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ABSTRACT: Introduction. Current publications and technologies for digital modeling of construction projects often entail considerable expenses and lengthy project timelines. In order to effectively monitor and control a large number of objects, there is a need to develop laser scanning technologies specifically for unmanned aerial vehicles, eliminating the need for ground-based imaging. Materials and methods. The study employed a hexacopter-type unmanned aerial vehicle equipped with a laser scanner, as well as specialized software for processing aerial imagery and laser scanning data, which included tools developed by the authors. The octant method was utilized when developing an algorithm for point cloud comparison. Results and discussion. In the course of the study, a technology for automating the monitoring and control of construction work was developed, in accordance with which aerial photography is performed once and an orthophotomap of the object is built (to accommodate laser scanning data). Then, with a certain frequency, laser surveys are carried out from an unmanned aerial vehicle, dense clouds of points are formed for different dates. To compare them, a linear computational algorithm has been developed, which, using data on two dense point clouds, allows obtaining the resulting cloud, which reflects the progress in the construction work. A feature of the algorithm is that the search for points is not carried out over the entire cloud, but within the boundaries of octants. This speeds up data processing and reduces the load on computing power. The technology received software implementation in the web application “Management system for monitoring construction work at facilities that have passed the state examination.” It allows the user to quickly get a visual representation of the change in the construction object for the selected period, to carry out all the necessary measurements (coordinates, geometric parameters, material consumption, etc.). Conclusions. The developed technology for automating the monitoring of construction work can be used by developers, customers, state and municipal authorities to quickly obtain information in order to control and support managerial decision-making

The diffuse data fruition of archaeological hypogeum sites still represents a challenge due to their limited accessibility and their preservation and maintenance issues. This implies that the fruition of these peculiar archaeological sites is often possible through digital reconstructions and interactive web navigation systems. The survey methodologies based on terrestrial laser scanning and photogrammetry allow making accurate and detailed digital reconstructions of these sites that are useful for virtual fruition purposes. In addition, many different systems can be used for remote web navigation and fruition. This work presents a possible solution for the virtual fruition of archaeological hypogea with a multiscale 3D web navigation system based on WebGL open-source technology. The system has been implemented for the Roman hypogeum of Crispia salvia, located in Marsala (southern Italy). The hypogeum belongs to the Archaeological Park of Lilibeo-Marsala and is considered one of the most important archaeological discoveries in this area for its extraordinary frescoes. Public accessibility of this site is limited because it is located outside the boundaries of the Archaeological Park, in the modern town, and covered by a residential building. In this case, the web navigation system adds an important contribution due to the limited real accessibility to the site. This work shows the framework for the construction of the web navigation system, where 3D surveys, digital reconstructions, 3D modeling, and web development are integrated. The choice of using an open-source technology for the web navigation system limits the costs of the process, and, at the same time, grants the web dissemination of site information.

The cist tombs necropolis at Castillejos de Luna, in Sierra de Gibralmora-Sierra del Hacho (Pizarra, Málaga, Spain) was known from the graphic documentation and the grave goods of two tombs. New studies have documented nine burials. The aim of this article is to present the new virtualisation work that has been carried out in the necropolis, to generate a new three-dimensional (3D) documentation of the currently known records, which are in acceptable visibility conditions. Using tools to document tombs in 3D offers us great advances in data acquisition and editing, with great precision and realism, thanks to the 3D models generated through techniques such as photogrammetry or laser scanning. Thanks to these tools, it is possible to carry out studies on digital twins and use them as informative material for society. The study this paper describes has generated high quality products for dissemination and future analysis. The results shown here are of metric character, with orientation and geographical location of the structures. In addition, in one of the tombs the authors show the combination of photogrammetric techniques with laser scanners to obtain a single high-resolution 3D model; subsequently a retopology process is carried out to achieve a "light" model with a photorealistic appearance that is both easily manipulated on mobile devices for its dissemination and a guarantee that the general public can enjoy this necropolis in a different way. The preliminary results are published in the web repository of 3D models Sketchfab, where the users can see a preview of one of the tombs before and after being optimised with retopology through Blender. The authors provide a socio-historical analysis of Bronze Age necropolises in central Andalusia, within the framework of a debate on the western expansion of the El Argar Culture.

Abstract The article proposes using a novel hybrid measurement method, with expected precision results, to determine the characteristic of the historic, 17th-century bell. In an interdisciplinary approach, modern and non-invasive physical and chemical measurement methods were used. Based on the monitoring (measurements and laser scanning), a three-dimensional geometric model was built to calculate the bell size and analyze its condition depending on material consumption. Next, chemical measures of the bell samples were carried out to determine the material properties. For that purpose, advanced precision microscopic techniques were used. Based on the geometric model and chemical studies, the material properties and density of the bronze were determined using additive assumptions. Measurement accuracy and data quality were evaluated statistically. The method allows reliably determining the bell's weight without needing to dismantle it or external intervention. The approach is helpful for practitioners performing conservation work on such objects.

With the development of robotics and vision measurement technology, the use of robots with line laser scanners for 3D scanning and measurement of parts has become a mainstream trend in the field of industrial inspection. Traditional scanning and measuring robots mainly use the teach-in scanning method, which has unstable scanning quality and low scanning efficiency. In this paper, the adaptive sampling method for a free-form surface, which can realize the adaptive distribution of surface measurement points according to the curvature features of free-form surfaces, is proposed first. Then, integrated with the proposed adaptive sampling method, the automatic path planning method is proposed. This method consists of adaptive sampling, scanning attitude calculation based on a quaternion, scanning viewpoint planning based on viewable cones, and scan path generation based on bi-directional scanning. Based on the proposed automatic path planning method, the scanning and measuring robot can obtain complete 3D information of the surface to be measured with high measurement accuracy and efficiency. The performance index of the laser scanner can be fully reached.

This study investigates the utilization of 3D laser scanning, GPS, BIM and GIS technologies for safeguarding historical wooden structures. As a case study, it focuses on two historic Chinese wooden buildings, the Guanyin Pavilion and Tangwang Palace, renowned for their exceptional historical significance and intricate timber architecture. The Guanyin Pavilion was subjected to high-precision modeling and tilt monitoring, which found that certain columns had a maximum tilt angle of 0.7892°. Additionally, a general tilt tendency was seen across various structural elements. The measurements from the point cloud data exhibited an error range of ±10 mm. However, the relative errors in smaller components approached 2.5%, which necessitated regular verification through human measurements. Using GIS and BIM technology in Tangwang Palace facilitated the meticulous documentation and dynamic supervision of architectural components, encompassing historical development and present state. The maintenance records revealed persistent problems with the roof tiles and wooden beams, exposing structural vulnerabilities. During various maintenance intervals, it was observed that the roof tiles were frequently loose and separated, indicating potential flaws in the design or materials used. The application of these modern technologies enhances the effectiveness and precision of conservation efforts and provides a robust scientific foundation for the continuous monitoring and study of cultural heritage.

The integration of laser scanning technology and Building Information Modelling (BIM) processes offers a transformative approach to managing the complexities in live construction projects. This paper aims to explore the significant impacts of incorporating laser scanning and BIM on construction projects in terms of as-built models, information management, and overall project performance utilising case study analysis of a building that was not BIM-based. The research scope is defined by the need to investigate the integration of laser scanning and BIM in live construction projects. It details the data acquisition process, challenges encountered due to site obstructions, and the methodologies employed for spatial modelling procedures. Key findings reveal that such integration can significantly enhance the accuracy of data collection and improve project outcomes. Results also identify the need for specialised equipment and skills for the effective implementation of such integrations. The research concludes by offering a practical approach to enhancing construction processes, from design to maintenance. This paper contributes to the body of knowledge by providing a detailed analysis of the practical application of laser scanning and BIM in a live construction project, offering insights into the benefits, challenges, and future directions for integrating these technologies in the construction industry.

Significant advances in reverse engineering and additive manufacturing have the potential to provide a faster, accurate, and cost-effective process chain for preserving, analyzing, and presenting forensic impression evidence in both 3D digital and physical forms. The objective of the present research was to evaluate the capabilities and limitations of five 3D scanning technologies, including laser scanning (LS), structured-light (SL) scanning, smartphone (SP) photogrammetry, Microsoft Kinect v2 RGB-D camera, and iPhone’s LiDAR (iLiDAR) Sensor, for 3D reconstruction of 3D impression evidence. Furthermore, methodologies for 3D reconstruction of latent impression and visible 2D impression based on a single 2D photo were proposed. Additionally, the FDM additive manufacturing process was employed to build impression evidence models created by each procedure. The results showed that the SL scanning system generated the highest reconstruction accuracy. Consequently, the SL system was employed as a benchmark to assess the reconstruction quality of other systems. In comparison to the SL data, LS showed the smallest absolute geometrical deviations (0.37 mm), followed by SP photogrammetry (0.78 mm). In contrast, the iLiDAR exhibited the largest absolute deviations (2.481 mm), followed by Kinect v2 (2.382 mm). Additionally, 3D printed impression replicas demonstrated superior detail compared to Plaster of Paris (POP) casts. The feasibility of reconstructing 2D impressions into 3D models is progressively increasing. Finally, this article explores potential future research directions in this field.

This paper presents a novel method for the assessment of cleanliness levels (i.e. specular relative reflectance) in the solar field by use of laser scanning. The detected backscattered laser intensity caused by soil and dust, on the otherwise specular mirror surfaces, can be used for determining the cleanliness of mirrors in the solar field with an excellent spatial resolution and acquisition speed. The backscatter behavior of soiled mirrors with distance and incident angle is analyzed and used for transferring the raw measurements values to a reference distance and incident angle. The experimental results of the novel laser scanning measurement technique as well as new insights on soiling behavior are presented. First, the calibration measurements with artificially soiled mirror samples are analyzed, followed by an extensive measurement campaign in a heliostat field. A correlation for the backscatter power and the cleanliness is found, and the first spatially resolved cleanliness measurement for a heliostat field is shown, successfully validating the measurement principle.

The measurement of displacement is an essential factor in evaluating the stability of a heritage structure, especially when it is old. An unprecedented heatwave occurred in the summer of 2022 in the UK and 3D laser scanning was applied to monitor the more than 130-year-old Victoria Gallery and Museum (VG&M) to monitor the heatwave effect in this paper. In this paper, thermal displacement mapping was proposed, and the overall thermal expansion behaviour of VG&M was identified through thermal displacement mapping. The separate displacement calculation (SDC) method was proposed to eliminate the error caused by the registration of the point cloud when calculating the thermal displacement. The behaviour of thermal displacement mapping was analysed along with the movement of the sun, and the maximum displacement when a heat wave occurred was 8.9 mm. In particular, when the heat wave came, the maximum thermal displacement expanded from the upper center of VG&M to the left and right.

This study introduces two innovative methods in the research for use in vision-based tunnel inspection vehicles. First, the image-range stitching method is used to map the sequence images acquired by a camera onto a tunnel layout map. This method reduces the tunnel image-stitching problem to the appropriate parameters, thus solving the problem of mapping equations, ranging from camera pixels to the tunnel layout map. The parameters are obtained using a laser scanner. Secondly, traditional label-based deep learning solely perceives the consistency between pixels and semantically labeled samples, making it challenging to effectively address issues with uncertainty and multiplicity. Consequently, we introduce a method that employs a bidirectional heuristic search approach, utilizing randomly generated seed pixels as hints to locate targets that concurrently appear in both the image and the image semantic generation model. The results reveal the potential for cooperation between laser-scanning and camera-imaging technologies and point out a novel approach of crack detection that appears to be more focused on semantic understanding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Digitization of critical infrastructure structures using multi‐data fusion The rail infrastructure is highly significant for the economy and society in the Federal Republic of Germany and the European Union. On average, rail infrastructure bridges are around 75 years old. Accordingly, the inventory documentation of the structures is also historical or outdated. For Deutsche Bahn AG, the inventory, updating and provision of more than 4.6 million as‐built plans represents an enormous challenge. Furthermore, the as‐built documents are managed decentralised and in heterogeneous data formats at the plant operator. This poses a serious problem for a qualitative and efficient maintenance management. Within the research project mdfBIM, a holistic, semi‐automated method for the creation of object‐based, digital models of as‐built bridges by means of multi‐data fusion is being developed. For this method, a holistic process model is developed and the possibilities of a semi‐automated data acquisition and processing towards a BIM model as a central data basis are explored. The approach was subsequently validated on a real demonstrator. The article successfully demonstrates a partially automated approach using laser scanning, artificial intelligence and digital building models to digitize bridge structures and create a consistent database for maintenance management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

3D digitization methods have become essential tools in cultural heritage practice. Methods like laser scanning and photogrammetry are being widely applied for the conservation of priceless objects and for enabling audience engagement with history. Such data have value as a new wave of multisensory museum practice ripples through the sector and could provide a perfect use for the enormous corpus of 3D data in cultural heritage. This paper documents such an application, where laser scanning has been used in conjunction with 3D printing to re-present the Chichester Roman tablet, an object of key importance in early Romano-British history, to new audiences. It details the process used to digitize the tablet and recreate different versions of its missing text and its state of preservation. It describes how such data can play a role beyond just documentation. Discussed is how such approaches enrich families' engagement in cultural heritage and how such material can used as didactic material in higher education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanostructured surfaces with dimensions on a scale of a few millimeters exhibit remarkable hydrophobicity. The geometry of these nanostructures considerably affects their wettability. However, determining the optimal geometry is challenging due to the abundance of geometry parameters and the difficulty in numerically describing their effects on wettability at the mesoscopic scale. In addition, the fabrication of nanostructured surfaces with precise geometries is challenging. We establish a lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) model to address these challenges. We use the model to gain mesoscopic insights into the interaction between droplets and nanostructures. Our model can accurately reproduce contact angles (CAs) on various nanostructured surfaces and enables investigation of the effects of nanostructure geometry on wettability. We optimize the geometry of the nanostructures using the insights provided by the LBM model on the wettability mechanisms. Our analysis indicates that cones with dimensions of 40 µm in width and 33 µm in height exhibit the highest hydrophobicity. We successfully fabricate a superhydrophobic surface with the desired geometry via laser scanning, achieving a CA of 163°. We believe that this approach, which combines the LBM model and laser manufacturing, will enable a better understanding of the wettability mechanism and provide a high-performance approach for fabricating superhydrophobic surfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remote sensing technologies such as laser scanning and photogrammetry have advanced significantly in the field-to-BIM workflow in recent years, becoming key instruments for modeling as-built frameworks. They can be utilized to collect dense 3D measured data on the condition of a building, and the derived point cloud can be processed to generate the as-built BIM. It provides building information to report as-built conditions and serves as a skill set for data on problem-solving issues in civil engineering. This research presents an efficient and automated workflow for modifying and evaluating point cloud data, focusing on supporting scan-to-BIM operations. The workflow utilizes cubic voxel mesh creation and voxel subsampling techniques to ensure precise representation of scanned data. The validation of this reconstruction methodology using Grasshopper and Volvox demonstrates its potential to reduce manual labor and analysis typically required in conventional scan-to-BIM methodologies. The presented workflow simplifies the critical task of acquiring building profiles, an essential BIM result, and streamlines the overall process. The integration of the Volvox plugin has further augmented the capabilities of Grasshopper and Rhino, providing users with intuitive tools for manipulating point clouds. Automating certain operations through the presented workflow has significant potential to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of the scan-to-BIM methodologies. These findings have implications in architecture and design, demonstrating how technology can be leveraged to unlock new possibilities and streamline critical processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In contemporary times, technology has dramatically simplified the process of documenting cultural heritage objects. This paper aims to illustrate modern methodologies for documenting historical monuments by applying advanced technologies, as these case studies show. Two technologies were used: laser scanning and digital photogrammetry. The first subject of our study was a historically significant 16th-century building located in Jachymov, situated in the North-West region of the Czech Republic. The object was documented by laser scanning (BLK360) and using a standard digital camera Canon Powershot SX230 HS. The laser scanning data were postprocessed using Cyclone Register 360 Plus, while photogrammetric point clouds were generated with Agisoft Metashape. The second object was building and sculpture in the historical UNESCO city of Telč. For this object laser scanning instruments, digital photogrammetry and a new lowcost ViDoc documentation system was used. Our study is focused on analyzing sets of point clouds obtained from the data processing, conducted using CloudCompare to draw insights and conclusions. It turns out that the rapid development of techniques and technology makes it possible to use low-cost devices for sufficiently accurate and fast documentation; however, the mentioned ViDOC device can only be used for very close and small objects up to about 5 meters. For the documentation of sculptures, classic close-range photogrammetry is especially appropriate; for the documentation of buildings, laser scanners are suitable; the problem lies in hidden spaces and it is often necessary to use either a platform or a combination with photogrammetry using a drone, especially for upper parts of the object. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Architectus is the property of Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wroclawskiej and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The deterioration of farmland shelterbelts in the Ulan Buh desert oases could weaken their protective functions. Therefore, an accurate method is essential to assess tree decline degree in order to guide the rejuvenation and transformation of these shelterbelts. This study selected three typical farmland shelterbelts in the Ulan Buh desert oases as the objects. Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and airborne hyperspectral imagery (AHI) were used to acquire point cloud data and detailed spectral information of trees. Point cloud and spectral characteristics of trees with varying decline levels were analyzed. Six models were constructed to identify decline degree of shelterbelts, and model accuracy was evaluated. The coefficient of determination between the structural parameters of trees extracted by TLS and field measurements ranged from 0.76 to 0.94. Healthy trees outperformed declining trees in structural parameters, particularly in tridimensional green biomass and crown projection area. Spectral reflectance changes in the 740–950 nm band were evident among the three tree types with different decline levels, decreasing significantly with increased decline level. Among the TLS-derived feature parameters, the canopy relief ratio of tree points and point cloud density strongly correlated with the degree of tree decline. The plant senescence reflectance index and normalized difference vegetation index exhibited the closest correlation with tree decline in AHI data. The average accuracy of the models constructed based on the feature parameters of LiDAR, AHI, and the combination of both of them were 0.77, 0.61, and 0.81, respectively. The light gradient-boosting machine model utilizing TLS–AHI comprehensive feature parameters accurately determined tree decline. This study highlights the efficacy of employing feature parameters derived from TLS alone to accurately identify tree decline. Combining feature parameters from the TLS and AHI enhances the precision of tree decline identification. This approach offers guidance for decisions regarding the renewal and transformation of declining farmland shelterbelts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents an innovative modelling method, which can serve as a set of guidelines for future applications related to point cloud data processing of steel lattice structures used for FEA modelling purposes. This method is fully automated, resulting in repeatable results and saving time required for manual data processing. The study investigated two types of input point cloud data, aerial and terrestrial, and compared the resulting model to an idealized model based on design documentation. Results showed that the LiDAR point cloud data is a good source of information for reconstructing a geometric CAD model and can be implemented in FEA. The impact of point cloud data usage for FEA modelling is demonstrated by investigating differences between FEA results of the point cloud‐based and idealized models, allowing for an understanding of the influence of real‐life imperfections on force redistribution across the analyzed structure and ultimate forces reached by members loaded in compression. This modelling method and analysis can serve as guidelines for future applications related to point cloud data pro‐cessing of steel lattice structures used for FEA modelling purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, researchers in the field of natural heritage have intensified their efforts to develop new ways to enhance the promotion and accessibility of natural content in order to attract more audiences using virtual representations of physical objects (digital twins). Therefore, they are increasingly incorporating new technologies and digital tools in their operations since their usage by the general public and in the natural heritage (NH) museums is considered particularly effective. Simultaneously, the increasing quality of the produced digitizations has opened up new opportunities for the exploitation of the outcomes of digitization beyond the initial anticipations. Responding to the growing demand of museum visitors for a personalized digital tour experience, especially amidst the recent COVID-19 pandemic, the v-PalM project aims to develop a digital platform to offer virtual guidance and education services at the Museum of Paleontology and Geology, which is hosted at the National Kapodistrian University of Athens. The development of the platform will be based on collecting data through various methods, including crowdsourcing, innovative information, and communication technologies, taking advantage of content digitization using 3D scanning devices. This paper demonstrates an enhanced methodology for the digitization of paleontological exhibits. The methodology uses photogrammetry and laser scanning methods from various devices, such as drones, laser scanners, and smartphones. These methods create digital twins that are suitable for various scenarios, including research, education, and entertainment. The proposed methodology has been applied to over fifty paleontological museum exhibits of varying sizes and complexities, and the resulting 3D models exhibit high accuracy in both their material and geometric aspects, while they also feature crucial details that assist researchers and the scientific community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing high-efficiency catalysts to inhibit the competitive reaction of chlorine evolution and corro-sion is essential for electrolytic seawater. In this paper, a high performance and corrosion resistant NiFe-LDH@ MnO2/NF catalyst for seawater electrolysis was prepared rapidly on a nickel foam by two steps (laser scanning method and immersion replacement method). The NiFe-LDH of catalyst improves the activity of catalytic reaction, and the MnO2 layer prevents the catalyst from being eroded by chlorine. The synergism effect of two aspects makes the catalyst exhibit excellent oxygen evolution performance in alkaline brine medium. The overpotential of the NiFe-LDH@MnO2/NF catalyst only 270 mV at the current density of 10 mA/cm², and 360 mV at the high current density of 100 mA/cm², along with stable oxygen evolution reaction for 100 h at the current density of 10 mA/cm². This provides theoretical guidance for the preparation of industrial electrolytic seawater catalyst to produce hydrogen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This contribution focuses on a comparison of modern geomatics technologies for the derivation of growth parameters in forest management. The present text summarizes the results of our measurements over the last five years. As a case project, a mountain spruce forest with planned forest logging was selected. In this locality, terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and terrestrial and drone close-range photogrammetry were experimentally used, as was the use of PLS mobile technology (personal laser scanning) and ALS (aerial laser scanning). Results from the data joining, usability, and economics of all technologies for forest management and ecology were discussed. ALS is expensive for small areas and the results were not suitable for a detailed parameter derivation. The RPAS (remotely piloted aircraft systems, known as "drones") method of data acquisition combines the benefits of close-range and aerial photogrammetry. If the approximate height and number of the trees are known, one can approximately calculate the extracted cubage of wood mass before forest logging. The use of conventional terrestrial close-range photogrammetry and TLS proved to be inappropriate and practically unusable in our case, and also in standard forestry practice after consultation with forestry workers. On the other hand, the use of PLS is very simple and allows you to quickly define ordered parameters and further calculate, for example, the cubic volume of wood stockpiles. The results from our research into forestry show that drones can be used to estimate quantities (wood cubature) and inspect the health status of spruce forests, However, PLS seems, nowadays, to be the best solution in forest management for deriving forest parameters. Our results are mainly oriented to practice and in no way diminish the general research in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The geological strength index (GSI) plays an important role in the quality evaluation and stability analysis of rock mass. Traditional methods for quantitatively estimating GSI are often subjective, time-consuming, and dangerous. This paper proposed a method for rapid and quantitative GSI estimate using 3D point clouds, which can be generated through non-contact measurement methods such as photogrammetry and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR). The overall methodology is as follows: (1) point clouds were acquired using a terrestrial laser scanner; (2) discontinuities were identified through artificial neural networks (ANN) and density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (DBSCAN); (3) geometric information was extracted for the detected discontinuities; (4) GSI was estimated according to the detection and characterization of discontinuities. The proposed method was used for the Yujiashan road cut to calculate the GSI and the GSI partitioning was performed simultaneously. Three sets of discontinuity were detected in the Yujiashan road cut, and Structure Rating (SR) and Surface Conditions Point Clouds Rating (SCPC) were calculated to be 13.2 and 25, respectively. Correspondingly, the GSI was estimated to be 32, which was consistent with the results of the in-situ evaluation (rating 25–40). Furthermore, the Yujiashan road cut was divided into 17 segments, and the effect of sampling size on the GSI calculation was discussed. The application results show that the GSI of the rock mass can be obtained objectively and efficiently through 3D point clouds, which can be used as a potential alternative to the traditional method for GSI estimation. Article Highlights: A semi-automatic method was developed to determine the rockmass GSI using laser scanning. Discontinuities were detected from the 3D point cloud using a machine-learning algorithm. Four geometric parameters of detected discontinuities were extracted for GSI calculation. The scale effect of GSI calculation was investigated using the proposed partitioning algorithm. GSI estimation obtained from the proposed method matched the traditional manual surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper demonstrates how modern metric survey techniques and digital technologies can contribute to traditional methods of art-historical investigation. The original choir screen in the Dominican church in Cracow, spanning the width of the chancel arch, was built in the mid-13th century. An analysis of the laser scanning data of the existing church enabled a construction of a 3D model of the subsequent and larger choir screen, built in the second half of the 14th century, which extended across the nave and both aisles and encased the initial screen. A keystone decorated with a carved boss of unique iconography, interpreted as a symbol of St John the Evangelist, survives from the carved decoration of this screen. The 3D model of the choir screen helps to visualize the original location of particular altars, some tombs and surviving artworks within the screen porch. Its north bay housed the tomb of Hyacinth Odrowąż, the first Polish Dominican friar and future saint. In 1543 the north part of the screen's loft was cut off with a grille and transformed into a chapel of St Hyacinth, accessible to lay people by stairs running from the north aisle. The most important part of the chapel was a shallow niche which accommodated a new tomb and an altar with Hyacinth's relics. Construction from 1581 to 1583 of a new and more spacious chapel, located slightly higher than the old one, involved demolition of the choir screen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the challenges of rendering massive indoor point clouds in Virtual Reality. In these kind of visualizations the point of view is never static, imposing the need of a one-shot (i.e. non-iterative) rendering strategy, in contrast with progressive refinement approaches that assume that the camera position does not change between most consecutive frames. Our approach benefits from the static nature of indoor environments to pre-compute a visibility map that enables us to boost real-time rendering performance. The key idea behind our visibility map is to exploit the cluttered topology of buildings in order to effectively cull the regions of the space that are occluded by structural elements such as walls. This does not only improve performance but also the visual quality of the final render, allowing us to display in full detail the space and preventing the user to see the contiguous spaces through the walls. Additionally, we introduce a novel hierarchical data structure that enables us to display the point cloud with a continuous level of detail with a minimal impact on performance. Experimental results show that our approach outperforms state-of-the-art techniques in complex indoor environments and achieves comparable results in outdoor ones, proving the generality of our method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The exploration and stability evaluation of underground goaf is one of the urgent safety problems to be solved in many mines. Taking a tourist adit as an engineering case, the BLSF mobile three dimensional laser scanning measurement system was used to detect the goaf and build the three dimensional point cloud model of the adit and goaf. Based on this, a refined three dimensional numerical analysis model was established to evaluate the goaf stability based on the real form. The results show that the refined numerical simulation method based on three dimensional laser scanning can more accurately depict the goaf morphology and more truly reflect the goaf stability characteristics. The isolated pillar of typical engineering has good stability, but there are potential safety hazards in local areas of the adit. The research results provide a useful reference for the safety evaluation of goaf stability in similar mines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Point cloud models are prevalently utilized in the architectural and civil engineering sectors. The registration of point clouds can invariably introduce registration errors, adversely impacting the accuracy of point cloud models. While the domain of computer vision has delved profoundly into point cloud registration, limited research in the construction domain has explored these registration algorithms in the built environment, despite their inception in the field of computer vision. The primary objective of this study is to investigate the impact of mainstream point cloud registration algorithms—originally introduced in the computer vision domain—on point cloud models, specifically within the context of bridge engineering as a category of civil engineering data. Concurrently, this study examines the influence of noise removal on varying point cloud registration algorithms. Our research quantifies potential variables for registration quality based on two metrics: registration error (RE) and time consumption (TC). Statistical methods were employed for significance analysis and value engineering assessment. The experimental outcomes indicate that the GRICP algorithm exhibits the highest precision, with RE values of 3.02 mm and 2.79 mm under non-noise removal and noise removal conditions, respectively. The most efficient algorithm is PLICP, yielding TC values of 3.86 min and 2.70 min under the aforementioned conditions. The algorithm with the optimal cost-benefit ratio is CICP, presenting value scores of 3.57 and 4.26 for non-noise removal and noise removal conditions, respectively. Under noise removal conditions, a majority of point cloud algorithms witnessed a notable enhancement in registration accuracy and a decrease in time consumption. Specifically, the POICP algorithm experienced a 32% reduction in RE and a 34% decline in TC after noise removal. Similarly, PLICP observed a 34% and 30% reduction in RE and TC, respectively. KICP showcased a decline of 23% in RE and 28% in TC, CICP manifested a 27% and 31% drop in RE and TC, respectively, GRICP observed an 8% reduction in RE and a 40% decline in TC, and for FGRICP, RE and TC decreased by 8% and 52%, respectively, subsequent to noise removal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. The aim of the study is to generalize the experience of using and reveal the features of methods for classifying and clustering images obtained by laser scanning.Method. The study is based on the use of algorithms for recognition, clustering and classification of data obtained using laser scanning.Result. A brief review of existing algorithms used for clustering images obtained by laser scanning has been carried out. The possibility of using sequentially the K-means and DBSCAN algorithms for clustering in relation to objects of various shapes is shown. The possibilities of using algorithms for the classification and clustering of laser reflection points (k-Means, DBSCAN, SVM) in the framework of solving territorial planning problems are analyzed.Conclusion. The use of the presented algorithms makes it possible to form data arrays that, when superimposed on each other subsequently and further processed, make it possible to obtain even more accurate representations of objects and territories in territorial planning documents, and in the future, based on the use of machine learning methods and processing of data matrices available in memory, get more accurate information about objects on the ground.

Sediment Barriers (SBs) are crucial for effective erosion control, and understanding their capacities and limitations is essential for environmental protection. This study compares the accuracy and effectiveness of Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) and Robotic Total Station (RTS) techniques for quantifying sediment retention in SBs. To achieve this, erosion tests were conducted in a full-scale testing apparatus with TLS and RTS methods to collect morphological data of sediment retention surfaces before and after each experiment. The acquired datasets were processed and integrated into a Building Information Modeling (BIM) platform to create Digital Elevation Models (DEMs). These were then used to calculate the volume of accumulated sediment upstream of the SB system. The results indicated that TLS and RTS techniques could effectively measure sediment retention in a full-scale testing environment. However, TLS proved to be more accurate, exhibiting a standard deviation of 0.41 ft3 in contrast to 1.94 ft3 for RTS and more efficient, requiring approximately 15% to 50% less time per test than RTS. The main conclusions of this study highlight the benefits of using TLS over RTS for sediment retention measurement and provide valuable insights for improving erosion control strategies and sediment barrier design.

The prism deflector which is a multifaceted prism with reflective facets is the most common scanning element that allows to quickly fill a wide scanning area with laser radiation pulses along one coordinate. The parameters of a prismatic deflector are related to the characteristics of the laser radiation of the scanned area parameters and of the deflector position, and are also limited by various factors, such as safety requirements or scanning time. The aim of this work was to analyze the relationship between the external operating conditions of a laser scanning system and the internal design parameters of a prism deflector.A variant of calculating of laser pulses frequency by the number of spots and their overlap coefficient is considered. A method for calculating of a prism deflector characteristics based on external parameters, such as the angle of incidence of radiation to the facet and the width of the Gaussian beam with dimensions that are safe for а human eye is proposed. Рrismatic deflectors parameters are proposed depending on the number of reflecting facets. Dependence of a deflector size on the angle of radiation incidence to the reflecting face is shown.When designing a prismatic deflector of a laser scanner used to fill a certain scanning area with the required angular size σ by varying such parameters as the number of faces m and the feed angle α it is possible to achieve optimal deflector characteristics and scanning mode for the task.

Abstract The construction of the St. Adalbert Church in Gdansk dates to 1310. It is a church of rich history and great historical value, and its care is challenging. In this study, the combination of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) was used to accurately build a 3D model of the church. Together with the collected historical inventory documentation, the historic building information model (HBIM) was generated. The Autodesk-Revit® tool was used for this purpose. On the basis of the generated model, the reflection properties of the laser scanner beam and red–green–blue (RGB) images, a methodology was proposed for analysing the degradation of the church’s components. The main hypothesis of this study is based on the analysis of sunlight outside the church. In addition to the importance of the method for determining the risks of church degradation, a high-quality method for model visualization combining two photogrammetric techniques (TLS + UAV) is presented.

Advances in LiDAR and unmanned aerial vehicle technology have made high-resolution data available, which can be used for individual tree detection and assessing tree attributes. The accuracy of these assessments is still not clear for stands with high tree species diversity as well as leaf-off and leaf-on conditions. The aim of this study was to assess the quality of tree top detection and individual tree heights extracted from photogrammetric point clouds and canopy height models as well as ground-based LiDAR clouds in mixed and coniferous forest stands depending on the phenological stage. The study has been carried out in the Botanical Garden of the Petrozavodsk State University (Republic of Karelia, Russia). Four flight missions (in 2019–2021) using Phantom 4 Pro quadcopter were conducted in the arboretum (> 200 tree species) during periods of leafless, leaf biomass growth, full foliage and autumn leaf colouration. A single ground-based laser scanning was performed using a Leica BLK 360. Multiseasonal ultra-high resolution orthophoto mosaics (1.1–2.8 cm/pixel), photogrammetric point clouds (average density is 4200 points/m2), as well as LiDAR clouds (11 600 points/m2) were obtained. Further analysis was performed on three sites differing in tree species composition, tree density and site area. Tree tops were automatically detected from photogrammetric point clouds and their heights were estimated using R environment software. We found that most of the trees (78.9%) were correctly detected by algorithms based on photogrammetric data collected in periods of full foliage and autumn colouration. We also found that the number of false positive (FP) and false negative (FN) cases increased with decreasing in green biomass on deciduous trees. Compared with an average value, tree detection quality increased by 9.4% for coniferous trees with cone-shaped crowns (Abies sibirica, A. balsamea, A. fraseri, Picea abies, P. pungens, P. omorika, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix sibirica) regardless of the tree density, and tree detection quality decreased by 10% for coniferous trees with an ellipsoidal-shaped crowns (e.g. Thuja occidentalis, genus Pinus) or in cases for broad-leaved trees with high tree density. The lowest value of tree detection quality (F = 0.49) was found for the leafless period. High values (F = 0.84) obtained for periods of full foliage and autumn colouration indicates that tree detection quality was well in general. For the biomass growth period, this value (F = 0.69) also indicates a high quality of tree detection results. We also found that tree heights estimated using photogrammetric data well matched with tree heights measured on LiDAR clouds (R2 = 0.99). The highest accuracy was obtained for coniferous trees with cone-shaped crowns. We also estimated the height increments of different tree species between 2019 and 2021 based on photogrammetric point clouds. The highest annual height increment was obtained for Pinus sibirica (52 cm), and the lowest for Pseudotsuga menziesii (32 cm). Overall, our results have shown the potential to use photogrammetric and LiDAR data for tree mapping and estimating tree attributes in multi-species forest stands of arboretums or urban parks, as well as in natural forests.

Advances in digitization technologies have made possible the digitization of entire archaeological sites through a combination of technologies, including aerial photogrammetry, terrestrial photogrammetry, and terrestrial laser scanning. At the same time, the evolution of computer algorithms for data processing and the increased processing power made possible the combination of data from multiple scans to create a synthetic representation of large-scale sites. Finally, post-processing techniques and the evolution of computer and mobile GPUs and game engines have made possible the exploitation of digitization outcomes to further scientific study and historical preservation. This route was opened by the gaming industry. In terms of research, the exploitation of these new assets in conjunction with new visual rendering technologies, such as virtual and augmented reality, can create new dimensions for education and leisure. In this paper, we explore the usage of large-scale digitization of a heritage site to create a unique virtual visiting experience that can be accessed offline in VR and AR and on-site when visiting the archaeological site.

Highlights: • High-definition scanning and 3D printing have been used as tools in the detection of heritage pathologies, as well as in the study of materials. • The Carcabuey castle has been digitized and the volumetric data recovered from the study of its materials typology and its stereotomy, obtained with laser scanning. • The study of construction and material phases, and the pathologies produced by them, has been carried out from the 3D printing of the heritage structure parts. Abstract: Precise documentation is essential to carry out the restoration and enhancement processes of protected heritage contexts. Data collection has been increasingly perfected, to the point of being able to perform virtual recreations of complex historical sites, in order to carry out in-depth studies and analyses. An example is Carcabuey Castle (Cordoba, Andalusia), a large fortress with important medieval structures. It is a monumental site of the so-called "Frontier Castles", which were located between the Kingdom of Aragon, and the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada. With the aim of restoring it and highlighting its value, an in-depth study was developed for its conservation and subsequent intervention. The data collection included terrestrial laser scanning and vectorising all the structures, as well as a complex and complete photogrammetric survey. From these previous data and carrying out a deductive analytical methodology, a model was generated which, after being printed in 3D (different models at different scales of detail), would allow the volumes, materials and textures which make up the castle, to be studied. The multidisciplinary team, composed of architects, archaeologists, historians and engineers, made it possible to provide multifaceted and inclusive character to all the work, both in the study of pathologies based on the models, and in the construction phases, detected by the stereotomy of the ashlars, or chemical composition of mortars. Since then, with all the data obtained in the research, summarised in this article, it has been possible to carry out a correct diagnosis for the restoration and enhancement of the heritage site.

This paper presents a parametric classification methodology to identify common indoor and outdoor furniture objects present in the 3D Cartesian point cloud of the surveyed environment. For this purpose, a low cost custom made trolley based scanning and surveying system has developed using orthogonal integration of two popular Hokuyo-30LX 2D laser scanners. The developed system has been successfully used to generate 3D point cloud of the environment using Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) technique. The instrumentation system of the trolley has been interfaced through Robot Operating System (ROS) for online processing and recording of all sensorial data. While classification of the furniture present in point cloud has been done in offline mode using Random Sampling and Consensus (RANSAC) based parametric segmentation technique. The innovative furniture detection has applied on each scan in order to reduce the region of interest in the developed point cloud. In addition, the validation of the classified furniture objects has been performed using Fuzzy Logic. Multiple indoor and outdoor vicinities have been scanned and modelling results have been found accurate nearer to ground truth. In comparison to available surveying solutions present in the local market, the developed system has been found faster and precise to produce more enhanced structural results with minute details.

Purpose: The present study aimed to assess the accuracy and reproducibility of laser-scanned digital models compared to plaster models. Materials and Methods: A total of 50 plaster models were scanned using the 3M ESPE Lava scan ST scanner to construct digital models. Various measurements, encompassing intra-arch and inter-arch from scans and plaster models, were estimated. The plaster models were measured using digital calipers and digital models using MiniMagics 3.0 software. Descriptive statistics were calculated, and the mean difference of the parameters between the two groups was tested by paired t-test. Results: No significant difference was detected between the digital and manual measurements in the majority of the parameters, and the values for the parameters showed significant differences that were not clinically applicable. The digital method showed good reproducibility for all the measurements (r > 0.7). Overbite showed a marked variation between the manual and digital measurements due to overlapping tooth structures in digital models with respect to ideal occlusion. Bolton's analysis did not show a significant difference between the manual and digital methods. Conclusions: Digital models could be compared to the gold standard plaster models.

Modern digitization technologies have created an increasing number of possibilities for capturing the physical dimensions and appearance of archaeological artifacts and sites in 3D. The usage of such data is usually targeted to the research, study, and documentation of our cultural heritage. At the same time, the increasing quality of the produced digitizations has opened new possibilities for the further exploitation of digitization outcomes in a wider context than initially expected. A pioneer in this direction was the gaming industry, where photogrammetry has been recently employed to achieve extreme photorealism. Of course, challenges still exist, especially when digitization accuracy is of importance, such as in the case of large-scale archaeological sites. Further challenges regard the need to combine indoor and outdoor scenes that pose requirements in the selection of the appropriate digitization modalities and post-processing strategies. In more detail, the challenges relate to the appropriate usage of existing technologies, organization issues in terms of digitization visits, the combination and registration of data, data acquisition, and data processing methodologies, etc. In this paper, we demonstrated a methodology for the digitization of archaeological sites that can be used for creating digital assets suitable for various scenarios including research, education, and entertainment.

Generally, a group of sub-micron or nanometer sized optical phase shifters or modulators are used in an optical phased array (OPA) based scanner so as to selectively perturb wavefronts of outgoing laser beams. Similar to the concept of light propagation through a prism, an array of phase shifters is responsible for linearly delaying or advancing the propagating light waves. Optical phased array (OPA) systems have become an emerging technology for many applications due to the compact designs that eliminate the need for robust physical moving parts, leading to their fast response, high reliability, and low power requirements. Micromirror based OPA systems are fundamentally different than the conventional micromirror arrays that were being developed for numerous applications such as spectroscopy, digital light processing projectors, laser communication, and confocal microscopy. Those micromirror arrays provide significantly different motion types, actuation strokes, and operating speeds, due to the distinct task requirements by their target applications. Most of the previously designed conventional micromirror arrays are not suitable for high-speed laser beam steering at wide field of view due to either the large mirror sizes or the large array pitch sizes. MEMS based OPA systems generally demand narrow and tightly spaced suspended microstructures with high-aspect-ratio in lateral dimensions, rendering some significant challenges in the system design, fabrication, and integration. In addition, the scanners are required to generate hundreds to thousands of scan points along a far-field scan line which results in a large number of phase shifters in the arrays and high complexity in control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dobšiná Ice Cave has attracted the attention of many researchers since its discovery more than 150 years ago. Although the cave is located outside the high-mountain area, it hosts one of the largest blocks of underground perennial ice. The topographic mapping of this unique UNESCO Natural Heritage site has led to several historical surveys. In the last decades of rapid climate change, this natural formation has been subject to rapid changes that are dynamically affecting the shape of the ice body. Not only increased precipitation, the rise in year-round surface temperatures, but also the gravity cause significant shape changes in the ice filling. This paper describes modern technological tools to comprehensively survey and evaluate interannual changes in both the floor and wall of the underground ice block. Technologies such as digital photogrammetry, in conjunction with precise digital tacheometry, make it possible to detect ice accumulation and loss, including the effect of sublimation due to airflow, as well as sliding movements of the ice block to the lower part of the cave. In the last two years, geophysical methods (microgravimetry and ground penetrating radar) have been added to determine the thickness of the floor ice in the upper parts of the cave due to the complexity of the measurements. The paper not only highlights the current technological possibilities but also points out the limitations of these technologies and then sets out solutions with a proposal of technological procedures for obtaining accurate geodetic and geophysical data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) retaining walls are used extensively in the U.S.A. However, some of these walls are experiencing excessive movements. There is currently no clear numerical assessment or in situ procedure to monitor and evaluate such walls. The current study developed a procedure involving field and experimental measures on two MSE walls in Hurst, TX. The facia panels were monitored using a 3-D robotic laser scanner. The backfill soil testing involved in situ resistivity imaging and laboratory soil testing following applicable specifications. Also, a regression analysis was conducted to assess the effect of different wall parameters on MSE wall performance. Laser scanning showed both walls exhibited lateral and settlements in the ranges of 4–5 mm and 4–8 mm, respectively, relative to the scan initiation time. The movements varied with seasonal rainfall changes with peaks and valleys. Soil tests showed the backfill soil for both walls was not acceptable in regard to fines content, friction angle, and optimum dry density. Resistivity imaging scans indicated backfills have poor permeability characteristics. The techniques proved to be efficient in assessing MSE walls are laser scanning, resistivity imaging, and soil testing. The radar scanning approach in this study was unsuccessful in effectively locating such failed straps due to dense steel rebar cage obstruction to radar waves in the shoulder concrete pavements. The developed regression model shows that wall lateral movement is affected the most by pore pressure, increases considerably with increasing reinforcement ductility, and decreases with increasing reinforcement length and soil cohesiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technological developments involving the implementation of modern measuring equipment and the digitalisation of civil engineering can contribute to extending the service life of buildings. Large-panel buildings constitute a large housing stock throughout Europe. This paper presents the possibility of using laser scanning to identify typical assembly defects in large-panel buildings. Based on point cloud data, numerical models were created to assess the impact of improper assembly on the elements' performance. It was indicated that using scanning to identify and monitor the displacement of structural elements does not relieve experts of the need to perform other tests. Analyses related to the possibility of using Building Information Modeling technology to manage large-panel buildings were also conducted. A parametric model was made, from which a number of possibilities of its use at every stage of the building's life were presented in an example. It was highlighted that parametric models of large-panel buildings, due to their repeatable geometry, can be copied for use in managing entire neighbourhoods. Limitations associated with implementing BIM technology in practice were also formulated. The analyses and research performed confirm the validity of implementing modern research methods in engineering practice and digitising the documentation of large-panel buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diffuse data fruition of archaeological hypogeum sites still represents a challenge due to their limited accessibility and their preservation and maintenance issues. This implies that the fruition of these peculiar archaeological sites is often possible through digital reconstructions and interactive web navigation systems. The survey methodologies based on terrestrial laser scanning and photogrammetry allow making accurate and detailed digital reconstructions of these sites that are useful for virtual fruition purposes. In addition, many different systems can be used for remote web navigation and fruition. This work presents a possible solution for the virtual fruition of archaeological hypogea with a multiscale 3D web navigation system based on WebGL open-source technology. The system has been implemented for the Roman hypogeum of Crispia salvia, located in Marsala (southern Italy). The hypogeum belongs to the Archaeological Park of Lilibeo-Marsala and is considered one of the most important archaeological discoveries in this area for its extraordinary frescoes. Public accessibility of this site is limited because it is located outside the boundaries of the Archaeological Park, in the modern town, and covered by a residential building. In this case, the web navigation system adds an important contribution due to the limited real accessibility to the site. This work shows the framework for the construction of the web navigation system, where 3D surveys, digital reconstructions, 3D modeling, and web development are integrated. The choice of using an open-source technology for the web navigation system limits the costs of the process, and, at the same time, grants the web dissemination of site information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article proposes using a novel hybrid measurement method, with expected precision results, to determine the characteristic of the historic, 17th-century bell. In an interdisciplinary approach, modern and non-invasive physical and chemical measurement methods were used. Based on the monitoring (measurements and laser scanning), a three-dimensional geometric model was built to calculate the bell size and analyze its condition depending on material consumption. Next, chemical measures of the bell samples were carried out to determine the material properties. For that purpose, advanced precision microscopic techniques were used. Based on the geometric model and chemical studies, the material properties and density of the bronze were determined using additive assumptions. Measurement accuracy and data quality were evaluated statistically. The method allows reliably determining the bell's weight without needing to dismantle it or external intervention. The approach is helpful for practitioners performing conservation work on such objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research employs the power of machine learning, which is the utilization of algorithms to allow computer systems to learn and make predictions or decisions based on data. It explores the intricate web of cultural influences and historical changes that have significantly shaped the development of the Dunhuang artistic style. Machine learning delves into the subtleties of temporal and spatial intricacies within Dunhuang art. Deep learning models, a subset of machine learning, are harnessed to analyze a comprehensive collection of 10,000 photographs showcasing Dunhuang cave murals spanning various historical periods. Researchers skillfully identify minor shifts in artistic patterns, meticulously recording the dynamic interplay of Indian, Central Asian, Chinese, and Tibetan influences on Dunhuang art, all through the integration of big data approaches with archaeological evidence. The deep learning algorithm employed demonstrates remarkable precision by accurately predicting both the time period and geographic origins of the Dunhuang caves with an astounding 95% and 94% accuracy, respectively. The implications of these findings resonate profoundly within the theoretical and applied realms of archaeology and art history. This study paves the way for transformative applications, from enhancing conservation efforts to automating artifact classification and simplifying the curation of historical relics. Theoretically, it challenges accepted paradigms of art history and offers a more nuanced perspective on the complex web of cultural influences that resulted in Dunhuang's unique artistic expression. With a paradigm of archaeological research, this plays a role that big data and machine learning to understand the puzzling legacy of ancient art. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]