power of the MLAT and predictions of the Linguistic Coding Deficit Hypothesis (LCDH) advocated by Sparks and colleagues. Pedagogical implications are also discussed.

This study aimed to explore Chinese students' application of Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) in learning English, to investigate differences in English language learning strategies among students at different levels of English proficiency, and to report their perception of English learning through a semi-structured interview in the cross-cultural context in Thailand. The study combined quantitative data of questionnaires completed by a survey group of 244 Chinese students at a university in Thailand, and qualitative data from a semi-structured interview of 10 students from the same group. The results showed that Chinese students generally had a high level of engagement in SILL. The most frequently used strategy category was Compensation Strategies, followed by Social Strategies, Metacognitive Strategies, Cognitive Strategies, and Affective Strategies. The least frequently used strategy category was Memory Strategies. The findings revealed a significant mean difference in language learning strategies which varied significantly by English proficiency level. Participants' responses to the interview indicated that SILL was significant for their learning experience and expression in the cross-cultural context of Thailand, and that their speaking and listening skills were significantly improved. Findings of this research provided valuable inputs for further research on language learning in cross-cultural context. [Note: The publication month range (Jan-Jun) shown on the PDF is incorrect. The correct month range of publication is Jul-Dec.]

This paper describes the pedagogical roots of the work we do, both as teachers and as performers; and how our work reaches beyond the classroom and into community, eliciting narratives and weaving them through improvised dance and music collaborations, eventually onto the walls of an art museum. Our concept was to solicit stories that told of some event that happened in a particular place, and that left a memory that was tethered to that place. We collected stories, pooled our own stories, "pinned" stories to their geographic locations, and then transformed these stories through improvised movement and sound.

Learning strategies have been considered an important field of study since 1970s. Since that time the objective of reviewing studies in this field has been to determine the effectiveness of learning strategies in developing foreign language skills. For this reason, a comprehensive review of literature from Asia, Europe, and America on foreign language learning and the use of strategies that facilitate this process has been done. We have focused on Oxford's (1990) six types of learning strategies: metacognitive, affective, social, cognitive, memory, and compensation. The results show that learning strategies influence both the foreign language learning processes and the development of the skills of reading, listening, writing, and speaking. However, it is the metacognitive, cognitive, and social strategies that are more frequently used in the acquisition of these skills. In this process, motivation also plays an important role. Finally, this revision suggests expanding knowledge, creating more inclusive educational policies and teaching practices in terms of learning strategies, especially in Spanish-speaking countries, such as Colombia.

In this single-case study, we evaluated the effects of PESTS, a simple mnemonic strategy to help students remember how to spell difficult words. Our participant was a 9;6-year-old girl with a suspected learning disability in reading and writing. We applied a multiple-baseline design across word sets with one follow-up measurement two weeks after the end of the intervention. The dependent measure was the number of correctly spelled words from a list of 15 difficult nouns. After only a couple of days, the student reached a perfect score on the test and even after two weeks did not commit a single spelling mistake. Although this is only a small single-case study, the findings give reasons for optimism that PESTS can be a very effective tool in supporting students with learning disabilities to overcome their spelling problems.

This research started as an effort to recover lost childhood memories. I (Emilio Bassail) used the film-making apparatus as a device that allowed me to excavate, elaborate and produce representations based on the small fragments of memory I had left. After creating an archive of reconstructed memories, I started questioning the images I had unearthed. This position allowed me to interrogate and challenge the discourses behind the images. What I discovered is that forgetfulness was in fact an effect of the suppression of potentially subversive discourses. I had not really forgotten, but rather I had chosen not to remember (since the hidden childhood memories defied the internalised discourses of power and structure). To be able to remember and therefore to create, first I had to debilitate the discourses of the power structures that prevented me from going forward in my research. Following Suely Rolnik's (2019).

This article presents the application of the interactive dynamic literacy (IDL) model (Kim, 2020b) toward understanding difficulties in learning to read and write. According to the IDL model, reading and writing are part of communicative acts that draw on largely shared processes and skills as well as unique processes and skills. As such, reading and writing are dissociable but interdependent systems that have hierarchical, interactive, and dynamic relations. These key tenets of the IDL model are applied to the disruption of reading and writing development to explain co-occurrence of reading-writing difficulties using a single framework. The following hypotheses are presented: (a) co-occurrence between word reading and spelling and handwriting difficulties; (b) co-occurrence of dyslexia with written composition difficulties; (c) co-occurrence between reading comprehension and written composition difficulties; (d) co-occurrence of language difficulties with reading difficulties and writing difficulties; (e) co-occurrence of reading, writing, and language difficulties with weak domain-general skills or executive functions such as working memory and attentional control (including attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]); and (f) multiple pathways for reading and writing difficulties. Implications are discussed. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED618728.]

This study aims to reveal the problems faced by a dyslexic student in learning science and determine what can be considered an effective science teaching method for this kind of learner. The case study design was used, and the study was conducted with a 7th-grade dyslexic female student. This study used observations and a semi-structured interview form as data collection tools. According to the findings, the problems faced by the student with dyslexia in learning science were generally compatible with the literature and immediately affected science learning. It was deduced that the student's reading skills, writing skills, motor skills, attention, memory and comprehension, language skills, use of sensory organs, and math skills are effective in learning science and that the development of these skills is necessary for understanding and comprehending science. In order to develop these skills, it is predicted that technology-based student-centered activities and individualized teaching may be beneficial, which is in line with the constructivist philosophy. In addition, it may be practical to give technology-supported reading extracts containing scientific texts, tasks involving social interaction, and writing tasks to improve students' reading, writing, and language skills.

Based on a prior study by Zubenko and Shwedel (2019), the present study investigated the possible effects of repetition (repeated exposure) on the incidental acquisition and retention of 120 English target words by 51 Ukrainian-speaking ESL learners at a Ukrainian university. The hypothesis was that regular repetition of vocabulary while incidental listening would have a significant and positive effect on students' vocabulary acquisition and performance. The paper examines the results of the implementation of spaced repetition of L2 vocabulary strategy of the second-year students who were covering the same vocabulary they learned during the experiment in the previous year. 7 audio lessons were created for increasing the long-term retention of target vocabulary in the students' memory. Participants (N=51) were second-year Ukrainian university students majoring in English as a second language (ESL) at the age of 17-19. They were assigned to three groups, one experimental and two comparison. The optimal result based on the interval of repetitions influences the vocabulary recall and retention. Students who used the spaced L2 vocabulary acquisition strategy (SVAS) outperformed on the End-of-Experiment test 84,1 versus 80,6 for the Comparison group. The results prove that spaced L2 vocabulary acquisition strategy is an efficient part of enriching new vocabulary. The findings indicate that implications of this research are connected with the spaced vocabulary acquisition strategy as an effective tool for learning new lexical units by ESL learners while incidental listening to the audio dictionary lessons. Thus, the study results open up new possibilities for the teachers and learners to consider implementing audio dictionaries and similar tools as assets for efficient vocabulary learning.

New knowledge tracing models are continuously being proposed, even at a pace where state-of-the-art models cannot be compared with each other at the time of publication. This leads to a situation where ranking models is hard, and the underlying reasons of the models' performance -- be it architectural choices, hyperparameter tuning, performance metrics, or data -- is often underexplored. In this work, we review and evaluate a body of deep learning knowledge tracing (DLKT) models with openly available and widely-used data sets, and with a novel data set of students learning to program. The evaluated knowledge tracing models include Vanilla-DKT, two Long Short-Term Memory Deep Knowledge Tracing (LSTM-DKT) variants, two Dynamic Key-Value Memory Network (DKVMN) variants, and SelfAttentive Knowledge Tracing (SAKT). As baselines, we evaluate simple non-learning models, logistic regression and Bayesian Knowledge Tracing (BKT). To evaluate how different aspects of DLKT models influence model performance, we test input and output layer variations found in the compared models that are independent of the main architectures. We study maximum attempt count options, including filtering out long attempt sequences, that have been implicitly and explicitly used in prior studies. We contrast the observed performance variations against variations from non-model properties such as randomness and hardware. Performance of models is assessed using multiple metrics, whereby we also contrast the impact of the choice of metric on model performance. The key contributions of this work are the following: Evidence that DLKT models generally outperform more traditional models, but not necessarily by much and not always; Evidence that even simple baselines with little to no predictive value may outperform DLKT models, especially in terms of accuracy -- highlighting importance of selecting proper baselines for comparison; Disambiguation of properties that lead to better performance in DLKT models including metric choice, input and output layer variations, common hyperparameters, random seeding and hardware; Discussion of issues in replicability when evaluating DLKT models, including discrepancies in prior reported results and methodology. Model implementations, evaluation code, and data are published as a part of this work.

This article explores the experiences of two teachers in different institutions (UK and China) specifically selected for this study because of their largely positive institutional experiences of using technology during the first wave of the pandemic in early 2020. Our aim is to understand the emotional outcomes relative to their uses of technology, whilst working from home. In this study, we asked, "what is the role of technology in the affective outcomes of teaching during the pandemic when everyone was at home?" and "Why might teachers feel a sense of nostalgia for a moment of educational crisis?" A proposal was submitted and gained ethical approval from the University of Derby. A qualitative methodology was adopted using semi-structured online interviews and inductive analysis. We address concerns that 'sense of belonging' may be an incomplete account of the emotional landscape arising from the use of technology during this educational emergency. We identify three ways in which technology was used and which made experience (1) flexible (2) communal, and (3) visible. We map these uses onto corresponding emotional outcomes which are (1) mattering (2) belonging (3) nostalgia. As a result, we provide a model of 'E-Motional Good Practice' in support of institutional, and digital collegiality. Finally, we consider implications for university education departments.

This study used the 2017 National Financial Well-Being Survey to investigate the relationship between cognitive ability and seeking financial advice. Three aspects of cognitive ability were examined: memory, objective numeracy, and subjective numeracy. The results showed that in general, the three were not associated with seeking financial advice. However, after decomposing the sources of the advice, we found that among financial advice-seekers, memory and objective numeracy were positively associated with seeking financial advice from family. When adding the interactions between cognitive ability factors and age, older individuals with good memories were less likely to seek advice from family, while older individuals with higher objective numeracy were less likely to use social networks to seek financial advice. The study's findings suggest future development in policies and practices to benefit those with low cognitive abilities to seek better financial advice using multiple advice sources.

Dyslexia is a reading disability affecting a large number of people worldwide. People with dyslexia have at least normal levels of intelligence, yet they nevertheless have significant difficulties with reading. Dyslexia is known to have genetic causes; however, some researchers believe that there are also environmental factors at play. Specifically, the way in which a child is taught to read can possibly influence whether or not that child ultimately ends up with dyslexia or other reading difficulties. This paper presents the hypothesis that the way a child is taught to read can be a major factor in the development of dyslexia. There has been speculation about this idea in previous literature, but that speculation has been based only on anecdotes and case studies; empirical research is added in this paper. This hypothesis is based on research showing that certain approaches to teaching reading can induce difficulties with phonetic skills (in other words, difficulty associating written letters with spoken sounds in a language that uses an alphabetic writing system) and fMRI-measurable brain patterns matching those of people with dyslexia. Additionally relevant is that those approaches are widespread in the English-speaking world--most specifically in the United States. Reading difficulties not related to phonetic skills would not be implicated in this hypothesis. The literature justifying this hypothesis is discussed, as well as the challenges to the hypothesis and a way that it can be tested. The importance of proposing this hypothesis is that if flawed reading instruction is indeed one primary cause of dyslexia, then reform in elementary schools is vital.

If a learning disability is not defined, it can be said that primary school children show the features of adaptable students within the learning atmosphere of the classroom. Most of the time, teachers think that they teach and their students learn easily. However, studies on children's memory show that the learning process gets abstract when the number of stimulants in the learning environment increase. Children especially have difficulties when they use more than one sensory memory, like seeing, hearing and touching, at the same time and it gets harder to remember things they learned. In this study, it is aimed to investigate the learning profiles related to the visual, auditory, kinesthetic & tactile and combined (visual+auditory+kinesthetic) memories of primary school children and to define whether learning results related to the combined memory cause a learning disability in terms of remembering. According to the results of the study, it has come out that a considerable amount of children have difficulties while learning with the combined memory. However, their teachers and probably also their parents are not aware of this situation. This result makes teachers consider that they have to help their students out individually in the learning environment in order to make students' learning easier.

This study aimed to determine the cognitive structures of preservice primary school teachers for basic biology concepts using Word Association Test (WAT). The study group consists of 50 preservice teachers studying in a university in Western Black Sea Region in Turkey. Four separate cut-off points were determined and analysed. Organ, living things, microscope were the most common response words. The conceptual network was structured as three different islets that were disconnected from each other at the third cut-off point. The desired conceptual network was formed only when cut-off point was taken further than the last cut-off point, and that these desired interconnections, network structure were formed in some students. It is suggested that this situation should be taken into consideration while determining cognitive structures using WAT and that lecturing should be performed according to the structure of the conceptual network that is desired to be shaped in the students' memory.

The aim of this study is to investigate the attitudes, behaviors, communication with students, field dominance, personality traits of teachers who leave positive and negative traces in the education and training life of pre-service teachers and how these common characteristics and attitudes affect them deeply. The students stated that they never forget their teachers who left a trace and that they will take a model for themselves when they start the teaching profession. The study group of the research consists of students studying in different departments from Nigde Ömer Halisdemir University Faculty of Education in the 2021- 2022 academic year. A total of 100 students, 40 males and 60 females, participated in the study. As a result of the research, it was seen that the students like and take as an example of the teachers who show understanding and love, who are friendly, open to communication, humorous, who explain the lesson in a fluent style, make the lesson enjoyable, make a difference, inspire and especially empathize and are open to criticism. In this context, the teachers who were prescriptive and apathetic, closed to communication, authoritarian, did not use a clear and understandable language, and could not master the classroom management in the lesson, negatively affected the teacher candidates. As a result of this research, preservice teachers stated that they realized how they would make a difference and leave a mark on students when they started the teaching profession, by developing their empathy skills in line with these experiences, based on their experiences in their own education and training life.

The Brain-Based Teaching Approach is a strategy that implements methods from a brain-based learning (BBL) model. This approach was designed to be compatible with the inclinations and optimal functions of the individual brain to ensure that students can learn effectively. The module uses the Brain-Based Teaching Approach integrated with GeoGebra Software (B-Geo Module) to help students' conceptual understanding of the topic of differentiation. Therefore, this study aims to explore the possible effects of the Brain-Based Teaching Approach with the integration of GeoGebra Software on conceptual understanding of the topic of differentiation in rural secondary schools in Malaysia. This study used a quasi-design of pre-test and post-test experiments involving 118 form 4 students from rural secondary schools. The researchers used cluster sampling techniques for school selection and intact group for sample selection. The school selection was divided into two groups, namely, the control group using conventional information and communication technology (ICT) modules and the experimental group using the B-Geo Module. The instrument used was the Conceptual Understanding Test of Differentiation. The results of the data analysis show that the conceptual understanding of the topic of differentiation amongst rural secondary school students increased when using the Brain-Based Teaching Approach with the integration of GeoGebra Software.

In this research, the aim is to determine the effect of piano education on visual memory. One of the quantitative research methods, experimental research design, was used in the study, and the study group was determined with the purposive sampling method. The short-term visual memory of the students aged from 8 to 12 (experimental n=36, control n=42) in the study group was measured with the Benton Visual Retention Test F Form. To determine the effect of the practice for the experimental and control groups, t-tests and two-way analysis of variance (mixed-design ANOVA) were performed for the pretest and posttest. The short-term visual retention test pre-test and post-test results of the experimental group students who took private piano lessons and the control group students who did not take piano lessons were analyzed regarding their age, and it was determined that the short-term visual memory of the experimental group students was better than the control group. The research is considered significant, as it will contribute to the disciplines dealing with child development, piano teachers and other researchers working on this subject.

The Individuals' experiences and memories about people with special needs affect their attitudes, behaviours and perceptions towards these individuals in the following years. This study aims to discover pre-school teacher candidates' early memories about people with special needs and understand the effect of these early memories on teacher candidates' attitudes towards people with special needs. The convergent parallel design of mixed-method research is used in this study. The researchers used extreme or deviant case sampling of purposeful sampling. 110 teacher candidates at pre-school teaching department of Akdeniz University answered the survey and open-response questions. The survey included the Multidimensional Attitudes Scale toward Persons with Disabilities (MAS) scale developed by Findler et al. (2007) and adopted into Turkish by Yelpaze and Türküm (2018). The quantitative data were imported into the SPSS program to calculate descriptive and inferential statistics. To analyse the attitudes of teacher candidates, mean and standard deviation were conducted. For the qualitative analysis, 10 teacher candidates in the highest and in the lowest (5 participants from each group) on Turkish version of MAS were selected. The data were coded by using NVIVO 10. According to the analysis of qualitative data, pre-school teacher candidates' memories included positive and negative aspects together; like sadness, fear, astonishment, and helplessness. On the other hand, according to the analysis of quantitative data, teacher candidates' attitude towards people with special needs were mostly close to negative in affection and behaviour. Therefore, it can be thought that the memories of teacher candidates towards individuals with special needs do not affect their attitudes.

The performance in biology at the secondary level has not been as good as expected. This has been a matter of concern. Thus, there has been a continuous focus on exploring newer innovative learner-centered and friendly instructional strategies to enhance understanding and retention in biology. This study, therefore, determined the effects of Concept Mapping (CM) and Cooperative Mastery Learning (CML) on fostering retention in photosynthesis among secondary schools in Nyamagabe district, Rwanda. A pre-test and post-test non-equivalent control group quasi-experimental design was used. Data were obtained from 151 students taught with CM, 144 students taught with CML, and 154 students taught with Conventional Teaching Methods (CTM). The Photosynthesis Retention Test (KR-21= 0.82) was used for data collection. The data were mainly analyze d using mean and Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The results showed that the CM and CML treatment groups outperformed the CTM group in retention in photosynthesis. There was a statistically significant difference in favor of the CM between the two experimental groups. The male and female students taught using CM retained equally in photosynthesis while gender difference was revealed in the mean retention scores of the students exposed to the CML, with females retained significantly higher than males. The study concluded that the CM and CML strategies were more effective than CTM. It was suggested, among other things, that teachers should be encouraged to apply CM and CML strategies when teaching biology.

Vocabulary knowledge has been largely viewed as an important component in language learning and language acquisition. Understanding how EFL learners approach vocabulary learning is also considered crucial for language teachers and researchers to develop an effective learning environment that may stimulate high-quality learning outcomes. Studies on vocabulary size suggest that Saudi EFL learners have impoverished vocabulary knowledge, but there is still little known about how likely certain vocabulary learning strategies may enhance vocabulary knowledge. This study aims to address this issue. We specifically aim to identify the type of vocabulary learning strategies more frequently used among Saudi female EFL learners, and how the use of certain learning strategies may influence vocabulary knowledge. We asked participants to complete two test instruments: the Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire and the Vocabulary Size Test. All data was gathered using an online survey and the results showed evidence that participants largely rely on metacognitive learning strategies to learn English vocabulary, and all participants seem to have no problems with high- and mid-frequency words. Our relationship tests also suggest that the increase in using the metacognitive strategy is likely to enhance vocabulary knowledge among our participants. These results together are thought to provide useful insights to language learning theories in general and to Saudi teachers and policymakers in particular about how they can help students overcome challenges associated with their vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary size.

Objective: To describe whether there are stereotypes towards older adults by the group of teachers in initial training. Method: The approach was quantitative and not probabilistic through a statistical study with university students preparing to become primary school teachers in the Spanish education system. This training profile includes adult and senior education as an additional professional opportunity. The sample (n=110) has been selected among students of the Primary Education Degree. We have applied the Negative Stereotype Questionnaire for the Elderly (CENVE) and the Educational Stereotype Questionnaire for the Elderly (CEEAM). Results: We suggest that the respondents present some degree of stereotypes towards older adults; the stereotype is greater when we question the deterioration of memory and cognitive impairment in general. However, the data are positive, except that in the case of the health factor we found two items in which respondents reported a higher level of stereotyping. Conclusions: Based on these results, we conclude that it is necessary to work on stereotypical perceptions, especially with students pursuing careers related to education, since their professional performance can lead them to develop their teaching careers in adult and senior education. The education professions must be involved in improving quality of life, active aging, and lifelong learning through professional practice and the elimination of personal and societal stereotypes.

The purpose of the study was to identify what neuropsychological effect online learning had on psychology students and how it could be moderated. The study was descriptive and combined qualitative and quantitative methods to address the research questions. The study relied on three phases such as baseline study, experiment, and reporting. The experiment utilised neuropsychology tests adopted from the NeurOn platform. It was found that the Psychology students' perceptions of e-learning and their emotional reaction to them were found not to be appreciative. The practices in breathing exercises, meditation, or yoga were proved to be able to moderate the impact of online learning on the experimental group students' attentional capacities, memory processes, and cognition abilities. The above findings were supported by the results obtained for the neuropsychology tests and the experimental group students' self-reflections yielded from the use of the MovisensXS App. The students confirmed that breathing exercises, meditation, or yoga reduced study stress and burnout caused by e-learning and improved their academic performance. The focus group online discussion also showed that integration of breathing exercises, meditation, and yoga helped the experimental group students keep emotional balance, concentrate on their studies easier, remember more information, and meet deadlines in completing assignments. The education scientists are suggested to study how the e-learning curriculum could be reshaped so that it used relaxation practices on regular basis.

Specific memories of early negative life experiences (ENLE) and images play an important role in the cause and persistence of social anxiety. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effectiveness of individual Cognitive Behavior Therapy (iCBT), which includes updating a specific memory of ENLE and related images using the empty chair technique, on the social anxiety of university students. In addition to this, how iCBT applied affects the students' general self-efficacy and psychological well-being is also examined. The current study was carried out with a total of eight university students, six female and two male. Participants attended iCBT sessions for 12 weeks. Changes in participants were evaluated with Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS), General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), and Flourishing Scale (FS) before iCBT, and one week, three months and six months after iCBT ended. The findings show that participants' social anxiety decreased both statistically and clinically in post-tests and follow-up measures. There were statistically and clinically significant increases in general self-efficacy and psychological well-being. In addition, the changes in the participants' social anxiety, general self-efficacy and psychological well-being post-test and follow-up measures have a large effect size. This study shows that iCBT, which includes updating of specific memories of ENLE and images, is effective in reducing social anxiety and increasing general self-efficacy and psychological well-being. These findings show that iCBT, which includes updating a specific memory of ENLE and related images, using the empty chair technique is an effective method reducing for university students' social anxiety.

This study examined auditive and visual working memory and metacognitive knowledge in 92 gifted children (aged between eight and twelve), utilising a pre-test-training-post-test design, known as the cognitive training design. This approach was used to examine the working memory and metacognitive knowledge of gifted children concerning the progression after a cognitive training programme in arithmetical problem solving, taking into account the role of intelligence. Children were allocated to one of two experimental conditions: children received training after the pre-test (cognitive training condition) or were provided with training after the post-test (control condition). The results show that all children made significant improvements in working memory and metacognition. Intelligence significantly predicted verbal and visual working memory. However, we did not find a meaningful relationship between intelligence and metacognitive knowledge. The cognitive training in arithmetical problem solving seems to bring additional measurable changes in metacognitive knowledge, but not in working memory.

This study aimed at investigating the language learning strategies and autonomy of 76 Indonesian EFL university students and examining the correlations between the two. The Oxford's (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) for ESL/EFL learners was used to collect the data on students' language learning strategy use and an adapted questionnaire developed by Chan et al. (2002) was used to assess students' autonomy. The results revealed that the Indonesian EFL students were medium users of memory, cognitive, compensation, affective, and social strategies but high users of metacognitive strategies. The participants also had positive perceptions of their autonomous learning abilities and did engage in several autonomous activities both inside and beyond the classroom. However, many of the most preferred out-of-class activities are more receptive rather than productive language use. Significant correlations were found between students' language learning strategy use and their perceptions of their abilities, and between their strategy use and the practices of autonomous English language learning outside the class. Practical implications for English language teaching in the Indonesian context are put forward.

Much is known about the literacies of early life, adolescence and some aspects of adulthood such as workplace literacies, but there has been a dearth of attention to the literacies of late life. The invisibility of these literacies has the potential to skew how curricula, pedagogy and policy developers understand and plan for literacies that can sustain people across the life course. It also can play into deficit discourses of elders, such as those prevalent during the COVID-19 pandemic, that have led to a parallel pandemic of ageism. To reverse this invisibility, this study aimed to bring to light the everyday literacies of thriving elders and the people, places and things involved therein. Through a sociomaterial orientation to literacies and adoption of a modified Day-in-the-Life methodology, this paper reports on the everyday literacies of 'Gina', an octogenarian woman who resided in an assisted living residence in the United States and self-identified as thriving. The study identified six key literacies-as-events in Gina's day that engaged a plethora of (im)material constituents such as memories, art materials and novels and created opportunities for the (re)invention of time and space. Lessons from Gina's day suggest what might be possible in/through literacies at all ages.

Word segmentation is a crucial step in children's vocabulary learning. While computational models of word segmentation can capture infants' performance in small-scale artificial tasks, the examination of early word segmentation in naturalistic settings has been limited by the lack of measures that can relate models' performance to developmental data. Here, we extended CLASSIC (Chunking Lexical and Sublexical Sequences in Children; Jones et al., 2021), a corpus-trained chunking model that can simulate several memory and phonological and vocabulary learning phenomena to allow it to perform word segmentation using utterance boundary information, and we have named this extended version CLASSIC utterance boundary (CLASSIC-UB). Further, we compared our model to the performance of children on a wide range of new measures, capitalizing on the link between word segmentation and vocabulary learning abilities. We showed that the combination of chunking and utterance-boundary information used by CLASSIC utterance boundary allowed a better prediction of English-learning children's output vocabulary than did other models.

Second language implicit learning research has shown that a variety of linguistic features can be acquired without awareness. However, this research overwhelmingly uses comprehension tests to measure implicit learning. It remains unclear whether newly acquired implicit knowledge can also be recruited for production. To address this question, we developed a novel paradigm based on elicited recall and false memory that was used to both train participants and test their implicit knowledge in production, including generating new instances of the rule. Participants learned a semiartificial language containing a rule based on one in a natural language (the alternation between Czech spatial prepositions v and na). Participants who remained unaware of the rule, as assessed by verbal report, nevertheless were able to use it in a production test involving novel items, while believing that they were performing a cued recall test. Even without extensive training, newly acquired implicit knowledge can immediately be evident in production.

In describing how people generalize from observed samples of data to novel cases, theories of inductive inference have emphasized the learner's reliance on the contents of the sample. More recently, a growing body of literature suggests that different assumptions about how a data sample was generated can lead the learner to draw qualitatively distinct inferences on the basis of the same observations. Yet, relatively little is known about how and when these two sources of evidence are combined. Do sampling assumptions affect how the sample contents are encoded, or is any influence exerted only at the point of retrieval when a decision is to be made? We report two experiments aimed at exploring this issue. By systematically varying both the sampling cover story and whether it is given "before" or "after" the training stimuli we are able to determine whether encoding or retrieval issues drive the impact of sampling assumptions. We find that the sampling cover story affects generalization when it is presented before the training stimuli, but not after, which suggests that sampling assumptions are integrated during encoding.

While our perceptual experience seems to unfold continuously over time, episodic memory preserves distinct events for storage and recollection. Previous work shows that stability in encoding context serves to temporally bind individual items into sequential composite events. This phenomenon has been almost exclusively studied using visual and spatial memory paradigms. Here we adapt these paradigms to test the role of speaker regularity for event segmentation of complex auditory information. The results of our auditory paradigm replicate the findings in other sensory modalities--finding greater within-event temporal memory for items within speaker-bound events and greater source memory for items at speaker or event transitions. The task we use significantly extends the ecological validity of past paradigms by allowing participants to encode the stimuli without any suggestions on the part of the experimenter. This unique property of our design reveals that, while memory performance is strongly dependent on self-reported mnemonic strategy, behavioral effects associated with event segmentation are robust to changes in mnemonic strategy. Finally, we consider the effect of serial position on segmentation effects during encoding and present a modeling approach to estimate the independent contribution of event segmentation. These findings provide several lines of evidence suggesting that contextual stability in perceptual features drives segmentation during word listening and supports a modality-independent role for mechanisms involved in event segmentation.

Comprehension of stories requires readers to take the perspective of the story characters and imagine or feel their cognitive and affective states. The study investigated how variations in emotional valence within a literary text affected readers' global text processing, as reflected in their eye movements during the first and second-pass reading, and their memory for text. Processes of reading were also examined in relation to readers' dispositional empathy. Undergraduate students (N = 42) were assigned to an emotionally negative or neutral reading condition. They read a natural text passage from a suspense story while their ocular behavior was registered. After reading, they responded to multiple-choice questions assessing their memory of the text. Results revealed longer first-pass fixation times for content evoking negative emotions than for neutral content, which could be suggestive of a more analytical processing of the former. These effects were however local and did not impact the processing of the text at global level. Memory for the emotionally negative content was more accurate than memory for the neutral content. Dispositional empathy did not contribute to reading processes and outcome. Findings are discussed against the mixed results in the current literature and practical implications are also outlined.

The aim of the present study was to examine the hypothesis that, compared to typically reading children matched on regular word reading, adults with basic literacy (either adult literacy students or adult basic education students) struggle on phonologically demanding tasks but are relatively performant on orthographic demanding tasks, and hence present a performance pattern similar to that of dyslexic children. Using various reading and phoneme awareness tests, we therefore compared the adults to both typically reading children from Grades 3 and 4 and dyslexic children, these two groups being matched to the adults on regular word reading. The dyslexic children were also compared to either chronological age- or reading level-matched children. The hypothesis was only partly supported by the data, as results depended on the subgroup of adults considered. While the literacy students presented poorer phoneme awareness and a somewhat stronger length effect in reading than the dyslexic children, the basic education students outperformed the latter on irregular word reading. The adults, and in particular the literacy students, also relied frequently on orthography in a complex phoneme awareness task. Taken together, these results suggest that adults with basic literacy rely more on visual memory than both dyslexic and typically reading children. This opens the question of whether the peculiar profile of these adults is intrinsic to adult literacy acquisition or is related to the way they are taught and trained to read and write. The results also highlight the need for better characterization of subgroups of adults with basic literacy.

This study examines declarative memory retrieval in ASD depending on the availability and access to stored conceptual knowledge. Fifteen autistic participants and a matched control group of 18 typically-developed (TD) volunteers completed a Remember-Know paradigm manipulated by encoding-type (categorical, perceptual) and item-typicality (high-typical, low-typical). The autistic group showed worse and slower recognition and less recollection but equivalent familiarity-based memories compared to TDs. Notably, low-typical items did not improve their memories as they did for TDs, likely due to difficulties in matching low-fit information to the stored schema. Results suggest that memory decline in ASD may derive from the episodic system and its dynamics with the semantic system. These findings may inform interventional strategies for enhancing learning abilities in ASD.

Predicting what we will remember and forget is crucial for daily functioning. We were interested in whether evaluating something as likely to be remembered or forgotten leads to enhanced memory for "both" forms of information relative to information that was not judged for memorability. We presented participants with lists of words to remember for a later test and on each list, participants were asked to identify some words that they were confident that they would remember and some words that they believed that they were most likely to forget on the test. Relative to words not given a prediction, memory was enhanced for words participants selected as likely to be remembered but also for words participants indicated were most likely to be forgotten. We also examined whether requiring participants to engage in self-cued directed forgetting by selecting a subset of words to be remembered or forgotten produced a memory advantage for these words. Results again demonstrated enhanced memory for selected words regardless of whether they were designated as to-be-remembered or to-be-forgotten. Thus, we demonstrate a reactivity type of effect such that when participants are asked to select certain items, this process can enhance memory regardless of the reason for selecting the item, potentially arising as a result of these words becoming more distinct and/or receiving additional processing. As such, the present results are consistent with the richness of encoding and metacognition modifying attention to cues accounts of reactivity.

Item memory (e.g., recall or recognition of specific items) can reactively change when metacognitively monitored via judgments of learning (JOLs). The current research explores whether memory for inter-item relations (e.g., semantic relations among list items) is reactively influenced by JOLs. Participants in Experiment 1 studied rhyming word pairs for which the target words were semantically-related category exemplars. The word pairs were presented in a category-blocked order during the study phase to increase the saliency of inter-target relations. The results showed that making JOLs had little influence on free recall of the target words, but disrupted semantic clustering, reflecting negative reactivity in memory for inter-item relations. The pre-registered Experiment 2 successfully replicated the main findings of Experiment 1. Experiment 3 found that, when the word pairs were presented in a random order (i.e., not blocked by category, leading to minimal semantic clustering at recall) during the study phase, free recall of target words was enhanced by JOLs, reflecting positive reactivity in item memory. The dissociable reactivity effects on item and inter-item relational memory found in these experiments support an item-relational memory account which hypothesizes that when a given strategy enhances item-specific processing, it concurrently diverts encoding resources away from inter-item relational processing.

Prior knowledge is often strongly related to students' learning. In the present research, we explored the relationship between prior knowledge and the accuracy of students' predictive monitoring judgments (judgments of learning; JOLs) and postdictive monitoring judgments (confidence judgments). In four experiments, students completed prior knowledge tests over two domains (football and cooking), learned new items from those domains, and completed a test over those items. To ensure the learning was new, the items that students learned and were tested over consisted of made-up facts from each domain. In Experiments 1-3, students made JOLs predicting the likelihood that they would remember each item on the test. In Experiments 2 and 3, students also made confidence judgments in the accuracy of their response after answering each question on the final test. Prior knowledge was negatively related to the accuracy of students' JOLs, but unrelated to the accuracy of their confidence judgments. Exploratory analyses revealed that the relationship with JOLs was likely driven by high knowledge students giving relatively lower JOLs to items that they later remembered. Experiment 4 directly tested this possibility by having students make binary memory predictions about whether they would remember each item. Outcomes were consistent with the exploratory analyses. Thus, the negative relationship between prior knowledge and JOL accuracy appears to be driven by the greater tendency of high knowledge students, relative to low knowledge students, to remember items that they thought they would forget.