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Throughout the history people have always been coming into conflicts with bears and number of conflicts in Slovenia is increasing in recent years. Good understanding of causes for human-bear conflicts is the first step for their effective resolution. In this paper we present a review of the existing knowledge of human-bear conflicts and experiences with different conflict mitigation measures from Slovenia and other countries. Based on this review we prepared recommendations for future management of human-bear conflicts in Slovenia. Human-bear conflicts are very diverse and are mainly connected with bear's opportunistic foraging and consumption of food and with people's fear of bear attack on humans. Several factors affect probability of human-bear conflict and the most important is probably access to anthropogenic food (slaughter remains, garbage etc.). On the other hand, it seems that bear density is not significantly connected with number of conflicts. Much more important is the number of problematic bears. Although such bears represent only a small part of bear population, they usually cause majority of all human-bear conflicts, while majority of other bears get involved in conflict only rarely or never. Experiences from last decades worldwide indicate that one of the most effective conflict prevention measures is to prevent bears' access to anthropogenic food sources. In Slovenia very little attention has been given to this management measures so far. We prepared a list of priority conflict prevention measures that proved to be very effective in other countries and could considerably decrease number of conflicts in Slovenia. In addition to prevention of access to anthropogenic food, also removal of conflict bears is important short-term conflict resolution measure, given that such intervention doesn't threaten the bear population. Ljudje že od nekdaj prihajamo v konflikte z medvedi in v Sloveniji se v zadnjih letih število konfliktov povečuje. Pogoj za učinkovito preprečevanje problemov z medvedi je dobro razumevanje vzrokov njihovega nastanka. V prispevku predstavljava pregled dosedanjega znanja o konfliktih med medvedi in ljudmi ter izkušnje z različnimi upravljavskimi ukrepi za njihovo preprečevanje iz tujine in Slovenije. Na podlagi pregleda sva pripravila priporočila (upravljavske ukrepe) za zmanjševanje konfliktov, ki so med medvedi in ljudmi zelo raznovrstni; večinoma so posledica medvedovega oportunističnega iskanja in pridobivanja hrane ter strahu ljudi pred medvedi. Na verjetnost pojavljanja konfliktov vplivajo številni dejavniki, med katerimije, kot kaže, najpomembnejši dostopnost do hrane človeškega izvora (klavniški odpadki, smeti itn.). Po drugi strani pa številčnost medvedov bistveno ne vpliva na število konfliktov. Precej pomembnejše je število konfliktnih osebkov, ki, čeprav so le majhen del populacije, pogosto povzročijo velik del vseh težav, medtem ko večina medvedov prihaja v konfliktele poredko ali sploh nikoli. Izkušnje iz zadnjih desetletij po vsem svetu kažejo, da je eden najpomembnejših ukrepov za učinkovito zmanjševanje konfliktov preprečevanje dostopa do hrane človeškega izvora. Pri nas doslej temu nismo namenjali zadostne pozornosti, zato sva pripravila seznam prioritetnih ukrepov za Slovenijo, ki so se v tujini že izkazali za zelo učinkovite in ki bi lahko bistveno zmanjšali težave z medvedi. Poleg ureditve problematike hrane človeškega izvora je pomemben kratkoročni ukrep tudi odstranjevanje konfliktnih osebkov, če to ne ogroža populacije medvedov.

Livestock depredations are one of the main challenges in the management of thegrey wolf (Canis lupus) and culling of the wolves is a measure often used in an attempt to reduce damages. In the present study we analyzed effects of the legal wolf culling on livestock depredations in Slovenia and made a reviewof similar studies from other regions. 51 wolves were legally culled and2,221 attacks on livestock were recorded in Slovenia in 1995-2009. Our analysis did not show any effects of the culling on the number of depredationsduring the study period. No effects were detected even when the most extreme years were compared. Our results are in agreement with those fromother studies that showed that sustainable hunting of wolves is not an effective measure to reduce live-stock depredations. Wolf removal becomes efficient only when wolves are completely exterminated or when the majority ofwolves are removed from a large area. Because depredation of small live-stock in Slovenia presents a serious problem and since wolf culling does not seem to be efficient, we recommend that more attention and resources should be focused on more effective measures. Škoda, povzročena na domačih živalih, je ena glavnih težav pri ohranitvenem upravljanju z volkom (Canis lupus). Škodo se pogosto poskuša zmanjšati z odstrelom volkov. V pričujoči raziskavi smo analizirali učinke legalnega odstrela volkov na obseg škode v Sloveniji ter pripravili pregled podobnih raziskav iz tujine. V letih 1995-2009 je bilo legalno odstreljenih 51 volkov in zabeleženih 2221 primerov napadov volkov na domače živali. S statističnimi analizami nismo ugotovili nobenih vplivov odstrela volkov na višino škode. Učinkov odstrela ni bilo zaslediti niti tedaj, ko smo med seboj primerjali najbolj ekstremna leta. Naši rezultati se ujemajo z izsledki tujih raziskav, ki prav tako opozarjajo, da (v nasprotju s splošnim prepričanjem!) trajnostni lov volkov ni učinkovit ukrep za zmanjšanje škode. Odstrel postane učinkovit šele, če z njim iztrebimo celo populacijo ali odstranimo večino volkov iz večjega območja. Ker je škoda na drobnici v Sloveniji resen problem in ker odstrel volkov očitno nima želenega učinka, priporočamo, da se v prihodnje napori in sredstva osredotočijo v bolj učinkovite ukrepe.

Slovenia and Croatia share the same brown bear population. The species is formally strictly protected with culling regulated through “derogations” in Slovenia while in Croatia it is still managed as a game species. The aim of our study was to gain insight into the long-term sustainability of different management regimes. We used bear mortality data for Slovenia from 1998 to 2008 (n = 922) and for Croatia from 2005 to 2009 (n = 422). A two-sample test for equality of proportions indicated that, in the total reported mortality, the share of animals killed in quota hunting in Slovenia (59, 4%) was significantly lower (χ2-sq. = 7.1, df = 1, p

Za zagotavljanje trajnostnega, kognitivnega in kontroliranega upravljanja s populacijami prostoživečih parkljarjev kot najpomembnejše skupine divjadi se z namenom natančnega evidentiranja in kategorizacije izločenih (uplenjenih) osebkov, vpogleda v njihovo spolno in starostno strukturo ter predvsem kontrole doseganja z upravljavskimi načrti zastavljenih planov odvzema v Sloveniji, podobno pa tudi v nekaterih drugih srednjeevropskih državah, vsako leto zberejo vse (leve) spodnje čeljustnice (čeljusti) prostoživečih parkljarjev (vključno z divjim prašičem), ki so bili v preteklem koledarskem letu izločeni iz lovišč znotraj posameznih lovsko-upravljavskih območij (LUO). Vsaka posamezna čeljust je na nivoju lovišč označena z zaporedno številko odvzema, ki omogoča sledljivost in neposredno povezavo z najpomembnejšimi atributnimi podatki o živali (spol, starost, telesna teža, zdravstveno stanje, datum izločitve, revir, natančna lokacija in kvadrant mesta izločitve), ki so zbrani v Evidenčni knjigi odstrelov velikih vrst divjadi za posamezno lovišče oziroma v Osrednjem slovenskem registru velike lovne divjadi in velikih zveri. Kot takšne predstavljajo dragocen vir informacij o vrstah, saj lahko nudijo relevantne in kompleksne podatke o: (i) populacijski dinamiki in spreminjanju kakovosti habitatov ; (ii) starosti osebkov in starostni strukturi populacij ; (iii) spolu osebkov ; (iv) zdravstvenem stanju osebkov in populacij ; (v) onesnaženosti okolja ; (vi) odzivu osebkov in vrst na izpostavljenost različnim vrstam okoljskega stresa. Vendar raziskovalni in upravljavski potencial čeljusti parkljarjev v preteklosti ni bil dovolj izrabljen, zato smo v letih 2007 – 2009 zbrali vse spodnje čeljusti prostoživečih parkljarjev, ki so bili v teh letih izločeni iz vseh slovenskih lovišč. Celotna zbirka, ki jo hranimo na Inštitutu za ekološke raziskave ERICo Velenje, obsega tako skoraj 100.000 čeljusti in je tudi v svetovnem merilu unikatna in izjemno dragocena. Na posameznih delih omenjene zbirke so bile do sedaj opravljene naslednje raziskave: (i) ugotavljanje morfometričnih lastnosti, t.j. meritve velikosti izbranih parametrov (dolžina, višina, dolžina diasteme) spodnjih čeljustnic divjih prašičev (večina odvzetih živali v letu 2008: 5.268 vzorcev) in srnjadi (celoten odvzem v letu 2007: >35.000 vzorcev) ; (ii) določanje (na leto natančno) starosti odraslih osebkov jelenjadi (celoten odvzem v letu 2008: 1.160 vzorcev), in sicer z metodo brušenja prvega meljaka ter s štetjem letnih prirastnih plasti zobnega cementa ; na tak način smo dobili vpogled v starostno strukturo jelenjadi v Sloveniji, ocenili pa smo tudi (ne)zanesljivost tradicionalne metode ocenjevanja starosti z okularnim pregledom razvojne stopnje in obrabljenosti zob ; (iii) na mesec natančno (upoštevaje razvojno stopnjo zobovja) določanje starosti mladičev in enoletnih osebkov divjih prašičev (do sedaj vključenih 4.912 osebkov, uplenjenih v letu 2008), in sicer z namenom retrogradne določitve časa poleganja za vsako posamezno žival ; (iv) ocena starosti 356 odraslih divjih prašičev z določitvijo razvojne stopnje in obrabljenosti zob, in sicer z namenom vpogleda v starostno strukturo populacij ter presoje zanesljivosti ocen starosti, ki so dostopne v osrednjem registru ; (v) ugotavljanje prostorske razširjenosti in pogostnosti različnih obolenj, anomalij ter poškodb zob/čeljusti divjih prašičev (večina odvzema v letu 2008: 4.121 vzorcev), jelenjadi (celoten odvzem v letu 2008: >5.100 vzorcev) in srnjadi (celoten odvzem v letu 2007: >41.500 vzorcev) ; (vi) velikopovršinska (vseslovenska) določitev onesnaženosti okolja s fluoridi z oceno stopnje zobne fluoroze spodnjih čeljusti vse odrasle srnjadi, uplenjene v letu 2007 (14.675 vzorcev) ; (vii) določitev vsebnosti fluoridov v 431 čeljustih srnjadi, uplenjene v obdobju 1997 – 2009 v Šaleški dolini oziroma v letu 2007 v različnih območjih Slovenije, s čimer smo želeli dobiti vpogled v prostorsko in časovno variabilnost onesnaženosti okolja s fluoridi kot onesnažili, ki se odlagajo v kostnih tkivih sesalcev. Najpomembnejše ugotovitve, ki se nanašajo tudi na divje prašiče, so: (1) Večina mladičev divjih prašičev (82, 3 %) je bila v letih 2007 in 2008 v Sloveniji poleženih v obdobju februar – maj, z izrazito kulminacijo v marcu (32, 0 %) in aprilu (24, 8 %). Vendar začno svinje v večjem številu polegati že v januarju, obdobje intenzivnega poleganja pa traja vse do julija ; zlasti v jugozahodni Sloveniji (npr. Primorsko LUO) pa svinje polegajo prek celega leta, z drugim viškom v pozno poletnih in jesenskih mesecih. Ugotovitev je izjemnega pomena tako s tehničnega vidika upravljanja s populacijami (kako načrtovati in evidentirati odstrel različnih kategorij), zlasti pa z vidika razumevanja populacijske dinamike vrste. Očitno je namreč, da je razmnoževalni potencial divjega prašiča v večini območij, še zlasti pa v jugozahodni Sloveniji, bistveno večji, kot bi si lahko predstavljali na podlagi tradicionalnega poznavanja vrste. (2) Medtem ko je starostna struktura odraslih svinj relativno ugodna in kaže na počasen upad s starostjo (2-3-letne živali: 39 % ; 3-4-letne: 27 % ; 4-5-letne: 14 %, 5-7-letne: 15 %, več kot 7-letne: 5 %), pa med merjasci prevladujejo zlasti mlade živali (2-3-letni osebki: 66 % ; 3-4-letni: 22 %), zrelih merjascev pa je vsaj v odvzemu zelo malo (4-5-letni: 6 %, 5-7-letni: 5 %, več kot 7-letni: 1 %). Takšna struktura kaže na velik reprodukcijski potencial vrste (prevlada mladih svinj) ob hkratni relativno majhni trofejni vrednosti (primanjkljaj zrelih merjascev) ; zaradi obojega bi bilo potrebno v prihodnje upravljavske strategije še enkrat temeljito premisliti. (3) Veliko odstopanje med ocenami starosti divjih prašičev, podanimi s strani upravljavcev lovišč, in našimi ocenami starosti zmanjšuje uporabnost podatkov o starosti te vrste, ki so dostopni v osrednjem slovenskem registru. Vir napak je tako v napačni oceni kot tudi v napačnem vnosu (npr. enovita kategorizacija odraslih živali kot »dvoletnih« osebkov), zaradi česar bi bilo v prihodnje potrebno še večjo pozornost nameniti permanentnemu usposabljanju lovcev. Še posebej, ker smo zelo velika odstopanja med s strani lovcev podanimi starostmi in dejanskimi starostmi živali, ugotovljenimi z metodo brušenja zob in štetja plasti zobnega cementa, ugotovili tudi za jelenjad, pri kateri so zlasti starosti srednje starih in starih jelenov praviloma precenjene. (4) Najbolj pogosto obolenje zob divjih prašičev je hipoplazija sklenine, t.j. količinsko nezadostna tvorba sklenine, ki je vidna kot številne drobne luknjice na površini zob. Vzrok zanjo je izpostavljenost različnim dejavnikom stresa, ki so lahko tako okoljskega kot genetskega izvora. V Sloveniji se hipoplazija pri divjih prašičih pojavlja v vseh lovsko-upravljavskih območjih, a je še posebej pogosta v Zasavskem, Novomeškem, Ptujsko-Ormoškem, Pohorskem in Pomurskem LUO. Ker se praviloma koncentrira znotraj lovišč oziroma celo posameznih tropov in je najbolj pogosta na drugem mlečnem sekalcu (i2), kar kaže na povečano izpostavljenost živali določenemu negativnemu dejavniku okolja v prvih nekaj mesecih življenja (v času rasti i2), je najpomembnejši vzrok po vsej verjetnosti bodisi v pomanjkljivi prehrani bodisi v socialnem stresu znotraj tropov ; zlasti v Zasavskem in Ptujsko-Ormoškem LUO ne moremo izključiti tudi vpliva onesnaženosti okolja. V nasprotju z divjimi prašiči, kjer je bila na 4.121 pregledanih čeljustih hipoplazija sklenine ugotovljena v 205 primerih (5, 0 %), se le-ta pri jelenjadi pojavlja zgolj izjemoma. Pri srnjadi je bila hipoplazija z izjemo dveh mladičev ugotovljena izključno na stalnih predmeljakih in meljakih (v letu 2007 skupaj 216 primerov oziroma 1, 4 % vse odrasle srnjadi). Pri tej vrsti je bila v večjem številu in z zgostitvami zabeležena zlasti v nižinski loviščih, še zlasti tistih, ki vsebujejo tudi večje površine vlažnih travnikov (v spodnjem toku Save, ob Muri in na Ljubljanskem barju). Upoštevaje geografsko porazdelitev (zgostitev) hipoplazije sklenine pri srnjadi se zdi, da je pri tej vrsti najpomembnejši vzrok zanjo zaparazitiranost z notranjimi zajedavci. (5) Medtem ko pri srnjadi in jelenjadi med zanimivejše anomalije sodijo tudi nepravilnosti v številu zob (npr. izrast dodatnih zob, odsotnost posameznih zob, zlasti drugega predmeljaka), samo pri jelenjadi pa tudi relativno pogoste popolne rotacije drugega predmeljaka, so tovrstne nepravilnosti v primeru divjega prašiča zgolj izjema (posamezni primeri izrasti dodatnih predmeljakov). Vendar je pri divjem prašiču relativno pogosta nedokončana menjava zob, t.j. ostanek mlečnih sekalcev tudi pri odraslih živalih. Ta nepravilnost je velikega pomena tudi z lovsko-upravljavskega vidika, saj je prisotnost/odsotnost stalnih oziroma mlečnih sekalcev odločilen dejavnik pri starostni kategorizaciji divjih prašičev. Zaradi obstoja tovrstnih anomalij (v enem primeru smo mlečni, t.j. trovrhi zadnji predmeljak registrirali tudi pri odraslem srnjaku) je pri določanju starosti živali na podlagi ocene razvojne stopnje zobovja potrebna še posebna previdnost, saj lahko v nasprotnem primeru prihaja do napak, ki zmanjšujejo kredibilnost podatkov v osrednjem registru, hkrati pa so lahko silno problematične tudi pri vsakdanji praksi upravljanja z lovišči.

Knowledge of abundance and local densities of deer populations is important inmanagement as well as in biological context. Faecal pellet-group count method, widely used around the world for estimating deer numbers, has been almost neglected in our country. Therefore, we have prepared a comprehensive overview of the method with recommendations for Slovenia to enhance its use. In principle, there are two ways to perform the faecal pellet-group count method, i.e. clearance plot and standing crop method. The latter is not recommended in a daily management practice, as it requires faecal pellet-groupdecay rate estimation, which is rather season and microhabitat specific. Sampling can be done on sampling plots of different shapes and sizesor with the line transect method. Sampling design depends on expected deer densities and ground cover dependent pellet-group detectability. Since distinct habitats are used differentially by the deer, study area stratification on specific habitat types regarding the expected deer densitiesis recommended. Within the species, defecation rates (i.e. number of pellet-groups per day) vary according to season, animal age and gender; nevertheless, due to comparative reasons we recommend the use of constant defecation rates (i.e. 25 for the red deer, 20 for the roe deer, respectively). Moreover, multiple samplings are needed to cover seasonal variety in habitat use. Sampling design is of a major importance for the success of the method and has the biggest impact on the precision of deer numbers/densities estimates, therefore much effort should be devoted to this stage.

Increased concentrations of fluorides in the environment have a negative impact on different animal species, which are manifested mainly with the irregular formation of the dental hard tissue, called dental fluorosis. With the assessment of dental fluorosis in every adult roe deer shot in eastern Slovenia in 10 Hunting Management Districts in 2007 (n = 7,158), implementation of statistical analyses in raster GIS environment with high resolution (1x1 km) and cartography, we wished to: (i) establish the differences in the appearance and distribution of dental fluorosis in roe deer from different areas of eastern Slovenia; (ii) define the impact of the main sources of fluorides on the appearance and distribution of dental fluorosis; (iii) determine the most important environmental factors that have an impact on the appearance of dental fluorosis. In general, eastern Slovenia is not polluted with fluorides, while less than 1% of samples showed moderate to severe dental fluorosis; 84% of samples showed no fluorosis at all. Only in the vicinity of the most important source of fluorides in Slovenia (aluminium smelter), there is an area with extreme fluoride pollution of the environment. The multivariate statistics revealed that the appearance and distribution of dental fluorosis are influenced primarily by: (i) the distance from the most important point source – (94.6% of the total variance); (ii) the age of the analysed animal (5% of the total variance); and (iii) the distance from the nearest forest edge (0.7% of the total variance), respectively

Increased concentrations of fluorides in the environment have a negative impact on different animal species, which are manifested mainly with the irregular formation of the dental hard tissue, called dental fluorosis. With the assessment of dental fluorosis in every adult roe deer shot in eastern Slovenia in 10 Hunting Management Districts in 2007 (n = 7,158), implementation of statistical analyses in raster GIS environment with high resolution (1x1 km) and cartography, we wished to: (i) establish the differences in the appearance and distribution of dental fluorosis in roe deer from different areas of eastern Slovenia; (ii) define the impact of the main sources of fluorides on the appearance and distribution of dental fluorosis; (iii) determine the most important environmental factors that have an impact on the appearance of dental fluorosis. In general, eastern Slovenia is not polluted with fluorides, while less than 1% of samples showed moderate to severe dental fluorosis; 84% of samples showed no fluorosis at all. Only inthe vicinity of the most important source of fluorides in Slovenia (aluminium smelter), there is an area with extreme fluoride pollution of the environment. The multivariate statistics revealed that the appearance and distribution of dental fluorosis are influenced primarily by: (i) the distancefrom the most important point source - (94.6% of the total variance); (ii) the age of the analysed animal (5% of the total variance); and (iii) the distance from the nearest forest edge (0.7% of the total variance), respectively. Povečane koncentracije fluoridov v okolju negativno vplivajo na številne živalske vrste; ena najbolj vidnih posledic je nepravilni razvoj trdih zobnih tkiv oz. zobna fluoroza. Z ocenjevanjem stopnje zobne fluoroze pri vsej odrasli srnjadi, odvzeti iz vzhodne Slovenije v 10 lovsko-upravljavskih območjih leta 2007 (n = 7.158), izvedbo statističnih analiz v rastrskem GIS okolju z razmeroma veliko prostorsko ločljivostjo (1 km2) ter s kartografskim prikazom smo želeli: (i) ugotoviti razlike v pojavnosti in stopnji zobne fluoroze pri srnjadi različnih območij vzhodne Slovenije; (ii) določiti vpliv glavnih virov emisij na stopnjo in pojavnost zobne fluoroze; (iii) določiti najpomembnejše okoljske dejavnike, ki vplivajo na pojavnost zobne fluoroze. Ugotovili smo, da vzhodna Slovenija na splošno s fluoridi ni onesnažena, saj se zmerna in močna fluoroza pojavljata pri manj kot 1 % vzorcev; 84 % vzorcev ni kazalo fluoroze. Le v okolici največjega vira fluoridov v Sloveniji (tovarna aluminija) je večje območje velike obremenjenosti okolja s flouridi. Z multivariatnimi statistikami smo ugotovili, da na pojavnost in stopnjo fluoroze vplivajo: (i) oddaljenost od največjega vira emisij (94,6 % pojasnjene variance); (ii) starost srnjadi (5 % pojasnjene variance); (iii) oddaljenost od najbližjega gozdnega roba (0,7 % pojasnjene variance).

The knowledge of distribution and population densities of wild animals is important from both basic biological and management aspects. This is especially important for ungulates because of their ecosystem role (e.g. impacts on forest regeneration and forest dynamics, prey basis for large carnivores) and economic implications (damages in forestry and agriculture, hunting). The aim of this study was to determine and to present distribution and local densities of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.), red deer (Cervus elaphus L.), wild boar (Sus scrofa L.), and chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra L.) for whole Slovenia. We used data of recorded mortality (199 050 roe deer, 22 960 red deer, 31 777 wild boar, and 11 758 chamois) from the database of the "Central Slovenian register of game species and large carnivores" for the period 2004 - 2008, which are georeferenced with 1 km accuracy. We used fixed kernel method to present distribution maps for all four ungulate species with three ranks of their relative densities (95, 65, and 35 % of recorded dead animals). Distribution areas cover 79.2 %, 35.8 %, 46.0 %, and 21.9 % of territory of Slovenia for roe deer, red deer, wild boar, and chamois. We discuss the factors that affect or have affected distribution and densities of these species. Poznavanje območij razširjenosti in gostot populacij prostoživečih živali je pomembno s temeljno-bioloških pa tudi upravljavskih vidikov. To zlasti velja za parkljarje, saj imajo pomembno ekosistemsko vlogo (npr. vplivi na obnovo indinamiko razvoja gozda, prehranska baza velikim zverem) in gospodarski pomen(škoda na kmetijskih in gozdnih zemljiščih, lovstvo). Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti in prikazati območja razširjenosti in lokalne gostote srnjadi (Capreolus capreolus L.), jelenjadi (Cervus elaphus L.), divjega prašiča (Sus scrofa L.) in gamsa (Rupicapra rupicapra L.) za območje celotne Slovenije. V ta namen smo uporabili podatke o odvzemu (199.050 osebkov srnjadi, 22.960 jelenjadi, 31.777 divjega prašiča in 11.758 gamsa) iz baze Osrednji slovenski register velike lovne divjadi in velikih zveri za obdobje 2004-2008, ki so prostorsko opredeljeni s kilometrsko natančnostjo. S pomočjo fiksne kernelske metode smo za vse štiri vrste izdelali karte območij razširjenosti, ki ločujejo tri range gostot (kjer je bilo odvzetih 95, 65 oz. 35 % osebkov). Populacijska območja srnjadi pokrivajo 79,2 %, jelenjadi 35,8 %, divjega prašiča 46,0 % in gamsa 21,9 % površine države. V prispevku razglabljamo, kateri dejavniki vplivajo oz. so vplivali na razširjenost in gostote obravnavanih vrst.

Forest damages caused by red deer and some other large herbivore species occasionally feeding on tree bark, are a grave ecological and economic problem in many parts of the world. Winter supplemental feeding is commonly used to mitigate the problem, but its effects are poorly known. This study, carried out at Pohorje (Slovenia) and including over 2,300 trees, used binary logistic regression to analyse the effects of supplemental feeding and many other factors on the probability of bark stripping on spruce. The probability of bark stripping depends on distance from the forest edge, density, age and tree species diversity of stands, slope and aspect of terrain, and red deer density; contrary to expectations, it is not related to distance from feeding places. As much as 35% of spruce trees were damaged. The damage was the highest in younger, denser pure spruce stands, whose favourable protective and microclimatic conditions (thinner snow cover, higher effective temperatures) make them a preferred winter habitat for red deer. They contain,however, little other food but bark. To prevent / diminish bark stripping we propose a stronger thinning of such stands. Supplemental feeding may reduce damage only in exceptional cases, when animals are lured and concentrated in less sensitive areas, but in general we advise against the use of this measure due to its other negative effects. Poškodbe gozdov, ki jih zaradi hranjenja z drevesno skorjo povzročajo jelenjad in nekatere druge vrste velikih rastlinojedov, so v mnogih delih sveta resen ekološki in ekonomski problem. Pogosto se ga skuša reševati z zimskim dopolnilnim krmljenjem, katerega učinki pa niso preučeni. V raziskavi,ki je potekala na Pohorju in je zajemala prek 2.300 dreves, smo z logistično regresijo analizirali vplive krmljenja in številnih drugih dejavnikov na pojavljanje poškodb smreke zaradi lupljenja. Pojavljanje poškodb je odvisno od oddaljenosti od gozdnega roba, gostote, starosti in vrstne pestrosti sestojev, nagiba in ekspozicije terena in gostote jelenjadi, proti pričakovanjem pa ne od oddaljenosti od krmišč; poškodovanih je bilo kar 35 % smrek. Zlasti so poškodovani mlajši, čisti, gosti smrekovi sestoji, saj so zaradi ugodnih varovalnih in mikro-klimatskih razmer (plitvejša snežna odeja, višje efektivne temperature) priljubljen zimski habitat jelenjadi, v katerem pa razen skorje skoraj ni hrane. Za preprečevanje poškodb zato svetujemo močnejša redčenja takih sestojev. S krmljenjem je verjetno škode mogoče zmanjšati le izjemoma, kadar z njim živali odtegnemo na manj občutljiva območja, sicer pa rabo tega ukrepa zaradi drugih negativnih učinkov v splošnem odsvetujemo.

Population size and range of wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) have increased significantly during the past decades in Slovenia, as well as in other European countries. Simultaneously, this has caused an increase in agricultural damages. In this study, we examined the influence of various environmental factors on wild boar spatial distribution, and identified its current and potential population distribution range for Slovenia. The researchis based on a large sample (N = 5.977) of georeferenced locations of boar harvested from the entire country and on GIS data layers (25 environmental variables). Analyses revealed that wild boar densities are highest in areas: (a) with outstanding availability of energy-rich food items (i.e. adult deciduous forests with high hard mast production and supplemental feeding places) and good cover accessibility (i.e. agricultural areas near forests and early successional areas); (b) where the temperatures are high andwinters are mild with low snowfall (the probability of use increases with temperature and decreases with quantity of precipitation). Spatial distribution of wild boar also depends on the percentage of forests and the level of forest fragmentation (i.e. size of forest fragments). Currently, boars inhabit 55% of Slovenia, yet the potential habitat extends up to 67% of the country. The wild boar population size and range are therefore likely to increase, especially if the current trends of environmental changes continue, such as rising temperatures, increased forested area, and a decrease in coniferous trees.

Doslej je bila aktivnost navadnega polha na vhodih v polšine (podzemske jame) v Dinaridih proučevana le enkrat, in še to v letu z zelo malo hrane, ko bukev praktično ni rodila. Raziskavo na istih lokacijah (10 polšinah) smo zato ponovili leta 2022, ko je bil obrod bukve precej boljši. Aktivnost polha na proučevanih polšinah med Ljubljanskim barjem in Krimom smo v obeh letih (torej 2021 in 2022) proučevali s fotopastmi, ki so spremljale izhod iz polšine v obeh letih je spremljanje potekalo od aprila do novembra. V raziskavi smo potrdili, da ima dostopna količina hrane (oz. jakost obroda bukve) bistven vpliv na aktivnost navadnega polha. V letu 2021 je bil od skupaj 2.860 posnetih dogodkov (na 10 lokacijah) navadni polh prisoten na 252 dogodkih. V letu 2022 je bilo skupno na 10 lokacijah zabeleženih 14.747 dogodkov in navadni polh je bil prisoten na kar 13.325 dogodkih (posnetkih tj. skoraj 53-krat več kot leta 2021). V letu 2022 smo zaznali veliko aktivnost navadnega polha tudi na območju, kjer listavci predstavljajo le majhen delež v drevesni sestavi, obratno pa v letu 2021, ko aktivnosti ni bilo zaznane na območjih, kjer listavci predstavljajo manj kot 50 % in je bila nekoliko višja le na območju s hrastom. Zaradi visoke aktivnosti navadnega polha v letu 2022 se je povečala tudi aktivnost njegovih plenilcev. Poleg tega so bili v letu 2022 preko celotne noči dokaj enakomerno aktivni na vhodih v polšine, leto prej pa je bila aktivnost bimodalna, z izraženim viškom zvečer in pred jutrom. So far, the activity of the edible dormouse at the entrances to underground caves in the Dinarides has only been studied once, and that in a year with very little food, when beech crop was very poor. The survey was therefore repeated in 2022 on the same sites (10 locations), when the beech crop was much better. In both years (2021 and 2022), the activity of the edible dormouse in the study areas between Ljubljansko barje and Krim was monitored with photo-traps that monitored the exit from the area in both years, monitoring took place from April to November. In this study, we confirmed that the amount of food available (or the abundance of beech seed) has a significant influence on the activity of the edible dormouse. In 2021, out of a total 2,860 recorded events (at 10 locations), the edible dormouse was present at 252 events. In 2022, a total of 14,747 events were recorded at 10 sites and the edible dormouse was present at 13,325 events (recordings almost 53 times more than in 2021). In 2022, we detected high dormouse activity even in areas where deciduous trees make up only a small proportion of the tree composition, and vice versa in 2021, when no activity was detected in areas where deciduous trees make up less than 50% of the tree species composition, and activity was slightly higher only in the area with oak trees. The high activity of the edible dormouse in 2022 has also led to an increase in the activity of its predators. In addition, in 2022, they were fairly uniformly active at the entrances to the underground caves throughout the night, whereas the year before, activity was bimodal, with a pronounced peak in the evening and before dawn.

Poznavanje absolutnih in/ali relativnih gostot srnjadi je eden predpogojev za njeno kakovostno upravljanje. Pri dosedanjem gospodarjenju so načrtovalci sklepali o številčnosti populacij predvsem iz podatkov o odvzemu osebkov. Ker se glede te metode poraja več dvomov, smo želeli preveriti njeno natančnost z metodo štetja kupčkov iztrebkov ter obenem za slednjo preveriti, če je primerna za rabo v Sloveniji. Metodo smo izvedli na treh območjih, in sicer na Snežniškem, Kočevskem in Pohorskem. V vsakem območju smo izbrali po 40 kvadrantov s čim bolj različnimi gostotami srnjadi, v vsakem kvadrantu smo naključno določili dve vzorčni ploskvi (velike 200-400 m2). Ploskve smo najprej očistili vseh iztrebkov in se nanje vračali v določenih časovnih zaporedjih. Pri vsakem obisku ploskve smo prešteli in odstranili vse kupčke iztrebkov. Dobljene podatke smo preračunali v gostote srnjadi, ter rezultate primerjali z rezultati iz odvzema. Rezultati po posameznih območjih se pojavijo odstopanja, upoštevaje vsa tri območja skupaj, pa je ujemanje zadovoljivo. Na podlagi metode štetja kupčkov iztrebkov za Snežniško območje ocenjujemo, da je gostota populacije 1,7/km2, za Kočevsko območje 2,0/km2 in za Pohorsko območje 6,4/km2, medtem ko so gostote pridobljene na podlagi povratnega izračuna sledeče: za Snežniško območje 3,9/km2, za Kočevsko območje 3,0/km2 in za Pohorsko območje 5,9/km2. Rezultati študije so pokazali, da je metoda štetja kupčkov iztrebkov enostavna za uporabo in daje zadovoljive rezultate. V splošnem bi bila metoda uporabna za preverjanje stvarne populacije ali za kontrolo metode povratnega izračuna. Knowing absolute or/and relative density of the deer population is one of the preconditions for sustainable population management. So far, the size of the deer population estimation was based on previous deer culling. As this method is questionable, we wanted to verify its accuracy by counting the number of deer faeces piles. We used this method in three areas of Slovenia: Sneznik, Kocevje and Pohorje. We selected 40 plots with different deer population densities in each of the three areas, and randomly selected two areas to analyse within each of the 40 plots. The analysed areas were sized between 200m2 and 400m2 depending on the terrain and its overgrowth. Firstly, we removed all faeces samples from the analysed areas and returned to them in specific time intervals to count the newly formed faeces. We removed the faeces after each such count was conducted. Based on these counts, we used a formula to calculate the deer density of the area and of the plots: In next step we compared our results against the results based on the culling method. The results of the two methods did not match fully by comparing individual areas however, they matched if the overall results of all three areas of Slovenia were taken into consideration and compared. Our results suggest the deer density in the Sneznik area is 1,7/km2, 2,0/km2 in the Kocevje area, and 6,4/km2 in the Pohorje area, while the density calculated based on culling suggest is as follows: 3,9/km2 in the Sneznik area, 3,0/km2 in the Kocevje area, and 5,9/km2 in the Pohorje area. The counting of deer faeces piles method is easy for use and provides reliable results. In general, the method would be useful for assessing the density of the deer population or as verification method for culling method results.

Grivasti skakač alohtona je životinjska vrsta u Hrvatskoj koja obitava na planini Mosoru. Iz ograđenog prostora 2002. godine pobjeglo je pet jedinki grivastih skakača od čega je nastala današnja populacija koja se procjenjuje na oko 140 jedinki. Dok je u autohtonom staništu populacija ugrožena zbog krivolova i gubitka staništa te je vrsta uvrštena na Crvenu listu IUCN-a, većina introduciranih populacija pokazala je visoku prilagodljivost novim staništima i visok potencijal za širenje na nova staništa. Budući da papkari igraju ključnu ulogu u ekosustavima, poznavanje morfoloških, bioloških i ekoloških osobina nužno je za ispravno gospodarenje istima. Alohtoni papkari mogu predstavljati ozbiljnu prijetnju autohtonoj biološkoj raznolikosti. Poznato je da neke alohtone vrste papkara imaju negativan utjecaj na područja u koja su unesene. Da bismo bolje razumjeli ekologiju grivastih skakača, posebice njihovu dnevnu aktivnost, izbor staništa te potencijal za daljnje prostorno širenje, uhvatili smo i označili jedanaest životinja GPS-GSM ogrlicama. Rezultati su pokazali tipičan bimodalni obrazac aktivnosti s dva vrhunca – prvi, jutarnji, između 5:00 i 9:00 sati ujutro te drugi, popodnevni, između 16:00 i 19:00 sati. Praćene životinje prosječno su se kretale 1,46 km na dan, a područje obitavanja iznosi 1872 ha. Podatci upućuju da je disperzija grivastih skakača ograničena na područje planine Mosora i malo je vjerojatno da će se proširiti. Za potrebe morfometrijskih analiza prikupljene su mjere tijela i roga 30 grivastih skakača (20 M, 10 Ž) legalno odstrijeljenih na Mosoru te je napravljena deskriptivna analiza kvantitativnih mjera tijela i roga. Rezultati kvantitativnih morfoloških osobina grivastih skakača s Mosora sugeriraju da je ova populacija dobro prilagođena sredozemnom staništu. Uspoređujući dobivene podatke populacije s Mosora s ostalim populacijama, vidljivo je da se bitno ne razlikuju. Analizirajući prehrambene navike utvrdili smo da je vrsta pašnjačkog tipa, vrlo fleksibilna u vidu prehrane te pokazuje velike sezonske varijacije. Glavninu hrane sačinjavale su različite trave i lišće listopadnih stabala. Rezultati ovog istraživanja upućuju na nova saznanja o životnim navikama ove vrste u slobodnoj prirodi mediteranskog staništa te će pridonijeti boljem gospodarenju alohtonim vrstama u Hrvatskoj, čime će se očuvati biološka raznolikost i ekosustav u izvornom obliku. Barbary sheep is a nonnative animal species in Croatia that lives on the Mosor Mountain. In 2002, five Barbary sheep individuals escaped from captivity, resulting in today's population, which is estimated at around 140 individuals. While in the native habitat the population is endangered due to poaching and habitat loss , and the species is listed on the IUCN Red List, most of the introduced populations have shown high adaptability to new habitats and a high potential for spreading to new habitats. Since ungulates play a key role in ecosystems, knowledge of their morphological, biological and ecological characteristics is necessary for their proper management. Non-native ungulates can pose a serious threat to native biodiversity. Some non-native species of ungulates are known to have a negative impact on the areas into which they have been introduced. These include predation, competition with native wildlife, diseases and their associated consequences, hybridization and habitat alteration. Due to the high growth rate and the ability to adapt to the diet, the results from the areas where the Barbary sheep was introduced (Spain and the USA) show a rapid process of dispersion and population increase, which is not the case on Mosor Mountain. The motive of the research was to obtain the first information about the non-native ungulate species that has been present on Mosor Mountain in open nature for twenty years using modern and appropriate methods. Although so far there is no empirical evidence related to any negative impact on native fauna or flora from Barbary sheep, due to general and scientifically unconfirmed theses, there is a negative opinion about this species in society. Insights into autochthonous and nonnative populations of Barbary sheep with an emphasis on their ecological, biological and morphological characteristics present the current knowledge about the species. The chronology of the arrival of the Barbary sheep in Croatia is shown, and the habitat where they were introduced, Mosor Mountain, is discussed through the relief and climatic features of the plant community. To determine the daily activity, habitat choice and dispersion estimation using two different methods, we caught and marked one of the animals with GPS-GSM collars. No mortality was recorded while capturing and tagging animals with collars. The total monitoring of marked animals lasted from 2015. to 2019. Daily activity in the research was measured using an accelerometer built into GPS-GSM collars and a separate measurement of the collar's movement speed in 2 rectangular directions. The information obtained from the two-axis sensor is not a binary activity status (active-passive), but a numerical value, the result of the intensity and duration of the collar's movement. The accelerometer measures activity using the x-axis and the y-axis. From the x-axis and y-axis values, we obtained the total activity (VA) in the formula VA=sqrt(x2 +y2). The collars we placed on the animals were programmed to record the location of the tracked animal (GPS coordinates) every two hours. All the data from the GPS-GSM collars was presented within the ArcGIS PRO program and further enriched using GIS analyzes and publicly available data. We analyzed daily movements, habitat area, habitat characteristics and changes in space use during the warm and cold part of the year. For the purposes of determining dietary habits, samples of rumen content were taken from animals that were legally shot on Mosor Mountain. Analyzes of rumen content samples of Barbary sheep were made according to the methodology of Klansek et al. (1995). The morphological characteristics of the body and horn growth were determined on 30 samples of Barbary sheep (20 M, 10 F) that were legally caught from 2014. to 2019. on Mosor Mountain. The measurements were taken just after the individual was shot in the mountain. All measurements were made by the same person using standard methodology. We analyzed females and males separately, due to pronounced sexual dimorphism. The results of daily activity showed a typical bimodal pattern of activity with two peaks, the first in the morning between 5:00 and 9:00 a.m., and the second in the afternoon between 4:00 and 7:00 p.m. Afternoon activity is more pronounced than morning activity and lasts longer. The peak of activity changed in accordance with the seasonal dynamics of the photoperiod. period of the lowest activity is in winter before dawn. The home range of Barbary sheep on Mosor Mountain is the mountain ridge and southeastern exposure. The monitored animals moved an average of 1.46 km per day, and the area of their annual home range is on average 1872 ha. Data suggest that the dispersal of Barbary sheep is limited to the Mosor Mountain area and is unlikely to spread. The activity was mostly circular and vertical in home range and during the research, not a single tracked animal moved away from the Mosor Mountain, and they very rarely stay on the northern slopes. Barbary sheep prefer and use extremely steep, rough and sunny terrains of the Mosor Mountain with altitudes above 650 m/s. They spend most of their time on rocks and in deciduous forests. They show the greatest tendency to use rock creep, where there are very few in the habitat, while they use the forest habitat types a lot, but do not prefer them. During the cold part of the year, Barbary sheep use terrains with a lower altitude and sunnier exposures with a greater slope. The species is of the pasture type, very flexible in terms of diet and shows large seasonal variations. The main part of the diet consisted of various grasses and leaves of deciduous trees. During the summer, they consumed much more leaves of deciduous trees than in other seasons, which may indicate that they use it as a substitute for water. The results of the quantitative morphological characteristics of Barbary sheep from Mosor Mountain suggest that this population is well adapted to the Mediterranean habitat and indicate that they do not differ significantly from other populations either in autochthonous or non-native habitats. Males had significantly higher mean values of all quantitative variables, which explains the pronounced sexual dimorphism of this species. The results of this research indicate new knowledge about the life habits of this species in the free nature of the Mediterranean habitat, and will contribute to better management of nonnative species in Croatia, which will preserve biological diversity and the ecosystem in its original form.

Navadni polh v polšini preživi celo zimo in dele dneva v poletnih mesecih. Dosedanje raziskave aktivnosti polha so potekale le na gnezdilnicah in časovna raba polšin v naravnem okolju še ni preučena. Tako smo v obdobju od maja do novembra 2021 na območju Rakitne spremljali 10 polšin navadnega polha. V tem letu je obrod navadne bukve, ki je najpomembnejši prehranski vir polha, praktično v celoti izostal. S pomočjo avtomatskih kamer smo spremljali vhode v polšine, avtomatski termometri pa so beležili temperaturo v notranjosti polšine in zunaj nje. Zbrani podatki so bili analizirani. Predmet opazovanja so bili: vrste živali, število osebkov in vedenje. V primeru evidentiranega polha je bila določena še smer gibanja (vstop oz. izhod iz polšine). Zbranih je bilo 2.860 posnetkov živali ob vhodih v polšine, od tega 252 posnetkov navadnega polha. Ugotovljeno je bilo, da je le-ta večinoma aktiven od sončnega zahoda do vzhoda, in bolj na območjih z večjo količino dostopne hrane. Aktivnost se je preko mesecev povečevala, z največ zabeleženimi dogodki v mesecu avgustu. Temperatura v notranjosti polšine je bila bolj stalna kot zunanja temperatura. Ob vhodih v polšine so bile zaznane tudi številne druge živalske vrste, zlasti tiste, ki plenijo polha. Naše ugotovitve so veljavne za leto brez obroda bukve in se verjetno zelo razlikujejo od leta z obrodom. The edible dormouse spends in the underground cavern the whole winter and parts of the day in the summer months. However, research of edible dormouse activity have only been carried out on nesting sites, which means that the timeline of the underground cavern exits use has yet to be explored. In the Rakitna area 10 edible dormouse underground cavern exits were monitored in the period from May to November 2021. This year, the beech tree did not bear any mast which is the most important food source for the dormouse. Automatic cameras were used to monitor the activity around the underground cavern exits and automatic thermometers to monitor the temperature inside and outside the underground caverns. The collected data were analysed. The type of animal, the number of individuals and their behaviour were observed. In the case of a dormouse event the direction of its movement was determined. 2,860 underground cavern exit events were collected, of which 252 captured an edible dormouse. It has been found out that the edible dormouse is mainly active at night and in areas with a greater amount of available food. Over the months, the night-time activity of the edible dormouse increased, with the highest activity in August. The temperature inside the caverns is more constant than the outside temperature. In the vicinity of the underground cavern exits were also detected other species of fauna, many were predators of edible dormouse. The findings are valid for a year without beech fruiting and are likely to differ from a year with fruiting.

Sodobno lovstvo stremi k zmanjševanju trpljenja lovljenih živali, etičnosti lova, pa tudi k varnosti lovskih psov in lovcev. V magistrskem delu smo preučili vplive načinov lova divjega prašiča in rjavega medveda na selektivnost, zanesljivost strelov in etičnost odstrela obeh vrst kot tudi na varnost lovcev in lovskih psov. Podatke o poteku lova osebkov ciljnih vrst smo pridobili s spletno anketo. Pridobili smo tudi podatke anket iz Hrvaške in Švedske, ki so služili za primerjavo alternativnih načinov lova medveda, saj je v Sloveniji dovoljen le lov s prež. Baze podatkov smo uskladili, jih združili in za analize uporabili (rjavi medved, n = 824 divji prašič, n = 561) univariatne in multivariatne statistične analize. Rezultati kažejo, da lov s prež pozitivno vpliva na etičen in selektiven odstrel, zanesljivost strelov in zato tudi na varnost lovca. Načini lova s tal so manj zanesljivi in etično manj sprejemljivi kot lov s preže. V pogonih je večji delež živali zastreljenih in pobeglih, kar pomeni večji stres in trpljenje živali in večjo verjetnost napada ranjene živali na lovca ali lovskega psa. V pogonih, kjer so prisotni psi, so živali med celotnim potekom lova izpostavljene stresu, v nasprotju z lovom s preže, kjer so živali stresu izpostavljene ob in po strelu. Vendar je po ocenah nekaterih strokovnjakov pogon en izmed najučinkovitejših načinov lova na divje prašiče. Naša raziskava posredno potrjuje, da imajo privabljalna krmišča pozitiven učinek na kakovost izvedbe odstrela rjavega medveda, saj omogočajo odstrel živali s prež. Modern hunting aims at reducing the suffering of hunted animals, the ethicality of hunting, and the safety of hunting dogs and hunters. In present Master's thesis, we explored the effects of different methods for hunting of wild boar and brown bear on the selectivity, reliability and ethicality of culling of both species, as well as on the safety of hunters and hunting dogs. Data on the hunting outcomes of the target specimens were obtained by an online survey. We also obtained survey data from Croatia and Sweden, which were used to compare alternative methods of bear hunting, as in Slovenia only the hunting from the elevated seats is allowed. The databases were harmonised, merged and analysed (brown bear, n = 824 wild boar, n = 561) using univariate and multivariate statistical analyses. Our study demonstrates that hunting from elevated seats positively impacts ethical and selective hunting, shot reliability and, therefore, also hunter safety. Hunting methods performed from the ground are less reliable and less ethically sound. Drive hunts result in a higher proportion of animals being wounded and escaping, which means greater stress and suffering for the animal and elevated likelihood of the injured animal attacking the hunter or hound. In drive hunts with dogs, game animals are stressed throughout the hunt, unlike in hunting from elevated seat, where animals are stressed just at and after the shot. However, according to some experts, the drive hunt is one of the most effective ways of wild boar hunt. Our study indirectly confirms that baiting on feeding sites have a positive effect on the quality of brown bear hunting, as they allow hunting from nearby elevated seat.

Animal-borne video and environmental collection systems (AVEDs) are powerful tools for researching the behaviour of elusive animals, such as brown bears (Ursus arctos), which allows scientists to safely record footage from the perspective of an animal. This study aimed to assess some merits and flaws associated with AVEDs by analysing 5177 video clips recorded with a GPS camera collar, between 03:00 – 06:30 and 18:00 – 21:00 each day, which was attached to a male brown bear on Javorniki in Slovenia. Video clips were categorised into predefined behaviour, food and habitat categories. The most frequently observed behaviour, food and habitat was ‘foraging’ (45% of clips), ‘insects’ (41% of clips) and ‘forest’ (63% of clips). Our findings generally agreed with those of similar studies however, due to the recording periods being restricted to dusk and dawn, our results did not represent the typical daily behaviour of bears. We concluded that, in its present state, the limitations facing this method make it more suitable for acquiring qualitative data rather than hard quantitative data. Until cameras can sustain continuous operation over longer periods of time and allow for night-time recording, AVEDs should be used as a source of qualitative data to accompany traditional methods of monitoring and to provide a visual channel between the scientific community and the public. Video posnetki narejeni s strani živali in GPS kamera ovratnice (AVED) predstavljajo močno orodje za raziskovanje vedenja izmuzljivih živali, kot je rjavi medved (Ursus arctos), kar znanstvenikom omogoča varno snemanje posnetkov z vidika živali. Cilj te raziskave je bil oceniti nekatere prednosti in pomanjkljivosti povezane z AVED-ji, z analizo 5177 video posnetkov, posnetih z ovratnikom kamere GPS, med 03:00 - 06:30 ter 18:00 - 21:00 uro vsak dan, ki je bil pritrjen na samca rjavega medved na Javornikih v Sloveniji. Video posnetki so bili razvrščeni v vnaprej določene kategorije vedenje, iskanje hrane in habitatni tipi. Najpogosteje opaženo vedenje, hrana in habitatni prostor so bili "iskanje hrane" (45 % posnetkov), "žuželke" (41 % posnetkov) ter "gozd" (63 % posnetkov). Naše ugotovitve so se na splošno ujemale z ugotovitvami podobnih raziskav ker pa so bila obdobja snemanja omejena na čas mraka in zore, naši rezultati niso predstavljali običajnega dnevnega vedenja medvedov. Ugotovili smo, da je, glede na trenutno stanje te metode in njenih omejitev, le-ta bolj primerna za pridobivanje kvalitativnih podatkov kot solidnih kvantitativnih podatkov. Dokler baterije ne bodo mogle neprekinjeno delovati dlje časa in bodo kamere uspešno lahko snemale tudi ponoči, je treba AVED uporabljati kot vir kvalitativnih podatkov, v kombinaciji z bolj uveljavljenimi metodami monitoringa živali. Hkrati lahko AVED zagotavlja vizualni kanal med znanstveno skupnostjo in javnostjo.

V Sloveniji je bilo opravljenih le nekaj raziskav habitata rastišč divjega petelina. Ta znanja so pomembna pri določitvi in izvajanju ukrepov za ohranitev oziroma povečanje številčnosti vrste. Namen dela je bil ugotoviti sedanjo aktivnost 20-ih znanih rastišč divjega petelina na Uršlji gori z bližnjo okolico v primerjavi s preteklima popisoma (Adamič, 1986 Čas, 2000) ter evidentirati potencialna nova. Prav tako smo želeli ugotoviti, ali med aktivnimi in opuščenimi rastišči divjega petelina obstajajo razlike v habitatnih danostih. Popise aktivnosti rastišč smo izvajali po metodi poslušanja pojočih samcev zgodaj zjutraj in beleženja znakov prisotnosti v času rastitve med 1.4. in 20.5. v letih 2019 ter 2020. Popis habitatnih značilnosti rastišč smo izvedli na treh aktivnih in treh opuščenih rastiščih. Na podlagi dobljenih rezultatov smo ugotovili, da se je število aktivnih rastišč v primerjavi z letom 1986 in 2000 močno zmanjšalo (aktivnih le 30 % od vseh znanih). Na rastiščih smo v obeh letih skupno popisali približno 3-krat manj aktivnih petelinov, tri neaktivne več ter 2,7-krat manj kokoši kot leta 2000. Iz tega sklepamo, da je vrsta na proučevanem območju ogrožena in lahko v naslednjih nekaj desetletjih z območja izgine, če bo trend številčnosti še naprej padal. Delež opuščenih rastišč je bil večji v gozdovih z nižjo nadmorsko višino (pod 1200 m). Evidentirali nismo nobenega novega rastišča, so se pa centri aktivnih rastišč v primerjavi z zadnjim popisom spremenili v prostoru. Ugotovili smo razlike v habitatnih danostih med obema tipoma rastišč. Za aktivna rastišča je bila značilna visoka pokritost tal z zeliščno plastjo (85 %, od tega 24 % jagodičja), večje število mravljišč, redkejši sklep sestoja (40-60 % zastrte površine), večja vidljivost pri tleh ter večji delež starejših iglastih sestojev v primerjavi z opuščenimi. Vidljivost pri tleh in delež drevesnih vrst po našem nista bistveno vplivala na aktivnost rastišč. To this day, there has been very little research regarding the exploration of habitat characteristics of capercaillie leks in Slovenia. This knowledge is crucial for discerning and exercising measures for preserving and increasing species abundance. The aim of this study is to determine the recent activity of 20 known capercaillie leks on Uršlja Gora and its surroundings in comparison with past surveys (Adamič, 1986 Čas, 2000) and to record potential new ones. We also wanted to establish any differences in habitat characteristics between active and abandoned capercaillie leks. We conducted our research with methodical listening of singing males early in the morning and taking note of their presence at the time of their mating season between 1. 4. and 20. 5. in 2019 and 2020. Survey of habitat characteristics was implemented in three active and three abandoned leks. The number of active leks has significantly decreased compared to the surveys in 1986 and 2000 (only 30 % of known leks has remained active). We documented approximately 3 times fewer active males, three more inactive males and 2,7 times less females than in 2000. From that we conclude that the species is endangered in the study area and could disappear in the next few decades if their numbers continue to decrease. The percentage of abandoned leks was higher in forests with lower altitude (below 1200 m). We did not document any new leks, but we discovered that the centres of active leks have shifted compared to the last survey. We also discovered differences in habitat characteristics between both types of leks. Compared to abandoned leks, active leks experienced higher cover of herbaceuous layer (85 %, 24 % being berries), higher number of anthills, low canopy cover (40–60 %), higher ground level visibility and higher percentage of old conifer stands. Ground level visibility and percentage of different tree species did not considerably affect leks activity.

Raziskovali smo, kakšne so vrednosti relativne rodnosti rjavega medveda (Ursus arctos L.) v Evropi in kako se razlikujejo glede na geografsko širino in lokalne gostote medvedov ter ali so prisotne razlike v rodnostih med območji, kjer se krmljenje oziroma odstrel izvaja. Poleg tega smo želeli poiskati povezave med rodnostmi in drugimi reprodukcijskimi parametri. Podatke smo pridobili z zbiranjem in pregledom strokovne literature. Kjer je bilo to možno, smo relativno rodnost povzeli, drugače pa smo jo izračunali na podlagi podatkov pridobljenih s pomočjo ankete, ki smo jo poslali strokovnjakom s področja rjavih medvedov (LCIE). V raziskavi nismo odkrili nobenih vplivov obravnavanih spremenljivk na relativno rodnost, smo pa dokumentirali, da so ocene rodnosti dokaj izenačene in se najverjetneje nahajajo na intervalu od 20 % do 25 %. Iz vrednosti pa izstopa območje Apeninov, kjer smo zabeležili najnižje rodnosti, ki so najverjetneje posledica majhne številčnosti medvedov v populaciji (Aleejev efekt). Rezultati lahko variirajo zaradi uporabe različnih metod za določitev rodnosti in problema primerljivosti podatkov med različnimi državami. Prav tako so nekatere ocene rodnosti lahko nezanesljive (podcenjene). In the thesis, we calculated the value of relative natality of brown bear populations (Ursus arctos L.) in Europe. We studied the effect of geographical latitude and local densities on relative natality, and we were also interested in differences between natality in areas where artificial feeding is allowed and where it is not. The same goes for the effect of harvesting. Furthermore, we sought connections between natality and reproductive parameters. We gathered information by examining literature from experts. Where it was possible, we summarized the value, otherwise we calculated it using data from a survey we sent to brown bear experts (LCIE). In our research, we did not find any connections between relative natality and our research variables. However, we did document that estimated values of relative natality are most likely between 20 % and 25 %. A result that stands out comes from the Apennine area, where we found the lowest estimated value of natality, which could be due to small numbers of individuals in the brown bear population (the Alee effect). The results may vary because we used different methods to estimate relative natality and the data that we used was not always comparable between countries. Furthermore, some values of natality could be unreliable (underestimated).

Delo je rezultat analize podatkov pridobljenih med monitoringom gamsa (Rupicapra rupicapra L.) na stalnih vzorčnih poteh v Triglavskem lovsko-upravljavskem območju v obdobju od leta 2008 do leta 2015. Namen naloge je bil oceniti uspešnost in učinkovitost uporabljene metode monitoringa. Rezultati številčnost in spolne ter starostne strukture preštetih gamsov so primerjani z odvzemom za isto obdobje. Populacijska dinamika preštetih gamsov je v začetnem obdobju nakazovala upad številčnosti gamsov, v zadnjih letih monitoringa pa postopno dvigovanje. Primerjava trendov populacijske dinamike štetja in odvzema je prikazala šibko korelacijo. Rezultati spolne in starostne strukture preštetih gamsov nakazujejo na višji delež samic v populaciji, medtem ko načrtovan odvzem bolj posega v moški del populacije. Uporabljena metoda monitoringa je učinkovita, saj pridobljeni podatki dajejo pomembne informacije o stanju populacije in njeni prostorski razdelitvi. Ponovna izvedba monitoringa je smotrna ob upoštevanju priporočil za izboljšavo iz te naloge. This thesis is the result of the analysis of data obtained during the monitoring of chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra L. ) on transects in the Triglav hunting and management area during the period from 2008 to 2015. The purpose of the paper is to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of the monitoring method that was used. The results of the population dynamics along with the sex and age structure of the chamois counted are compared with the cull of chamois for the same period. The population dynamics of the counted chamois in the initial period indicated a decline in the number of counted chamois, and in the last years of monitoring a gradual increase in the population. The comparison of trends in population dynamics of counting and cull showed a weak correlation. The results of the sexual and age structure of the counted chamois indicate a higher share of females in the population, while the planned cull interferes more within the male population. The monitoring method used is effective, as the obtained data provide important information about the state of the population and its spatial distribution. Re-monitoring may be appropriate, considering the recommendations for improvement mentioned in this thesis.

Upravljanje s populacijami divjadi v Sloveniji temelji na kontrolni metodi, v okviru katere se spremlja dinamiko več bioloških kazalnikov (npr. telesne mase, trofejne vrednosti rogovja). Predpostavlja se, da bodo le-ti reagirali na spreminjanje populacijskih gostot, kar pa ni zagotovljeno. Namen naloge je bil preveriti uporabnost štirih potencialnih kazalnikov kontrolne metode (telesne mase, trofejne vrednosti, spolno razmerje med mladiči, indeks rodnosti). Podatki o divjadi (jelenjad in srnjad) so bili pridobljeni na območju LPN Medved Kočevje, za obdobje 1986-2012. Za celotno obdobje so bile izračunane ocene populacijskih gostot, vrednosti različnih okoljskih dejavnikov in vrednosti kazalnikov. Nato se je ugotavljal vpliv populacijskih gostot in okoljskih dejavnikov na vrednosti kazalnikov. Rezultati naloge temeljijo na predpostavki, da je dinamika gostote ciljnih vrst dobro ocenjena. Od obravnavanih kazalnikov je pri obeh vrstah najboljšo korelacijo s populacijskimi gostotami pokazalo spolno razmerje med mladiči. Kot kazalnik s opoleg spolnega razmerja pogojno uporabne še telesne mase mladičev in enoletnih osebkov jelenjadi, ki so pokazale šibek odziv na spremembo populacijske gostote. Rezultati so pokazali, da je vpliv okoljskih dejavnikov na kazalnike zelo velik, zato jih je potrebno pri njihovi interpretaciji upoštevati. Še posebej to velja za zimsko vreme, obrode drevesnih vrst in poletne suše. Trenutno uveljavljeni kazalniki kontrolne metode (telesne mase, trofejne vrednosti) so pokazali slabši odziv na spreminjanje populacijskih gostot, kot je veljalo dosedanje prepričanje. Wildlife populations in Slovenia are managed through adaptive management whichis based on several biological indicators (e. g. body weight, antler trophy value). It is supposed, that such indicators would respond to the changes in population density, which is not assured. The main purpose of this thesis was to evaluate four potential indicators for use in adaptive management (body weight, trophy value, offspring sex ratio, fertility index). Wildlife data (red- and roe deer) were collected in State hunting reserve withthe special purpose Medved Kočevje, between the period of 1986 to 2012. For the entire period population density estimates, data about environmental factors and indicators were calculated. Indicators were then compared to population densities and environmental factors. The results are based on the assumption that density dynamics of the target species are well estimated. Of the indicators discussed, the offspring sex ratio showed the best correlation with population density in both red- and roe deer population. In addition to the offspring sex ratio, also fawn and yearling red deer body weights are suitable for use as an indicator, even though body weight showed only a weak response to changes in population density. The results showed that the impact of environmental factors on the indicators is very high. This should be taken into account when interpreting the indicators. The strongest influence showed the winter weather, mast years and summer drought. Currently implemented indicators (body weight, trophy value) showed a lower response to estimated density changes as it had been believed before.

Delo obravnava uporabo kontrolne metode pri nacrtovanju upravljanja prosto živecih parkljarjev v Sloveniji v primerjavi s sistemi v Evropi in pregled potencialnih kazalnikov za kontrolno metodo s priporocilom za obravnavo in uporabo v prihodnje. Primerjava sistemov nacrtovanja upravljanja parkljarjev med evropskimi državami razkriva zelo razlicne ureditve, med katerimi pa praviloma ne najdemo izrazitih razlik glede uspešnosti. Bolj kot sama ureditev se kot kvaliteta sistema izkazuje njegova sposobnost, da zagotovi ustrezno izvedbo ukrepov v populacijah parkljarjev. Štejejo le dejansko izvedeni ukrepi v naravi. Najpogosteje izpostavljeni upravljavski problemi so škode od divjadi, kjer so kot deležniki vpleteni predvsem lastniki zemljišc in lovci. Krajši ko je postopek sprejemanja ukrepov in z manj vpletenimi (relacija med njimi), manj so škode izpostavljene kot problem in obratno. Daljša ko je relacija med njimi, bolj mora biti administrativno okolje podrobno urejeno, nacrtovalci upravljanja parkljarjev pa morajo imeti širše znanje in nosijo vecjo odgovornost. Po drugi strani pa le relativno dolge relacije omogocajo uveljavljanje javnega interesa pri upravljanju divjadi. Pregled od gostote populacij odvisnih znakov, ki bi bili potencialno uporabni kot kazalniki pri upravljanju populacij parkljarjev, ponuja široko paleto možnosti. Omejitve so v nejasno izraženi in nekonsistentni odvisnosti, pri veliko znakih pa tudi v relativno nizki stopnji raziskanosti. Za nadaljnjo obravnavo priporocamo kazalnike (prilagojeno po živalskih vrstah in starostno spolnih kategorijah) odstrel, kilometrski indeks, telesno maso, delež s patogenimi organizmi napadenih živali, velikost celjustnice, dolžino rogov, plodnost, gostoto indikatorskih rastlinskih vrst, razvitost indikatorskih rastlinskih vrst, objedenost gozdnega mladja, gostota naletov z vozili in število škodnih dogodkov. O uporabi kontrolne metode lahko govorimo šele takrat, ko nacrtovanje upravljanja sledi principu povratne informacijske zanke in samo sebe stalno korigira. Samo uporaba bioloških kazalnikov ni dovolj. The following thesis deals with the use of adaptive management principles for wild ungulates management in Slovenia, and compares it to systems in other European countries. It also presents an overview of potetntial indicators for control method and proposes their use in the future. The comparison of planning and managements systems reveals that many different ungulates management systems exist throughout Europe. Nevertheless, no major differences have been found regarding success. The most important quality of ungulate management system lies in its ability to assure that the right measures are taken in populations. Only the measures implemented in the nature are the ones that really make the difference. Most frequent ungulate management issues are crop damage, where land owners and hunters are the most important stakeholders. The shorter the procedure of taking masures and the less people involved, the less is damage exposed as a problem, and vice versa. The longer the administrative distances, the more complex administrative environment is required wildlife managers need to have wider knowledge and take more responsibility. However, on the other hand, long administrative procedures enable public interest to be taken into account. The overview of density dependent statistical characters that could be used for ecological indicators reveals a wide range of possibilities. Unclear density dependence, inconsistent density dependence, and, in many cases, a low number of researches are the limitations. For further analysis, we recommend the following biological indicators hunting statistics, kilometric index, body mass, proportion of animals infected with pathogens, mandible size, antlers length, fertility, density of chosen plants, growth of chosen plants, browsing index, density of ungulate % vehicle collisions, and number of crop damage cases. Adaptive management principles are used only when managing populations follow the principle of information feedback and are constantly being moderated. The mere use of ecological indicators is not sufficient.

Mrhovinarji so vrste, ki se prehranjujejo z mrtvo organsko snovjo, ki je niso sami ubili. Mrhovina je bogat prehranski vir hrane, dostopen v vseh biomih. Na razpolago je razmeroma zanesljivo tako v času kot prostoru. Mrhovinarji povezujejo skoraj vse trofične nivoje v ekosistemu. Nimajo neposrednega vpliva na populacijo zaužite vrste, lahko pa na njo vplivajo posredno. V raziskavi smo poskušali podrobneje raziskati iskanje in hranjenje z mrhovino pri različnih vrstah vretenčarjev v Dinaridih. Glavni cilji raziskave so bili ugotoviti: pestrost združb vretenčarskih mrhovinarjev, relativno pogostnost pojavljanja, povprečen čas iskanja trupla, vpliv okoljskih dejavnikov na odkrivanje mrhovine, vpliv letnih časov in temperatur na pestrost, rabo in odkritje mrhovine ter oceniti količino zaužite mrhovine za posamezne vrste. Z avtomatskimi kamerami smo na Kočevskem od 1. 5. 2014 do 1. 5. 2015 spremljali 25 trupel parkljarjev, ki so poginili zaradi povoza na cesti. Skupaj smo zabeležili 9 vrst vretenčarskih mrhovinarjev, od tega 6 vrst sesalcev in 3 vrste ptic. Ugotovili smo, da je lisica najpogostejši mrhovinar v Dinaridih. Prisotna je bila pri 96 % trupel. V povprečju so mrhovinarji potrebovali 81 ur, da so našli truplo. Ugotovili smo, da je medved najdominantnejši mrhovinar v Dinaridih. Pri šestih od štirinajstih najdenih primerov je pri prvem obisku zaužil celotno truplo. Opazili smo vpliv temperature in letnega časa na pestrost, čas iskanja in čas trajanja trupla, ki pa ni bil statistično značilen. V prihodnjih raziskavah na tem področju bi bilo smiselno povečati vzorec izpostavljenih trupel, raziskave podaljšati na več let in z njimi pokriti vse dele leta. Scavengers are animal species feeding with dead organic matter which was not killed by them. Carrion is a nutrient-rich resource of food, produced in all biomes. It is relatively reliably supplied in both time and space. Scavengers connect almost all trophic levels in an ecosystem. They do not have a direct impact on the population of consumed species, but they can impact them indirectly. The aim of the thesis is to investigate consumption of carrion by vertebrate scavengers in the Dinaric mountains. The main goals of the research were to determine diversity of vertebrate scavengers, relative frequency of occurrence, average searching times to find carcasses, impact of environmental factors on the detection of carcasses, impact of seasons and temperatures on use and detection of carcasses and to evaluate the intake of carrion per individual species. Using automatic video cameras, we monitored 25 carcasses of ungulates who have died in vehicle collisions in the region of Kočevje from 1st May 2014 to 1st May 2015. 9 species of vertebrate scavangers have been documented scavenging on ungulate carcasses, 6 of them were mammals, and other 3 were birds. Red fox (recorded at 96 % of carcasses) was the most common scavenger. An average scavenger needed 81 hours to find the carcasses. Brown bear is the most dominant scavenger in the Dinaric mountains. In 6 of 14 cases bears have consumed the carcass entirely on their first visit. By increasing the number of trees and the roughness of the terrain in the vicinity of 200 meters, the number of scavengers that discover the carcass decreases. With statistic analises the impact of season and temperature on the use and detection of carcasses was not confirmed, but the figures clearly show influence of temperature and season on diversity, searching times and use of the carcasse. For future research on this subject it is essential that the studies last several years and cover all periods of year. And the number of monitored carcasses should be greater.

V Sloveniji % podobno pa tudi v več drugih postkomunističnih drţavah % od osamosvojitve naprej mnogi lastniki zemljišč spodbujajo k temu, da bi divjad podobno kot v večini zahodnih drţavah postala nikogaršnja last. S tem bi lastniki pridobili lovno pravico nad divjadjo na svojih posestih. Preskusili smo domnevo, da je v drţavah, kjer imajo lastniki zemljišč pravico do lova, teţje uveljavljati interese po ohranjanju zavarovanih velikih zveri (rjavi medved, volk in ris). Takšna ureditev verjetno daje lastniku večjo avtonomnost na svoji posesti ter občutek lastništva nad vsemi vrstami prostoţivečih ţivali, tudi zavarovanih. Za preučitev vpliva lovnih pravic na stanje velikih zveri smo v rastrskem okolju z ločljivostjo 10 % 10 km analizirali petindvajset evropskih drţav z različno zakonodajno ureditvijo lovnih pravic (drţavna lovna pravica, ali pa vezana na lastništvo zemlje). V raziskavo smo poleg lovnih pravic vključili tudi habitatne, socioekonomske in druge dejavnike, ki bi lahko vplivali na stanje velikih zveri. Ugotovili smo, da habitatna primernost bistveno vpliva na prisotnost velikih zveri zelo pomembni sta tudi gostota prebivalstva in prisotnost zavarovanega območja. Kjer so lovne pravice last zasebnikov, ugotavljamo negativen vpliv na prisotnost medveda in volka, ne pa tudi na risa. Sprememba lovne zakonodaje v Sloveniji bi torej utegnila zmanjšati toleranco do velikih zveri s tem pa negativno vplivala na njihovo populacijo. Since Slovenia declared independence, the landowners, similarly to other European post-communist countries, want the hunting right to be a property right that is tied to land, as it is the case in many western European countries. In this way, the landowners would have the right to hunt on their land. Our hypothesis was, that it is more difficult to maintain the protected large carnivores (brown bear, wolf and lynx) on areas where landlords have the right to hunt. Such regulations allow the landlords to enjoy greater autonomy there, as well as an ownership status attached to all wild life, including the protected. To examine the effects of hunting rights regulations on the status of the large carnivores, we analyzed a raster environment of 10 % 10 km in twenty-five European countries with different hunting right regulations, where the hunting right is either a property right, or it is regulated by a supreme state body. Additional to hunting rights, other factors were included into the research, such as habitat rights, socio-economic factors, and other that could influence the situation of large carnivores. We found out, that the habitat suitability has the largest influence on the presence of large carnivores, followed by the population density, and the status of a protected area. The presence of the bear and the wolf is lower where the hunting rights are tied to the land. There was no significant impact on the presence of the lynx. A legislation change in Slovenia might therefore decrease the level of tolerance towards large carnivores and have negative influence on their population.

Z lovom reguliramo populacije rastlinojede divjadi z namenom usklajevanja njihovih gostot z okoljskimi danostmi in sledenjem drugih upravljavskih ciljev. Lov se izvaja skladno z usmeritvami desetletnih in letnih lovsko upravljavskih načrtov, ki pri parkljarjih določajo tudi spolno in starostno sestavo osebkov, ki jih je potrebno odvzeti iz narave. Namen naloge je okvirno opredeliti, ali je načrtovanje odvzema jelenjadi in srnjadi v Sloveniji ustrezno, predvsem pa, če lovišča zadovoljivo upoštevajo predvidene spolne in starostne strukture odvzema v lovsko upravljavskih načrtih in če so v tem kakšne razlike med lovišči lovskih družin (LD) in lovišči s posebnim namenom (LPN). Z napačnim in selektivnim poročanjem o spolni in starostni sestavi izgub bi lahko upravljavci namreč dosegli, da se preko načrtov podre strukturo. S primerjavo strukture odstrela in izgub med divjadjo je bilo ugotovljeno, da obstaja možnost pristranskega poročanja podatkov, še posebej premajhnega poročanja izgub trofejnih samcev obeh vrst divjadi na območju LPN-jev, medtem ko tega na območju lovišč LD-ja ni bilo opaziti. Za LPN-je je delež izgub pri srnah znašal 43 % od skupnega odvzema, pri srnjakih pa le 12 %, delež izgub pri košutah je dosegel 35 %, pri jelenih pa 7 %. Pri LD-jih je delež izgub od celotnega odvzema za košute znašal 17 %, kar je očitna razlika v primerjavi z LPN-ji. Hunting regulates the population of herbivorous wild game, with the purpose of coordinating their density with environmental features and other goals. Hunting is carried out in accordance with the guidelines of the ten years and the annual wildlife management plans for ungulates, which also determines the sex and age structure of specimens that must be taken from the environment. The purpose of the paper is to determine if the culling plan for roe deer and red deer in Slovenia is appropriate and especially if hunting grounds (LD) and hunting grounds with special purpose (LPN) adequately follow the hunting management plans. The false and selective reporting of sex and age structure of the losses can theoretically destroy the structure. By comparing all types of losses of game, it was discovered, that there is a possibility of false reporting of the results, especially under-reporting of death of trophy males. In hunting grounds with special purpose (LPN) the share of losses was 43% of total yield in female roe deer and 12% in males. The share of losses in red deer females equaled 35% and only 7% in males. The difference is substantial when comparing to ordinary hunting grounds (LD), where the percentage of losses in female red deer is only 17% of total yield.

Gams (Rupicapra rupicapra L.) je prežvekovalec vmesnega tipa, ki se v vegetacijskem delu leta prehranjuje bolj izbiralno kot generalistično. Na prehransko strategijo vpliva kakovost, hranljivost in količina dostopne hrane, ki jo največkrat narekujejo klimatske razmere, v veliki meri snežna odeja. Diplomska naloga obravnava jesensko % zimsko prehrano gamsa v Kamniško % Savinjskih alpah in Karavankah, ki je bila razmeroma slabo poznana. Raziskava je temeljila na makroskopski prehranski analizi 64 vzorcev in je zajela določanje količin, pogostnosti in pomena prehranskih komponent. Cilji naloge so bili spoznati prehransko strategijo gamsa, zastopanost prehranskih komponent, spoznati spremembe v prehrani skozi čas, primerjati prehrano med spoloma, starostnima kategorijama, območjema, sezonama in letom vzorčenja in spoznati vpliv snega na izbiro prehrane pri gamsu. Izkazalo se je, da je gams generalistični prežvekovalec, ki poje največ trav (53 %), sledijo jim zelišča (20,5 %), listnate grmovnice (13,3 %), drevesa iglavcev (3,4 %), drevesa listavcev (3,0 %), iglasti grmi (2,8 %), plodovi (2,1 %), ostalo (1,7 %) in gobe (0,2 %). Največje razlike v sestavi prehrane gamsov so med sezonama vzorčenja in najmanjše med spoloma. Količina snega in trajanje snežne odeje zmanjšuje delež in pomen zelišč, ter povečuje delež iglavcev (drevesa, grmi) in listnatih grmovnic v prehrani gamsa. Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra L.) is a ruminant of intermediate type, which in vegetative part of the year eats selectively. Feeding strategy depends on the quality, nutrition and quantity of available feed, which is influenced by climate conditions, mainly by the amount of snow cover. This thesis examines autumn % winter eating behaviour of chamois in the Kamnik-Savinja Alps and the Karawanks. The study is based on macroscopic feeding analysis of 64 samples with a goal of setting the quantity, frequency and importance of feeding components. The objectives of this thesis are the following: to learn about the feeding strategy of chamois to observe coverage of feeding components, changes in feeding over time and compare the feed between sexes, age categories, regions, seasons and years of sampling and to learn about the influence of snow on chamois% feeding options. Our results show that chamois is a generalist ruminant which eats mainly grass (53 %), followed by herbs (20,5 %), leafy shrubs (13,3 %), conifer trees (3,4 %), deciduous trees (3,0 %), conifer shrubs (2,8 %), pods (2,1 %) and mushrooms (0,2 %). Seasons of sampling reveal the biggest differences in composition of the feed, while the smallest differences appear between sexes. The amount of snow and the duration of snow cover reduce the share and importance of herbs while they increase the share of conifers (trees and shrubs) and deciduous shrubs in chamois feed.

V nalogi smo za obdobje 1976%2005 preučevali odzive telesnih kazalnikov jelenjadi glede na številčnost jelenjadi, ki je določenega leta poseljevala območje LPN Jelen Sneţnik. Telesni kazalci, ki smo jih analizirali, so telesna masa ločeno po spolu in starostnih kategorijah za vse osebke, pri odraslih jelenih smo analizirali še maso rogovja in število CIC točk rogovja. Populacijsko gostoto smo rekonstruirali s pomočjo povratnega računanja iz podatkov, dobljenih iz evidenc odvzete jelenjadi. Rezultati so pokazali, da se je številčnost populacije gibala od 5,8 pa do 2,6 osebka na 100 hektarjev. Analize kaţejo, da populacijska gostota ni statistično značilno vplivala na telesno maso telet in enoletne jelenjadi. Pokazal pa se je vpliv populacijske gostote na telesno maso odrasle jelenjadi in to pri obeh spolih. Pri analizi vplivov na maso rogovja in število CIC točk rogovja smo ugotovili, da nanju pozitivno vplivata višja starost in višja telesna masa, negativno pa nanju vpliva populacijska gostota. In this graduation thesis we were analyzing body indicators of red deer in the area of LPN Jelen Sneţnik, depending to population density in the period from 1976 to 2005. Analyzed body indicators are: body mass separated by sex and age category for all individuals, for adult male we analyzed also antler mass and CIC points of antler. Population density was reconstructed using reverse calculation, from data obtained from year harvesting. The results showed that the population density varied from 2,6 up to 5,8 individuals per 100 hectares. Analysis show that population density do not statistically significant influence the body weight of deer calves and yearlings. On the other hand we found statistically significant influence of population density on body weight for both sex of older animals. In analyzing the effects on antler weight and number of antler CIC points, we found a positive influence on them by older age and higher body weight, but they were influenced negatively by population density.

Plenjenje drobnice predstavlja težavo pri upravljanju in ohranjanju volka, saj povzroča konflikte med rejci domačih živali in volkom, ti pa so lahko težavni tako za oškodovance kot tudi za volkove. Tovrstne konflikte se namreč pogosto skuša reševati s povečanim odstrelom volkov. Drobnico se varuje z različnimi zaščitnimi sredstvi, vendar v Sloveniji še ni bila izvedena raziskava o njihovi učinkovitosti. Učinkovitost različnih sredstev za varovanje drobnice se lahko razlikuje med posameznimi območji, zato je lahko ugotovitve iz tujine tvegano prenesti k nam. V raziskavi so bila proučena zaščitna sredstva na treh različnih območjih, in sicer na Kočevskem, Notranjskem in Primorskem. Popisi so bili izvedli v treh sezonah, spomladi, poleti in jeseni, in sicer zaradi sezonskih specifik in možne selitve drobnicena različne pašnike z različnimi zaščitnimi sredstvi. V raziskavo so bili vključili 36 rejcev drobnice. Vsak popisani pašnik je bil obravnavan kot posamezna enota, ne glede na rejca in obdobje. V raziskavi je bilo spremljanih 117 enot. Na terenu se je ugotavljalo, katero vrsto varovanja rejci uporabljajo in ali uporabljajo v ograji električni tok, ter ocenjevali splošno vzdrževanje zaščite. Z univariatnimi statističnimi metodami je bilo analizirano kako učinkovita so različna zaščitna sredstva zoper napade volkov na drobnico. Proti pričakovanjem rezultati niso pokazali bistvenih razlik med različnimi zaščitnimi sredstvi. Med vsemi vrstami zaščitnih sredstev se je zaščita z žičnato električno ograjo v kombinaciji z elektromrežo izkazala za najučinkovitejšo. Majhne razlike v učinkovitosti zaščitnih sredstev nekako nakazujejo, da zaščita ni bila primerno izvedena in vestno uporabljena. Odškodnina za nastanek škode po volku se izplačuje na podlagi predpisanih zaščitnih ukrepov in sredstev, vendar je bilo ugotovljeno, da so škode lahko velike, in to kljub formalnemu upoštevanju predpisov iz pravilnika o primernih načinih varovanja premoženja in vrstah ukrepov za preprečitev nadaljnje škode na premoženju. Pravilnik je torej pomanjkljivo napisan. Predlaga se dopolnitev pravilnika in uvedbo novega sistema izplačevanja odškodnin, pri katerem bodo rejci motivirani varovati svojo drobnico. Odškodnina bi se izplačevala na podlagi primernega varovanja drobnice, če ta ni varovana v skladu z novimi predpisi se ob vsaki nadaljnji prijavi škode izplača manj odškodnine. Poleg odškodnin bi država rejcem sofinancirala zaščitna sredstva in jim nudila brezplačno svetovanje o pravilni uporabi in vzdrževanju zaščitnih sredstev. Small ruminant predation may represent a problem in exercising control and preservation of the wolf. It may cause conflicts between sheep and goat breeders and wolves and represents a problem not only for breeders but for wolves as well. Such conflicts are frequently solved by increasing the cull of wolves. Small ruminants are protected by several different protective tools,however, in Slovenia there is no verification of their efficiency yet. The efficiency of the small ruminant protective tools may vary among different territories. Therefore it is too risky to transfer the research findings from abroad to our territory. In this research the small cattle protective tools were studied in three different areas: in the Kočevje, Inner Carniola and Primorska region. The survey has been conducted in the period of three seasons- in spring, summer and autumn due to the seasonal specifics and the possibility of the small cattle migration to other pastures which have different protective tools. 36 small ruminant breeders were included into research. All of the pastures under survey have been dealt with as an individual unit regardless of their owner and season. 117 units were surveyed for the purpose of the research. In the field it was tried to establish what kind of protective tools the breeders use, whether they use the electric current and evaluate the maintenance of the protective tools. With univariate statistical methods, it was tried to determine exactly how efficient the protective tools are against wolf attacks. Against the expectations the research showed that there arenʼt any essential differences between the protective tools. Among the different types of protective tools the protection with an electrical wire fence in the combination with the electrical net has proven to be the most efficient option. The relatively small differences between different types of protective tools indicate that the protection has not been appropriately executed and dutifully applied by the breeders. The compensation of the damage per wolf is payable on the basis of the statutory safeguards and resources. However, the research has shown that the damage is often substantial regardless of the formal regulations. According to the research, it has been concluded that the regulations are inadequately written. A completion to the regulations and the introduction of a new compensation payment system is suggested. This is a system which will motivate the breeders to protect their small ruminant. It is recommended that the compensation should be paid on the basis of appropriate small ruminant protection. If the small ruminant are not protected according to the new regulations, the breeders are paid a lower compensation each time they make a new report of damage. In addition to paying compensation, it is recommended that the state co-finance protective tools and provide a free consulting of how to use and maintain the protective tools properly.

Pričujoča raziskava je usmerjena v preučevanje prostorske razširjenosti, strukture in dinamike populacije srnjadi, in sicer na Tolminskem gozdnogospodarskem območju. Populacijo srnjadi v GGO smo proučevali na osnovi odvzema. Baza podatkov obsega 26 853 nizov o odvzeti srnjadi za obdobje 8 let. Za obdobje od leta 2001 do leta 2004 smo podatke o spolu, ocenjeni starosti, telesni masi, masi rogovja in datumu ter kraju uplenitve pridobili izključno iz zapisnikov komisije, za obdobje od leta 2005 do leta 2008 pa iz datoteke lov_ev.dbf. Srnjad smo na podlagi obrabe zobovja razdelili v naslednje starostne kategorije: (1) do enega leta starosti (mladiči) (0,5) (2) enoletni (1,5) (3) dve- in večletni (2,5). Kategorijo dve- in večletnih pa smo razdelili na naslednje starostne razrede: prereproduktivni (3,5), reproduktivni (5,5) in postreproduktivni (8,5) del. Gostoto populacije smo prikazali s fiksno Kernelsko metodo in ugotovili, da srnjad poseljuje skoraj vse območje SZ Slovenije, vendar njene gostote znatno variirajo, saj najraje poseljuje habitate na nižjih nadmorskih višinah. Osebki dosegajo največje telesne mase prav v območju največjih gostot, iz česar lahko sklepamo, da njene gostote niso blizu gornji meji nosilnosti okolja. Večje telesne mase dosegajo moški osebki in to v vseh starostnih kategorijah. Iz upadanja telesnih mas po dveh proučevanih obdobjih pa sklepamo, da je populacija v porastu. This research studies the spatial distribution, structure and population dynamics of roe deer in the forest management area (FMA) of Tolmin. The FMA%s deer population was analyzed using a database containing 26853 records on deer harvested throughout a period of 8 years. Data on sex, estimated age, body weight, antler weight as well as the date and location of harvest for the 2001-2004 period were obtained exclusively from the committee's notes, while the lov_ev.dbf file was used for the 2005-2008 period. According to tooth replacement and wear, deer were divided into the following age categories: (1) up to one year of age (fawns) (0.5) (2) yearlings (1.5) (3) two-and-a-halfyear- old animals and adults (2.5). The latter category was further divided into the following age classes: pre-reproductive (3.5), reproductive (5.5) and post-reproductive (8.5). Population density was calculated using a fixed kernel method. We determined that deer inhabit almost the entire geographic area of northwestern Slovenia however, densities vary considerably, since they tend to occupy lower-lying habitats. Individuals with the largest body weight were found in the area with the highest densities, leading to the conclusion that its densities are below the upper limit of the environment's carrying capacity. In each age category, male individuals have heavier body weight. A decrease in body weight over the two periods under examination indicates that the population is growing.

Diplomska naloga je bila opravljena na ribolovno atraktivni reki Mirni na dolenjskem, kjer se pojavlja evrazijska vidra (Lutra lutra L.). Zaradi konfliktnosti vrste je bila izvedena študija prehranskih značilnosti vidre, ki bo pripomogla k boljšemu razumevanju navad vrste na raziskovanem območju. Analizirali smo 86 iztrebkov. V prehrani so prevladovale ribe (77 %). Ugotovili smo razlike v prehrani vrste glede na dele reke in razlike v sezoni. Med ribami najpogostejši plen predstavljajo krapovci (45,1 %). Pomemben vir prehrane vidre pa sestavljajo tudi žabe (9,3 %) in rak koščak (4,9 %). S pomočjo video monitoringa je bila proučevana aktivnost vider, plenjenje in markiranje. Ugotovili smo, da je vrsta na preučevanem območju nočno aktivna. Analizirali smo tudi smrtnost vrste za daljše časovno obdobje. Iz naraščajočega trenda smrtnosti, lahko posredno sklepamo, da se populacija vrste krepi. Diploma thesis was made in a river Mirna at dolenjska region. River is an interesting fishing zone, where the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra L.) is present. Because of the conflictive nature of the species, diet habits were analysed. That will help us better understand feeding habits of the otters in the study area. We collect 86 spraints. Fish were most common food category in otters diet (77 %). We find significant differences in the upper and lower part of the river and also some seasonal differeces. Cyprinids were most common fish category (45,1 %). Important source of prey are also frogs (9,3 %) and crayfish (Austropotamobius torrentium) (4,9 %). Using trail cameras we studied day-night activity of the species, hunting habits and territorial behaviour. We find out that otters in the area are night active. We also analysed mortality of a longer period. Because of the mortality rate getting higher every year, we can inderectly claime that the population of otters is getting stronger.

V Sloveniji in Italiji smo v letih 2011 in 2014 z avtomatskimi video kamerami zbirali podatke o pojavu divjega prašiča (Sus scrofa L.) kot mrhovinarja na 28 truplih srnjadi (Capreolus capreolus L.). S temi podatki smo ocenjevali vpliv divjega prašiča na potek konzumacije trupel v odvisnosti od njegovih lokalnih gostot. Na hitrost najdbe in delež najdenih trupel pomembno vplivajo lokalne gostote divjega prašiča. Povprečna gostota divjega prašiča v kvadrantih, kjer so našli truplo srnjadi, je znašala 2,4 osebkov/km%. V območjih, kjer ga niso našli pa 1,0 osebka/km%. Na območju Slovenije je odkril 40 % nastavljenih trupel, v Italiji pa 75 %. Za odkritje trupel je v Sloveniji povprečno potreboval 12,5 dni in 2,5 dni na območju Tržaškega krasa v Italiji. Divji prašič ima pomemben vpliv na razpoložljivost mrhovine drugim mrhovinarjem. Pri trenutnih gostotah divjega prašiča v Sloveniji je vpliv kleptoparazitizma na risa minimalen. V primeru naselitve risa na Tržaškem krasu, bi bil ris podvržen visoki stopnji kleptoparazitizma s strani divjega prašiča. We monitored wild boar scavenging (Sus scrofa L.) on 28 carcasses of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) by the use of automatic video cameras in years 2011 and 2014 in Italy and Slovenia. Based on collected data, effects of wild boar density on the course of consummation of carcasses were estimated. Quickness of discovery and rate of found carcasses are highly affected by local density of wild boar. The average density of wild boar in quadrants where deer carcasses were found amounted to 2,4 animals/km% and in other quadrants 1,0 animals/km%. In Slovenia 40 % of carcasses were visited by wild boar and in Italy 75 %. For the discovery of carcasses in Slovenia, 12,5 days were needed, in Italy, in the region of Karst of Trieste 2,5 days were needed. Wild boar has an important impact on the availability of carrion to other scavengers. In current densities of wild boar, in Slovenia the influence of kleptoparasitism on lynx is probably minimal. In case of lynx expansion into the region of Karst of Trieste, lynx would probably be subjected to high degree of kleptoparasitism from wild boar.

V zgodovini se je odnos do rjavega medveda (Ursus arctos) močno spreminjal, s tem pa tudi pristopi k upravljanju z vrsto. Pomemben del upravljanja z medvedom v mnogih državah je tudi krmljenje medvedov na krmiščih. Mnenja o pravilnosti krmljenja kot varstveno % gojitvenega ukrepa, so v svetu različna, kar je deloma posledica slabe raziskanosti učinkov krmljenja in kako medvedi uporabljajo krmišča. To velja tudi za časovne razlike med kategorijami medvedov in interakcije med medvedi ob obiskovanju krmišč. S pričujočo nalogo želimo testirati domnevo, da medvedi zaradi različnih bioloških dejavnikov vrste (parjenje, hiperfagija) in vplivov človeka, tekom leta krmišča obiskujejo z različno frekvenco in se na njih razporejajo različno glede na starost ter spol. Proučili smo tudi neposredne znotrajvrstne interakcij, do katerih prihaja med medvedi na krmiščih. Podatke o obiskih krmišč smo zbirali s pomočjo avtomatskih video kamer. Namestili smo jih na 5 krmiščih za medveda na Kočevskem, znotraj osrednjega območja rjavega medveda v Sloveniji. Na podlagi analize pridobljenih video posnetkov medvedov, smo te razvrstili glede na starostni in reproduktivni status. Ugotovili smo, da je pogostost obiskov krmišč v povprečju najvišja v septembru (pribl. 10 medvedov na dan), kar potrjuje hipotezo o intenzivnejšem prehranjevanju na krmiščih v času hiperfagij v jesenskem času. Ugotovili smo, da medvedi posameznih kategorij krmišč v času ne obiskujejo naključno, ampak v določenem vrstnem redu. Najprej so na krmišča prihajale medvedke z enoletnimi mladiči, nato enoletniki, sledile so samice z letošnjimi mladiči, nevodeče samice in mlajši samci, najkasneje v noči, pa so na krmišča prihajali odrasli samci. Opažen vzorec nakazuje na izogibanje človeku in dominantnim medvedom. Največ znotrajvrstnih interakcij smo opazili med kategorijo nevodečih samic in mlajših samcev. Medtem ko so se mlajši medvedi večinoma tolerirali, smo nasprotno pri odraslih medvedih opazili netoleranco do prisotnosti drugih medvedov na krmišču in agresivno preganjanje. Pridobljene ugotovitve bodo dodatno osvetlile področja ekologije in sociobiologije rjavega medveda v srednjeevropskem prostoru. Podatki bodo tudi dopolnili potrebna znanja za upravljanje ter izboljšale natančnost obstoječe metode monitoringa rjavega medveda s štetji na krmiščih. Human attitudes towards the brown bear (Ursus arctos) changed considerably throughout history and these changes reflected also in different approaches used in management of this species. One of the important measures used in bear management in many European countries is supplemental feeding of bears. Opinions about appropriateness of this controversial measure vary greatly among researchers across the world. These inconsistencies are partly connected with the lack of good understanding about the effects of supplemental feeding and bears% use of the feeding sites. This includes temporal segregation of bears of different age and reproductive categories in the use of feeding sites and interactions that occur among the bears at these sites. Here we tested hypotheses about existence of temporal segregation of feeding site use among bears from different categories and of seasonal variation in frequency of bears% use of feeding sites, which could occur due to several biological factors (e.g. breeding, hyperphagia) and anthropogenic influence. In addition, we studied direct intraspecific interactions among bears visiting feeding sites. Data were obtained with the use of automatic night-vision video cameras, which we deployed on 5 bear feeding sites in Kočevska region (SE Slovenia) within the brown bear population core area. We analysed all video recording and used them to determine age and reproductive category for each bear detected at the feeding sites. Our results indicated that bears did not visit feeding sites randomly, but in certain patterns. The first to come to the feeding sites in the evening were females with yearlings, they were followed by lone yearlings, females with cubs, lone females and young males, and the latest during the night arrived mature males. Observed pattern suggests category-specific avoidance of encounters with humans and dominant bears. We noted the highest frequency of intraspecific interactions among the category of lone females and young males. While the younger bears generally tolerated other bears, we noted low tolerance of conspecifics among the adult bears, which also frequently engaged in aggressive chasing of other bears. Results presented here will help towards further understanding of ecology and sociobiology of brown bears in Central Europe. New data also management implications and could be used to improve accuracy of bear monitoring conducted through systematic counting at feeding sites.