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The purpose of this study is to investigate whether there are differences in physique characteristics between the excellent domestic player groups in each sport player's, to prevent epidemiologic damage of musculoskeletal system and to provide fundamental data to improve performances for players. This study has performed for total 60 student players from Y University in Yongin, Gyeonggi-do, consists of 20 Kendo players, 20 Judo players and 20 Taekwondo players. We measured the length and circumference of arm, leg, body using Martin anthropometer to collect the data for 3 groups. There was significant difference in lower left arm length between player groups(p

In present study we focused on the weed occurrence and diversity in rice field according to methods of weed control. Experiments comprised of no herbicide treatment (NHT), herbicide treatment (HT) and golden apple snail treatment (GAST) within the three months (July to September) of growing rice. According to results, five to seven different weed species were found in NHT, while two to four different weed species were found in HT and GAST. Monochoria vaginalis was dominant species during growing period in NHT and HT while Lemna paucicostata was the dominant in July but Persicaria hydropiper was dominant for August and September. Simpson's dominance index was highest in GAST(0.96) compared with other treatments (NHT 0.27 and HT : 0.51). The similarity coefficient was 50.31%, 4.65% and 0.38% for NHT versus HT, NHT versus GAST and HT versus GAST, respectively. In conclusion, the weed species diversity, dominance and similarity coefficient were varied in different weed control methods of rice growing.

This study is intended to examine the tDCS and Montoya stair task(MST) on sensorimotor recovery and glial scar expression in MCAo induced stroke model of rat. To achieve this goal, this study selected 80 SD rats of 8 weeks. The experiment groups were divided them into four groups, and assigned 20 rats to each group. Group I was a experimental control group; GroupII was a tDCS application group after MCAo; Group III was a MST application group after MCAo; Group IV was a tDCS and MST application group after MCAo. In each group, neurological function test measurement, motor behavior test, montoya stair task test, immunohistochemistric finding of GFAP expression finding were analyzed. In motor behavior test, the outcome of group I was significantly difference than the other group, especially from 14days. In montoya stair task test, the outcome of group I was significantly lower than the other group especially, group II were significantly different on 14days and group IV was most significantly difference than the other group. In immunohistochemistric finding, group II, III, IV were decrease GFAP expression on depend on time stream. These results throughout the MCAo due to focal ischemic brain injury rat model four weeks tDCS and MST was applied, when the neurobehavioural, upper extremity function and ability, histopathologic data suggest that sensorimotor function recovery and a positive influence on glial scar decrease and confirmed that.

Endophytic fungi are little known for exogenous gibberellins (GAs) production and plant growth promotion under salt stress conditions. We isolated 13 endophytic fungi from soybean roots, which were screened on Waito-C rice for plant growth promoting capacity. Endophytic strain, GMH-1a exhibited maximum growth during screening and thus was investigated for GAs production and host plant interaction. GMH-1a was identified as a new strain of Aspergillus fumigatus sp. LH02 through phylogenetic analysis of 18S rDNA sequence. Analysis of GMH-1a culture filtrate showed presence of GA4 (24.8 ng/ml), GA9 (1.2 ng/ml) and GA12 (9.8 ng/ml). Soybean plants inoculated with GMH-1a significantly increased shoot length, shoot fresh and dry biomass, leaf area, chlorophyll contents and photosynthetic rate under salt stress (70 and 140 mM) as compared to non-inoculated plants. GMH-1a inoculated plants had contained significantly lower endogenous abscisic acid (ABA) and elevated free proline, salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA) contents in comparison to their respective control treatments. Isoflavones, quantified through excessive HPLC analysis, showed that GMH-1a inoculated plants with/without salt stress contained higher isoflavones than non-inoculated plants and with/without NaCl stress. This novel endophytic fungus has reprogrammed soybean metabolism to improve plant growth and increase isoflavone contents under salt stress.

This paper presents a digitally controlled injection-locked multimodulus frequency divider (ILMFD) based on a ring-oscillator using inverter chains for a small area and low power consumption. In the proposed ILMFD, division ratios of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are achieved by using a programmable delay line that changes the self-oscillation frequency of the ring-oscillator. The locking range of the proposed ILMFD is improved by employing a dual-input injection scheme, which unlike previous multiinput injection schemes, does not require distinct phase inputs. A prototype chip implemented in a 0.13-μm CMOS process has an area of 35×33 μm2 and operates at 5 GHz while consuming 470 μW from 1.2 V supply, where 350 μW is dissipated in the core of the ILMFD. The proposed divider is the first reported multimodulus ILFD with digitally controlled division ratios and an in-phase dual-input injection scheme.

Background: Sex chromosome loss (SCL) has long been deemed a physiological age-related phenomenon, but due to its increasingly common appearance in pathogenic settings, there has been renewed debate as to its clinical significance. In hematologic patients receiving sex-mismatched bone marrow transplantations (BMT), depending on the donor/patient sex combination, the appearance and/or disappearance of the Y chromosome can have various implications such as engraftment, relapse, or even donor cell leukemia. This diversity, especially when coupled with deletion/duplication of an X chromosome, can be extremely misleading when determining post-BMT chimerism and may even cause misdiagnosis. We investigated the incidence and clinical implications of SCL in patients who received sex-mismatched BMT. Methods: The present study includes 476 patients (262 females and 214 males) that underwent sex-mismatched BMT over a 10-year period (2005-2015) at Seoul National University Hospital. Retrospective review of electronic medical records was performed to obtain relevant clinical data. SCL was determined by X/Y Fluoresence in situ Hybridization (FISH) and its clinical significance was evaluated in conjunction with other available cytogenetic (karyotyping, FISH), molecular (short-tandem repeat (STR) analysis), and bone marrow (BM) aspiration/biopsy results. Correlation between clinical factors were analyzed via Kendall's rank correlation coefficients. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was utilized to obtain and compare survival curves of the patients according to age, sex, recipient STR percentage, SCL percentage, and post-BMT time interval till appearance of SCL. Two types of survival was analyzed: the first being the survival from initiation of BMT, and the second being the survival from the onset of SCL. Results: From a total of 476 patients who received sex-mismatched BMT, 77 patients (16.2%) showed post-BMT SCL. Interestingly, the number of female recipients with SCL was significantly higher than males (67 vs 10), but the overall degree of SCL (%) was higher in male patients. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) was the most common primary diagnoses in all patients, but the distribution of diagnoses was not different between sexes. Females had a lower average age compared to males (33.8 vs 50.9 years). Correlation analysis showed that SCL positively correlated with both STR and age, however, there were a few cases with discrepancies between the SCL percentage and recipient STR percentage. These discrepancies usually occurred at low SCL and STR percentages (32 years (p=0.003, Figure 1 a), males (p8.25% (p3.8% (p = 0.006, Figure 1 d), and time interval from BMT to onset of SCL ≤10.9 months (p = 0.002, Figure 1 e). Comprehensive analyses of X/Y FISH combined with aberrant FISH markers, G-banding, and BM blast counts confirmed both higher relapse and mortality rates in SCL patients. Conclusions: Vigilance is required when interpreting X/Y FISH results, especially when relatively low percentages ( Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

The birth of live animals following somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) has demonstrated that oocytes can reprogram the genome of differentiated cells. However, in all species the frequency of development of healthy offspring is low; for example, in sheep, approximately only 5% of blastocysts transferred develop to term, and less than 3% develop to adulthood. Such low efficiencies, coupled with the occurrence of developmental abnormalities, have been attributed to incomplete or incorrect reprogramming. Cytoplasmic extracts from both mammalian and amphibian oocytes can alter the epigenetic state of mammalian somatic nuclei and reprogram gene expression to more resemble that of pluripotent cells. Therefore, it may be possible to increase the frequency or success of normal development by pretreating somatic cells to be used as nuclear donors prior to SCNT. In the present study, permeabilized ovine fetal fibroblasts were pretreated with a cytoplasmic extract produced from germinal vesicle (GV) stage Xenopus laevis oocytes. No increase in the frequency of development to blastocyst stage or pregnancy rate was observed; however, live birth and survival rates were significantly improved. Development to term of blastocysts transferred increased from 3.1% in the control group, to 14.7% in the treated group (a 4.7-fold increase), and even though the subsequent survival of lambs produced from treated cells was reduced by 60%, the percentage of lambs surviving to adulthood of blastocysts transferred (5.9%) increased 1.9-fold compared to controls. This study is the first to report the birth of live offspring and an increase in cloning efficiency, after crossspecies pre-reprogramming using Xenopus GV stage oocyte extract.

The apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene has been suggested to be associated with stroke and dementia. However, the effects of exercise training on dementia according to the APOE genotype are not consistent to those reported by previous studies. Therefore, we examined the effects of ex-ercise training on stroke risk factors including blood pressure, lipid pro-files, homocysteine (Hcy) concentrations, and cognitive function ac-cording to the APOE genotype in stroke patients. We examined the stroke risk factors, Hcy, and cognitive function in 28 ischemic stroke pa-tients before and after 6 months of exercise training. After exercise training, body weight, body mass index (BMI), and percent body fat de-creased significantly in both APOE groups. According to the APOE gen-otype, the changes in BMI in the APOE e4 group higher than those in APOE e3 group significantly. Total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipopro-tein (LDL)-C, triglyceride (TG), and Hcy decreased and high-density lipo-protein (HDL)-C increased significantly in the both groups. According to the APOE genotype, systolic blood pressure in the APOE e4 group de-creased, but in the APOE e3 group increased after exercise training. TC, LDL-C, and TG in the APOE e4 group decreased more extensively than those in the APOE e3 group after exercise training. VO2max (maximal oxy-gen consumption) and cognition increased significantly in both groups. Folate acid intake also increased significantly in both groups. The APOE genotype affects variations in the risk factors of stroke after exercise training. However, the Hcy and cognitive function did not differ based on the APOE genotype.

We investigated the effect of prohexadione-calcium (Pro-Ca) on growth characteristics and endogenous gibberellins content of Chinese cabbage grown in the alpine region of South Korea. Pro-Ca was applied at the rates of 200 ppm and 400 ppm, after 10, 15 and 20 days of transplanting seedlings in to the field. Application of Pro-Ca through foliage improved quality and quantity of yield by promoting Chinese cabbage head yield, number of head leaves, total soluble sugar content and compactness of head. The leaf size was reduced, while the chlorophyll content increased under the influence of elevated Pro-Ca application, when measured after 40 days of transplantation. The endogenous bioactive GA1 and GA4 contents of Chinese cabbage drastically decreased with elevated Pro-Ca, indicating that gibberellins (GAs) biosynthesis was blocked by this chemical. Current study suggests that both of GAs biosynthesis pathways are operational in Chinese cabbage, although non-C13-hydroxylation pathway was found to be the major pathway. GAs were quantified by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy-selective ion monitoring (GC/MS-SIM). © 2010 Published by Elsevier B.V.

The effect of Prohexadione Calcium (Pro-Ca) and daminozide was observed on the growth characteristics and endogenous gibberellin contents of Chrysanthemum morifolium R. cv Monalisa White. Three concentrations viz. 100, 200 and 400 ppm of Pro-Ca and a single concentration of daminozide (800 ppm) were applied three times with 7 days interval on three weeks old plant under greenhouse condition. Pro-Ca suppressed the plant length up to 30.7% while daminozide inhibited up to 27.12% at optimum concentration. The chlorophyll contents and stem diameter were higher than control, while the fresh weight and flower number insignificantly reduced with such treatments. Gibberellin (GA) analysis showed that Pro-Ca and daminozide application significantly lowered bioactive GA 1 content, although the amount of its immediate precursor GA 20 was fractionally higher. Bioactive GA 4 content was slightly higher than the control while significant difference in GA 9 was found between the plants treated with Pro-Ca and daminozide. Current study showed that both early C13 hydroxylation and non-C13 hydroxylation pathways of GA biosynthesis are operational in C. morifolium .

The purpose of this study was to explore leisure policies of Lee Myung-Bak government and to extract directions of the polices for the future. A report from task force team for undertaking the 17th presidency and 100 policies of the government were analyzed. As a result, three problems were extracted: lack of awareness for the needs of leisure policy; lack of policies for development of creative leisure culture and contents; none of any base project for leisure policy development. Three policy directions were extracted from the three problems: change of awareness of the leisure; building up creative leisure culture development atmosphere; making up base for leisure policy development. The time is changing steadily forward leisure life. Therefore, this government need to drive forward more advanced leisure policy than now.

In an effort to better control bacterial biofilm, we examined the effects of various oxidative antimicrobial chemicals including silver, paraquat, hydrogen peroxide, and chlorine depending on the physiological status of cells in biofilm. The metabolically heterogeneous cells within colony biofilm were physically fractionated and the oxidative stress generated in each fraction was monitored by soxS and oxyS promoter reporter systems. Chlorine induced soxS to a greater degree in the dormant cells than active cells of biofilm. In addition, chlorine-dependent induction of soxS was more prominent in aerobically grown cells compared with anaerobically grown cells. On the contrary, the soxS induction by other chemicals such as paraquat and silver, and the oxyS induction by hydrogen peroxide were higher in active biofilm cells and aerobically grown cells. Our results suggest that chlorine might generate strong oxidative stress by direct modification of the 2Fe-2S cluster in an O(2)-independent manner, which provides the molecular basis of our previous report showing that chlorine has a more efficient killing effect on dormant cells in biofilm and cells grown under unaerobic conditions. This study shows that chlorine may be particularly promising for the control of anaerobic bacteria and biofilm where dormant cells are hard to control.

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether group III muscle afferents play an important role eliciting abnormal blood pressure response mediated during passive muscle stretch in prehypertensive individuals. Eleven middle-aged prehypertensive men (average BP 133/80 mmHg) and nine middle-aged normotensive men (average BP 119/74 mmHg) participated in this study. After 1 min rest baseline data collection, the subject`s foot was flexed (dorsiflexion) by an automated cybex for one minute. Systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, and total peripheral resistance were continuously measured on a beat-by-beat basis from a finger via a Finapres device for 1 minute. To evaluate the role of mechanoreflex, a component of exercise pressor reflex, SBP, DBP, and MAP responses over the course of time were examined. The results showed that the pressor response mediated by the muscle mechanoreflex was faster in prehypertensive individuals compared to the normotensive individuals. The substantial pressor response was observed within mean 20 sec of the onset of passive stretch in prehypertension, while mean 45 sec in normotension (p

The quorum sensing (QS) inhibitors that antagonize TraR, a receptor protein for N-3-oxo-octanoyl-L-homoserine lactones (3-oxo-C8-HSL), a QS signal of Agrobacterium tumefaciens were developed. The structural analogues of 3-oxo-C8-HSL were designed by in silico molecular modeling using SYBYL packages, and synthesized by the solid phase organic synthesis (SPOS) method, where the carboxamide bond of 3-oxo-C8-HSL was replaced with a nicotinamide or a sulfonamide bond to make derivatives of N-nicotinyl-L-homoserine lactones or N-sulfonyl-L-homoserine lactones. The in vivo inhibitory activities of these compounds against QS signaling were assayed using reporter systems and compared with the estimated binding energies from the modeling study. This comparison showed fairly good correlation, suggesting that the in silico interpretation of ligand-receptor structures can be a valuable tool for the pre-design of better competitive inhibitors. In addition, these inhibitors also showed anti-biofilm activities against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The quorum sensing (QS) mechanism of Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been studied extensively due to its involvement in cystic fibrosis, a deadly disease that is responsible for the death of more than a thousand people annually. In order to develop biochemical assay method for screening QS inhibitor, we have studied the production and characterization of recombinant LasR protein, which is a transcriptional activator for the QS mechanism in P. aeruginosa. In recombinant Escherichia coli BL21, LasR was produced as functionally-active proteins when the cells were cultivated in the presence of a proper signaling molecule (acyl homoserine lactone, AHL) only. Some soluble LasR proteins could be obtained from the cells which were grown in AHL-deficient medium, but they did not show binding affinity to the promoter sequence OP1 (lasB elastase promoter). Furthermore, the active LasR, presumably produced as LasR-AHL complex, was not dissociated into its components (LasR and AHLs) in vitro. The current results indicate that the production of pure and active LasR devoid of AHL is very difficult. It can be concluded that the development of biochemical assay method for screening AHL competitive inhibitors which requires pure and active LasR proteins might not be possible unless the structure of LasR and/or its folding processes is modified.

Inhibitors of 3OC12, an initial signal molecule of the quorum sensing (QS) signaling cascade in Pseudomonas aeruginosa have been developed. Eight inhibitor candidates were synthesized by substituting the head part of 3-oxododecanoyl-homoserine lactone (3OC12) with different aromatic rings, and their docking poses and scores (binding energies) were predicted by in silico modeling study. All compounds gave better docking scores than 3OC12 and good inhibition effects on LasR activity in the in vivo bioassay. Like the modifications in the tail part of 3OC12 in our previous study Kim et al. (2008), the head-part modifications also showed inhibition activity in a fairly good proportion to the docking scores from the modeling analysis. This implies that the head part of 3OC12 also contributes significantly to forming the active conformation of the LasR-3OC12 complex, and its modification could effectively induce the inactive conformation of the complex. We suggest that the head part of 3OC12 is also a good target moiety to develop the structure-based Pseudomonas QS inhibitors.

In iron-replete environments, the Pseudomonas aeruginosa Fur (ferric uptake regulator) protein represses expression of two small regulatory RNAs encoded by prrF1 and prrF2. Here we describe the effects of iron and PrrF regulation on P. aeruginosa physiology. We show that PrrF represses genes encoding enzymes for the degradation of anthranilate (i.e. antABC), a precursor of the Pseudomonas quinolone signal (PQS). Under iron-limiting conditions, PQS production was greatly decreased in a ΔprrF1,2 mutant as compared with wild type. The addition of anthranilate to the growth medium restored PQS production to the ΔprrF1,2 mutant, indicating that its defect in PQS production is a consequence of anthranilate degradation. PA2511 was shown to encode an anthranilate-dependent activator of the ant genes and was subsequently renamed antR. AntR was not required for regulation of antA by PrrF but was required for optimal iron activation of antA. Furthermore, iron was capable of activating both antA and antR in a ΔprrF1,2 mutant, indicating the presence of two distinct yet overlapping pathways for iron activation of antA (AntR-dependent and PrrF-dependent). Additionally, several quorum-sensing regulators, including PqsR, influenced antA expression, demonstrating that regulation of anthranilate metabolism is intimately woven into the quorum-sensing network of P. aeruginosa. Overall, our data illustrate the extensive control that both iron regulation and quorum sensing exercise in basic cellular physiology, underlining how intermediary metabolism can affect the regulation of virulence factors in P. aeruginosa.

The anti-diabetic effects of water extracts (WE) from medicinal herbs on hepatic glucose-regulating enzymes, such as glucokinase (GCK), pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and -glucosidase, were studied using the cytosol fraction in liver and mitochondia fraction in heart of a type II diabetic animal (GK rat, Goto-Kakizaki). The free radical scavenging activity of water extracts by DPPH method was also tested. We found that free radical scavenging activity was strong in Corni fructu (CF), Mokdan Bark (MDB), Chenhwabon (CHB) and Sanyack (SY), while that of Backbocreng (BBR), Shuckgihwang (SGH) and Taecsa (TS) was lower. For GCK activity in cytosol of liver, CF and CHB had a more effective activity than other extracts. PDH activity in mitochondria fraction of heart was higher in all of the extracts, expect for the TS extract, than in the control. ACC activity in cytosol fraction of liver was significantly higher in the CF, CHB, SGH, TS and SY extracts than in the control. CF, BBR and MDB led to a decrease in the -glucosidase activity. Therefore, these results suggest that all of the extracts may be used as functional material in the development as anti-diabetic functional food and medicine.

The backbone structure of ginsenosides, active ingredients of Panax ginseng, is similar with that of sterol, especially cholesterol. Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) is one of free living nematodes and is well-established animal model for biochemical and genetic studies. C. elegans cannot synthesize de novo cholesterol, although cholesterol is essential requirement for its growth and development. In the present study, we investigated the effects of Korean red ginseng total extract (KRGE), ginseng total saponins (GTS) on life span of C. elegans in cholesterol-deprived and -fed medium. Cholesterol deprivation caused damages on life span of worms throughout F1 to F3 generations. KRGE or GTS supplement to cholesterol-deprived medium restored the life span of worms as much as cholesterol alone-fed medium. In study to identify which ginsenosides are responsible for life span restoring effects of KRGE, we found that ginsenoside Rc supplement not only restored life span of worms grown in cholesterol-deprived medium but also prolonged life span of worms grown in cholesterol-fed medium. These results show a possibility that ginsenosides could be utilized by C. elegans as a sterol substitute and further indicate that ginsenoside Rc is the effective component of Korean red ginseng that prolongs the life span of C. elegans.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the sports injuries in Korean national ice hockey players compared with Chinese national ice hockey players by surveying the sports injuries` parts, times, types, frequency, and cure and prevention types and provide the basic data for the prevention way and performance improvement of ice hockey players. The results were as follows: The sports injuries incidence of both Korean and Chinese players was 100% and 63.16% of Chinese players and 100% of Korean players did injuries during the last 1 year. In the most parts of head, neck, and face Chinese players showed a higher incidence of injuries than Korean players. A contusion has been occurred highly in Chinese players and a fracture has been occurred highly in Korean players. The therapeutic treatment in Korean players was mainly to go to the hospital and in Chinese players, to put spray or ices on their painful parts. As the prevention of sports injuries, Korean players took their enough rest and sleep and Chinese players made up for their weak points. Therefore Korean ice hockey players must properly wear their protects and guards on their bodies and faces and need the sufficient rest and the systematic and scientific training and education in terms of injury prevention and performance improvement.

It is now over a decade since the birth, in 1996, of Dolly the first animal to be produced by nuclear transfer using an adult derived somatic cell as nuclear donor. Since this time similar techniques have been successfully applied to a range of species producing live offspring and allowing the development of transgenic technologies for agricultural, biotechnological and medical uses. However, though applicable to a range of species, overall, the efficiencies of development of healthy offspring remain low. The low frequency of successful development has been attributed to incomplete or inappropriate reprogramming of the transferred nuclear genome. Many studies have demonstrated that such reprogramming occurs by epigenetic mechanisms not involving alterations in DNA sequence, however, at present the molecular mechanisms underlying reprogramming are poorly defined. Since the birth of Dolly many studies have attempted to improve the frequency of development, this review will discuss the process of animal production by nuclear transfer and in particular changes in the methodology which have increased development and survival, simplified or increased robustness of the technique. Although much of the discussion is applicable across species, for simplicity we will concentrate primarily on published data for cattle, sheep, pigs and mice.

In this paper, a low-power low-IF receiver and a direct-conversion transmitter (DCT) suitable for the IEEE standard 802.15.4 radio system at the 2.4-GHz band are presented in 0.18-mum deep n-well CMOS technology. By using vertical NPN (V-NPN) bipolar junction transistors in the baseband analog circuits of the low-IF receiver, the image rejection performance is improved and the power consumption is reduced. In addition, by applying the V-NPN current mirrored technique in a DCT, the carrier leakage is reduced and the linearity performance is improved. The receiver has 10 dB of noise figure, -15 dBm of third-order input intercept point, and 35 dBc of image rejection. The transmitter has more than -2 dBm of transmit output power, -35 dBc of local oscillator leakage, and -46 dBc of the transmit third harmonic component. The receiver and transmitter dissipate 6 and 9 mA from a 1.8-V supply, respectively

This paper presents analysis results for the hybrid power system combining a solid oxide fuel cell and a gas turbine. Two system layouts, with the major difference being the operating pressure of the fuel cell, were considered and their thermodynamic design performances were compared. Critical temperature parameters affecting the design performances of the hybrid systems were considered as constraints for the system design. In addition to energy analysis, exergy analysis has been adopted to examine the performance differences depending on system layouts and design conditions. Under a relaxed temperature constraint on the cell, the ambient pressure system exhibits relatively larger power capacity but requires both higher cell temperature and temperature rise at the cell for a given gas turbine design condition. The pressurized system utilizes the high temperature gas from the fuel cell more effectively than the ambient pressure system, and thus exhibits better efficiency. Under a restricted temperature constraint on the cell, the efficiency advantage of the pressurized system becomes manifested.

In recent decades, many researchers have written numerous articles about microbial biofilms. Biofilm is a complex community of microorganisms and an example of bacterial group behavior. Biofilm is usually considered a sessile mode of life derived from the attached growth of microbes to surfaces, and most biofilms are embedded in self-produced extracellular matrix composed of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs), such as polysaccharides, extracellular DNAs (eDNA), and proteins. Dispersal, a mode of biofilm detachment indicates active mechanisms that cause individual cells to separate from the biofilm and return to planktonic life. Since biofilm cells are cemented and surrounded by EPSs, dispersal is not simple to do and many researchers are now paying more attention to this active detachment process. Unlike other modes of biofilm detachment such as erosion or sloughing, which are generally considered passive processes, dispersal occurs as a result of complex spatial differentiation and molecular events in biofilm cells in response to various environmental cues, and there are many biological reasons that force bacterial cells to disperse from the biofilms. In this review, we mainly focus on the spatial differentiation of biofilm that is a prerequisite for dispersal, as well as environmental cues and molecular events related to the biofilm dispersal. More specifically, we discuss the dispersal-related phenomena and mechanisms observed in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an important opportunistic human pathogen and representative model organism for biofilm study.

Although hair growth medications have been developed, these medications have some side effects and usability problems. Recently there has been a growing interest in hair loss remedies from natural materials. This Study was carried out to investigate the effect of SM-215 on hair growth by hair follicle stimulation. We divided the 8-week-old ICR mice into a Control Group (CG), a Non-Treatment Group (NTG), and a SM-215 application Group (SMG). 100μl/day of SM 215 was applied for 3 weeks to SMG. After 3 weeks, we found a change to the sebaceous gland, the capillaries around the hair follicles (Vascularity and Vasodilation of capillaries), and changes in the hair follicle activity (Growth-promoting hormones, Neurotransmitters) in a tissue sample excised from the dorsal skin. A large number of hair and hair follicles in the subcutaneous layer of SMG was observed as compared to the NTG. Sebum secretions around the hair follicles and sebaceous gland distribution of SMG were observed more clearly than in NTG. A large number of capillaries, especially in the hip region versus the neck region in SMG, were also observed compared to the NTG as noted through external capillaries observation. Positive responses of IGF-1, serotonin, and neuropeptide Y in SMG were increased compared to the NTG in immunohistochemistry. Based on these studies and analysis, we suppose that SM-215 improves a hair growth activity by increasing the distribution of the sebaceous glands, capillaries around the hair follicles, and the vasodilation to assist in forming the necessary environment for hair growth, thereby promoting hair growth by stimulating at hair follicles.

[Purpose] To determine the effects of forward head posture on static and dynamic balance control. [Subjects and Methods] This study included 30 participants who were included into a forward head posture group (n = 14) and a control group (n = 16) according to their craniovertebral angles. Static balance control was assessed according to center of gravity sway velocity and total sway distance using an automatic balance calibration system. Dynamic balance control was assessed using the diagnosis mode of a body-tilt training and measurement system. [Results] Sway velocities on a hard surface with eyes open and closed and those on an unstable sponge surface with eyes closed were significantly higher in the forward head posture group than in the control group. Furthermore, on both the hard and sponge surfaces in the eyes open and closed conditions, total sway distances were significantly higher in the forward head posture group than in the control group. Results of dynamic balance control were not significantly different between groups. [Conclusion] Forward head posture has a greater effect on static balance control than on dynamic balance control.

During the last decade, much attention has been paid to graphene-based nanomaterials because they are considered as potential candidates for biomedical applications such as scaffolds for tissue engineering and substrates for the differentiation of stem cells. Until now, electrospun matrices composed of various biodegradable copolymers have been extensively developed for tissue engineering and regeneration; however, their use in combination with graphene oxide (GO) is novel and challenging. In this study, nanofiber matrices composed of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid, PLGA) and M13 phage with RGD peptide displayed on its surface (RGD peptide-M13 phage) were prepared as extracellular matrix (ECM)-mimicking substrates. RGD peptide is a tripeptide (Arg-Gly-Asp) found on ECM proteins that promotes various cellular behaviors. The physicochemical properties of PLGA and RGD peptide-M13 phage (PLGA/RGD peptide) nanofiber matrices were characterized by atomic force microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. In addition, the growth of C2C12 mouse myoblasts on the PLGA/RGD peptide matrices was examined by measuring the metabolic activity. Moreover, the differentiation of C2C12 mouse myoblasts on the matrices when treated with GO was evaluated. The cellular behaviors, including growth and differentiation of C2C12 mouse myoblasts, were substantially enhanced on the PLGA/RGD peptide nanofiber matrices when treated with GO. Overall, these findings suggest that the PLGA/RGD peptide nanofiber matrices can be used in combination with GO as a novel strategy for skeletal tissue regeneration.

Oocytes treated with the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide (CHX) arrest at the germinal vesicle (GV) stage and undergo accelerated GV breakdown (GVBD) after CHX is removed. However, little is known about the underlying mechanism of accelerated meiotic maturation. Here, we investigated this mechanism and found that oocytes released from CHX arrest have higher amounts of cyclin B1 (CCNB1) and phosphorylated mitogen-activated protein kinase (pMAPK) proteins. Increased levels of these factors were not associated with mRNA polyadenylation or increased transcription rates of CCNB1 and MOS (Moloney murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog) during CHX arrest. We found that treatment of CHX-arrested oocytes with the actin filament-stabilizing agent Jasplakinolide (Jasp) delayed GVBD following release from CHX arrest and that this was correlated with reduced maturation-promoting factor (MPF) activity. These results suggest that CCNB1 mRNAs released from actin filaments during CHX arrest increase CCNB1 transcripts available for translation after release from CHX arrest, leading to the precocious activation of MPF and accelerated meiotic progression.

This study analyzes the design and part load performance of a power generation system combining a micro gas turbine (MGT) and an organic Rankine cycle (ORC). Design performances of cycles adopting several different organic fluids are analyzed and compared with performance of the steam based cycle. All of the organic fluids recover greater MGT exhaust heat than the steam cycle (much lower stack temperature), but their bottoming cycle efficiencies are lower. R123 provides higher combined cycle efficiency than steam does. The efficiencies of the combined cycle with organic fluids are maximized when the turbine exhaust heat of the MGT is fully recovered at the MGT recuperator, whereas the efficiency of the combined cycle with steam shows an almost reverse trend. Since organic fluids have much higher density than steam, they allow more compact systems. The efficiency of the combined cycle, based on a MGT with 30 percent efficiency, can reach almost 40 percent. Also, the part load operation of the combined system is analyzed. Two representative power control methods are considered and their performances are compared. The variable speed control of the MGT exhibits far better combined cycle part load efficiency than the fuel only control despite slightly lower bottoming cycle performance.

Possible anticancer mechanisms exerted by polyphenolic compounds contained in fruits and vegetables include antioxidant activity, the inhibition of proliferation, and the induction of apoptosis in cancer cells. This study examined the effects of four isolated polyphenolic extracts from red muscadine grapes (Vitis rotundifolia) on vital cell parameters and the induction of apoptosis in Caco-2 colon carcinoma cells. The magnitude of effects in cell culture was then correlated to polyphenolic composition and antioxidant capacity. Whereas anticancer effects of individual polyphenolic compounds have been demonstrated multiple times, information relating to anticancer effects of polyphenolic extracts is not available in abundance. All four extracts induced apoptosis, decreased cell number, and caused alterations in cell cycle kinetics in a concentration-dependent manner. The efficacy of the polyphenolics on vital cell parameters correlated well to the presence of ellagic acid glycosides and flavonoids and also to the antioxidant capacity. This study demonstrated the anticancer properties of ellagic acid rich extracts from red muscadine juice.

In general, oocytes arrested at metaphase of the second meiotic division (MII) are used as recipient cytoplasts for nuclear transfer (NT) procedures. MII oocytes contain high levels of maturation-promoting factor (MPF) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), which cause nuclear envelope breakdown (NEBD) and premature chromosome condensation (PCC) in the transferred nucleus and have been implicated in nuclear reprogramming. However, the occurrence of NEBD and the extent of PCC are variable between individual oocytes and species and are dependent on donor cell type and cell cycle stage. Enucleation, which removes oocyte cytoplasm, may reduce MPF and MAPK activities and reduce reprogramming; conversely, increasing kinase activities may increase reprogramming. We compared the effects of enucleation of ovine oocytes at anaphase/telophase of the first meiotic division (AI-TI) and at MII. MPF and MAPK activities were maximal at MII; blind enucleation at AI-TI was more efficient than at MII and removed a smaller volume of cytoplasm. Neither protocol significantly affected the activity of either kinase and the fate of the donor nucleus; however, enucleation per se significantly reduced the occurrence of NEBD in NT embryos. Treatment with 10 mM caffeine significantly increased the activities of both kinases and the occurrence of NEBD but did not affect the frequency of development to the blastocyst stage; however, a significant increase in total cell numbers was observed. The results show that caffeine can increase MPF and MAPK activities in ovine oocytes and that this may contribute to an increased reprogramming in NT embryos.

We previously demonstrated that dextromethorphan (DM; 3-methoxy-17-methylmorphinan) analogs have neuroprotective effects, and a recent report showed that DM reduces the adverse effects of morphine and blocks alpha3beta4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, a major target of anti-addictive agents. Here, we investigated the effects of DM, three of its analogs (DF, 3-methyl-17-methylmorphinan; AM, 3-allyloxy-17-methoxymorphian; and CM, 3-cyclopropyl-17-methoxymorphinan) and one of its metabolites (HM; 3-methoxymorphinan), on neuronal alpha3beta4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor channel activity expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, using the two-microelectrode voltage clamp technique. We found that intraoocyte injection of neuronal alpha3 and beta4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit cRNAs elicited an inward current (IACh) in the presence of acetylcholine. Co-treatment with DM, DF, AM, CM or HM inhibited IACh in a dose-dependent, voltage-independent and reversible manner. The IC50 values for DM, DF, AM, CM and HM were 19.5+/-5.2, 15.8+/-4.5, 16.3+/-1.7, 10.1+/-2.8, and 13.5+/-4.0 microM, respectively. The order of potency for the inhibition of IACh was CMHMDF=AMDM in oocytes expressing alpha3beta4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. The inhibitions of (IACh) by DM, DF and HM, AM and CM were non-competitive. These results indicate that AM, CM and HM could be novel non-competitive agents regulating alpha3beta4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor channel activity.

We previously reported the cloning of a calcium-activated chloride channel (CLCA) from rat brain (Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 334, 569-576 (2005)), which we designated rbCLCA1. We further showed that rbCLCA1 is expressed in the central nervous system and peripheral organs, and may be functionally expressed in mammalian HEK293 cells. In the present study, we report the successful cloning of a second CLCA from rat cerebrum (designated rbCLCA2), using reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) with primers specific for rbCLCA1. We have begun to clone this cDNA based on the rbCLCA1-like sequence. The full-length rbCLCA2 cDNA, obtained via 5' and 3' rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE), is 2900 bp long and encodes a putative polypeptide of 905 amino acids having at least two major transmembrane domains and showing 85.2% identity to rbCLCA1. RT-PCR analysis revealed that, similar to rbCLCA1, rbCLCA2 was predominantly expressed in the rat cerebrum, cerebellum, kidney, stomach, spinal cord, lung and small intestine, but not in the heart, large intestine, liver, orand spleen. Whole-cell patch clamp studies in HEK293 cells transiently co-transfected with expression vectors encoding rbCLCA2 and EGFP allowed us to identify the presence of niflumic acid (a CLCA channel blocker)-sensitive and voltage-dependent chloride currents in cells expressing rbCLCA2 but not EGFP alone. Treatment of these cells with ionomycin, a Ca 2+ ionophore, significantly increased the novel currents in cells expressing rbCLCA2 and EGFP, but not those expressing EGFP alone, indicating that activation of the rb-CLCA2 current is Ca 2+ -dependent. In sum, we herein report the cloning of a second member of the rbCLCA family from rat brain and its functional expression in vitro, thus adding to our knowledge of anion channels and facilitating future exploration of brain and other organ physiology.

Summary The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa has two acyl-homoserine lactone (acyl-HSL) signalling systems, LasR-I and RhlR-I. LasI catalyses the synthesis of N-3-oxododecanoyl homoserine lactone (3OC12) and LasR is a transcription factor that requires 3OC12 as a ligand. RhlI catalyses the synthesis of N-butanoyl homoserine lactone (C4) and RhlR is a transcription factor that responds to C4. LasR and RhlR control the transcription of hundreds of P. aeruginosa genes. There is a third P. aeruginosa LasR-RhlR homologue encoded by qscR for which there is no cognate acyl-HSL synthase gene. To test the hypothesis that QscR functions by direct control of specific promoters in an acyl-HSL-dependent manner we purified QscR and characterized QscR activity in vitro. We also studied QscR activity in recombinant Escherichia coli. QscR binds to promoters that have elements similar in sequence to those found in LasR- or RhlR-dependent promoters but QscR does not bind to the LasR- or RhlR-specific promoters we examined. QscR binding to DNA requires 3OC12, but QscR exhibits a relaxed acyl-HSL specificity compared with the 3OC12-cognate signal receptor LasR. Our results support the hypothesis that there is a specific QscR-dependent regulon. We show that QscR controls genes in this regulon directly and that regulation is dependent on an acyl-HSL produced by LasI. Because of its relaxed signal specificity QscR may also respond to acyl-HSLs made by other bacteria in mixed bacterial communities.

Ginseng, the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, is well known as a tonic medicine for restoring and enhancing human health. In traditional medicine, ginseng is utilized for the alleviation of emesis, which includes nausea and vomiting. However, it has not yet been demonstrated whether ginseng exhibits in vivo anti-nausea and anti-vomiting properties. In this study, we examined the anti-emetic effect of Korean red ginseng total extract (KRGE) on cisplatin-induced nausea and vomiting using ferrets. Intraperitoneal administration (i.p.) of cisplatin (7.5 mg/kg) induced both nausea and vomiting with one-hour latency. The episodes of nausea and vomiting reached a peak after 1.5 h and persisted for 3 h. Treatment with KRGE via oral route significantly reduced the cisplatin-induced nausea and vomiting in a dose-dependent manner. The anti-emetic effect was 12.7 +/- 8.6, 31.8 +/- 6.9, and 67.6 +/- 4.0% with doses of 0.3, 1.0, and 3.0 g/kg of KRGE, respectively. Pretreatment with KRGE via oral route 1 and 2 h before cisplatin administration also significantly attenuated the cisplatin-induced nausea and vomiting. However this did not occur with a pretreatment 4 h before cisplatin administration. These results are supportive of KRGE being utilized as an anti-emetic agent against nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy (i.e. cisplatin).

Nitrogen incorporation into 316-L stainless steel was performed by ion beam assisted deposition (IBAD) equipped with one Kaufman ion beam source in Ar/N 2 gas mixture and one electron beam source to investigate the effects of Ar/N 2 gas ratio on the crystal structure and corrosion resistance of the coatings. An austenitic fcc structure with strong (111) preferred orientation was found for the 316-L films grown under ion bombardment. Corrosion resistance of the N-doped 316-L films were superior or equivalent to the bulk 316-L steel, respectively, when they are tested in 3.5 wt.% NaCl or 0.1 M H 2 SO 4 solutions. Salt spray test results revealed that the corrosion resistance of S45C mild carbon steel was improved significantly by 160% when the N-doped austenitic stainless steel films were deposited, suggesting that the N-doped austenite films are beneficial to anticorrosion properties.

Anthranilate and indole are alternative degradation products of tryptophan, depending on the bacterial species. While indole enhances the biofilm formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa , we found that anthranilate, the tryptophan degradation product of P. aeruginosa , had an opposite effect on P. aeruginosa biofilm formation, in which anthranilate deteriorated the mushroom structure of biofilm. The anthranilate effect on biofilm formation was differentially exerted depending on the developmental stage and the presence of shear force. Anthranilate slightly accelerated the initial attachment of P. aeruginosa at the early stage of biofilm development and appeared to build more biofilm without shear force. But anthranilate weakened the biofilm structure in the late stage, deteriorating the mushroom structure of biofilms with shear force to make a flat biofilm. To investigate the interplay of anthranilate with indole in biofilm formation, biofilms were cotreated with anthranilate and indole, and the results showed that anthranilate antagonized the biofilm-enhancing effect of indole. Anthranilate was able to deteriorate the preformed biofilm. The effect of anthranilate and indole on biofilm formation was quorum sensing independent. AntR, a regulator of anthranilate-degrading metabolism was synergistically activated by cotreatment with anthranilate and indole, suggesting that indole might enhance biofilm formation by facilitating the degradation of anthranilate. Anthranilate slightly but significantly affected the cyclic diguaniylate (c-di-GMP) level and transcription of major extracellular polysaccharide (Psl, Pel, and alginate) operons. These results suggest that anthranilate may be a promising antibiofilm agent and antagonize the effect of indole on P. aeruginosa biofilm formation.

Brine shrimp are aquatic crustaceans belonging to a genus of Artemia. This organism is widely used for testing the toxicity of chemicals. In this study, brine shrimp were evaluated as an infection model organism to study bacterial virulence. Artemia nauplii were infected with various pathogenic bacteria, such as Vibrio vulnificus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia vietnamiensis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli, and the susceptibility to these bacteria was investigated by counting the survival of the infected nauplii. While all of the tested bacteria have significant virulence to brine shrimp, killing the nauplii in a few days, V. vulnificus showed the strongest virulence. P. aeruginosa also showed a dose-dependent virulence to brine shrimp, but the virulence was weaker than that of V. vulnificus. The virulence tests using the virulence-attenuated mutants of V. vulnificus and P. aeruginosa, such as quorum sensing (QS) mutants or protease-deficient mutants showed a significant attenuation of virulence, demonstrating that the QS mechanism is important in the virulence of these bacteria to brine shrimp. B. vietnamiensis, S. aureus, and E. coli were also virulent to brine shrimp and the virulence was correlated with dosage within 24 h under our conditions. Salmonella enterica Typhimurium and Bacillus subtilis were also virulent to brine shrimp, but the virulence was weak and slowly exerted compared with that of other bacteria. Taken together, we suggest that brine shrimp are a good infection model to assay bacterial virulence, especially for V. vulnificus and P. aeruginosa, and QS is important in the bacterial virulence to brine shrimp.

Ruminants were the first mammalian species to be cloned successfully by nuclear transplantation. Those experiments were designed to multiply high merit animals (Willadsen, Nature 320(6057):63-65, 1986; Prather et al., Biol Reprod 37(4):859-866, 1987; Wilmut et al., Nature 385(6619):810-813, 1997). Since then, cloning has provided us with a vast amount of knowledge and information on the reprogramming ability of somatic cells to different cell types which became an important basis for stem cell research and human medicine. Nowadays, the goals of most nuclear transfer work vary widely but in most cases the micromanipulation procedures remain the same. However, differences between species require different technical considerations. In this chapter, we describe in detail somatic cell nuclear transfer which is the foremost method for cloning ruminants with specific reference to sheep and cattle.

bryos reconstructed by using donor cells: iPS cell vs. AID transfected cell* Tae Suk Kim1, Sang Ki Baek2, Song Yi Moon2, Sang Jin Jin2, Yeoung-Gyu Ko3, Sung Woo Kim3, Hae-Geum Park3, Hwan-Hoo Seong3 and Joon Hee Lee2 1Institute of Agriculture & Life Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Republic of Korea, Jin ju, Republic of Korea 2Animal Development & Biotechnology Group, Department of Animal Bioscience, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jin ju, Republic of Korea 3National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Namwon, Republic of Korea

Ruminants were the first mammalian species to be cloned successfully by nuclear transplantation. Those experiments were designed to multiply high merit animals (Willadsen, Nature 320(6057):63–65, 1986; Prather et al., Biol Reprod 37(4):859–866, 1987; Wilmut et al., Nature 385(6619):810–813, 1997). Since then, cloning has provided us with a vast amount of knowledge and information on the reprogramming ability of somatic cells to different cell types which became an important basis for stem cell research and human medicine. Nowadays, the goals of most nuclear transfer work vary widely but in most cases the micromanipulation procedures remain the same. However, differences between species require different technical considerations. In this chapter, we describe in detail somatic cell nuclear transfer which is the foremost method for cloning ruminants with specific reference to sheep and cattle.

The Riptortus-Burkholderia symbiotic system is an experimental model system for studying the molecular mechanisms of an insect-microbe gut symbiosis. When the symbiotic midgut of Riptortus pedestris was investigated by light and transmission electron microscopy, the lumens of the midgut crypts that harbor colonizing Burkholderia symbionts were occupied by an extracellular matrix consisting of polysaccharides. This observation prompted us to search for symbiont genes involved in the induction of biofilm formation and to examine whether the biofilms are necessary for the symbiont to establish a successful symbiotic association with the host. To answer these questions, we focused on purN and purT , which independently catalyze the same step of bacterial purine biosynthesis. When we disrupted purN and purT in the Burkholderia symbiont, the Δ purN and Δ purT mutants grew normally, and only the Δ purT mutant failed to form biofilms. Notably, the Δ purT mutant exhibited a significantly lower level of cyclic-di-GMP (c-di-GMP) than the wild type and the Δ purN mutant, suggesting involvement of the secondary messenger c-di-GMP in the defect of biofilm formation in the Δ purT mutant, which might operate via impaired purine biosynthesis. The host insects infected with the Δ purT mutant exhibited a lower infection density, slower growth, and lighter body weight than the host insects infected with the wild type and the Δ purN mutant. These results show that the function of purT of the gut symbiont is important for the persistence of the insect gut symbiont, suggesting the intricate biological relevance of purine biosynthesis, biofilm formation, and symbiosis.

The objective of the study is to characterize the natural course of positional vertigo and nystagmus in patients with horizontal canal benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (h-BPPV) and to analyze the difference in the natural course between the two variants of h-BPPV. We conducted a prospective study in 106 patients with geotropic type h-BPPV [h-BPPV (Geo)] (n = 43) and apogeotropic type h-BPPV [h-BPPV (Apo)] (n = 63) who agreed and signed the written informed consent of no treatment. All patients were asked to answer a detailed interview about the onset time of positional vertigo and to visit the hospital every 1–3 days. At every visit, they were interviewed about cessation time of positional vertigo and positional nystagmus was assessed. The mean period ± SD between the onset and remission of vertigo in the h-BPPV (Geo) was 6.7 ± 6.3 days, whereas that in the h-BPPV (Apo) was 3.7 ± 4.1 days. In addition, the mean period ± SD from the initial diagnosis to the disappearance of positional nystagmus in the h-BPPV (Geo) was 4.7 ± 3.9 days, whereas that in the h-BPPV (Apo) was 4.4 ± 5.0 days. Although the duration until natural remission of positional nystagmus did not differ between the two variants of h-BPPV, the remission of vertigo occurred faster in h-BPPV (Apo) than h-BPPV (Geo) (p

Oocytes treated with the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide (CHX) arrest at the germinal vesicle (GV) stage and undergo accelerated GV breakdown (GVBD) after CHX is removed. However, little is known about the underlying mechanism of accelerated meiotic maturation. Here, we investigated this mechanism and found that oocytes released from CHX arrest have higher amounts of cyclin B1 (CCNB1) and phosphorylated mitogen-activated protein kinase (pMAPK) proteins. Increased levels of these factors were not associated with mRNA polyadenylation or increased transcription rates of CCNB1 and MOS (Moloney murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog) during CHX arrest. We found that treatment of CHX-arrested oocytes with the actin filament-stabilizing agent Jasplakinolide (Jasp) delayed GVBD following release from CHX arrest and that this was correlated with reduced maturation-promoting factor (MPF) activity. These results suggest that CCNB1 mRNAs released from actin filaments during CHX arrest increase CCNB1 transcripts available for translation after release from CHX arrest, leading to the precocious activation of MPF and accelerated meiotic progression.

The technique of nuclear transfer (NT) allows the production of embryos, fetuses, and offspring from a range of embryonic, fetal, and adult derived cell types in a range of species. Successful development is dependent upon numerous factors, including type of recipient cell, source of recipient cell, method of reconstruction, activation, embryo culture, donor cell type, and donor and recipient cell cycle stages. The present review will discuss the uses of NT, the techniques presently available, and the factors affecting subsequent development.