Search

The analysis of phenolic compounds pollution on health is a topic of major concern, in particular the effects associated with cellular damages. In central nervous system synapses zinc can be either a neuromodulator or a neurotoxin, depending on the intracellular concentration and may be implicated in various neurodegenerative diseases. The way phenolic compounds affect synaptic zinc thus contributes to the protective or toxic neuronal zinc changes that can be detected by means of fluorescent zinc indicators. This work focused on the influence of phenolic pollutants on postsynaptic zinc changes, including during chemically induced long term potentiation (LTP). The study was performed in hippocampal slices (400 μm), at the mossy fiber — CA3 pyramidal cells synaptic system, containing, in the synaptic vesicles, very high concentrations of loosely bound zinc. The slices, obtained from pregnant (16–18 days) Wistar rats (12–16 weeks old), were incubated during 1 h, in an oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) containing 5 μM of the permeant fluorescent zinc probe Newport Green (Kd = 1 μM). The effect of a mixture of six phenolic pollutants (100 mg/L each) on the zinc signals was a reversible enhancement (35%, n = 2) indicating that those compounds activate intense zinc release followed by zinc entry in the postsynaptic area. The action of the compounds was also evaluated on the zinc changes associated with TEA-LTP, evoked subsequently by an ACSF solution containing TEA (25 mM) and high calcium (10 mM). It was found that the zinc signals measured in the modified ACFS, applied after the pollutants, have a similar behavior to that observed in control experiments, i.e. the signals decrease in a reversible way (to about 75 % of baseline, n = 3). This reduction, which may be due to the activation of presynaptic Katp channels, was observed both in the absence and following the application of the mixture of compounds, suggesting that mossy fiber TEA-LTP is not largely affected by the pollutants.

The ketogenic diet (KD) has been shown to be effective as an antiepileptic therapy in adults, but it has not been extensively tested for its efficacy in neonatal seizure-induced brain damage. We have previously shown altered expression of zinc/lipid metabolism-related genes in hippocampus following penicillin-induced developmental model of epilepsy. In this study, we further investigated the effect of KD on the neurobehavioral and cognitive deficits, as well as if KD has any influence in the activity of zinc/lipid transporters such as zinc transporter 3 (ZnT-3), MT-3, ApoE, ApoJ (clusterin), and ACAT-1 activities in neonatal rats submitted to flurothyl-induced recurrent seizures. Postnatal day 9 (P9), 48 Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to two groups: flurothyl-induced recurrent seizure group (EXP) and control group (CONT). On P28, they were further randomly divided into the seizure group without ketogenic diet (EXP1), seizure plus ketogenic diet (EXP2), the control group without ketogenic diet (CONT1), and the control plus ketogenic diet (CONT2). Neurological behavioral parameters of brain damage (plane righting reflex, cliff avoidance reflex, and open field test) were observed from P35 to P49. Morris water maze test was performed during P51–P57. Then hippocampal mossy fiber sprouting and the protein levels of ZnT3, MT3, ApoE, CLU, and ACAT-1 were detected by Timm staining and Western blot analysis, respectively. Flurothyl-induced neurobehavioral toxicology and aberrant mossy fiber sprouting were blocked by KD. In parallel with these behavioral changes, rats treated with KD (EXP2) showed a significant down-regulated expression of ZnT-3, MT-3, ApoE, clusterin, and ACAT-1 in hippocampus when compared with the non-KD-treated EXP1 group. Our findings provide support for zinc/lipid transporter signals being potential targets for the treatment of neonatal seizure-induced brain damage by KD.

The mossy fiber (MF) pathway is critical to hippocampal function and influenced by gonadal hormones. Physiological data are limited, so we asked whether basal transmission and long-term potentiation (LTP) differed in slices of adult male and female rats. The results showed small sex differences in basal transmission but striking sex differences in opioid receptor sensitivity and LTP. When slices were made from females on proestrous morning, when serum levels of 17β-estradiol peak, the nonspecific opioid receptor antagonist naloxone (1 μm) enhanced MF transmission but there was no effect in males, suggesting preferential opioid receptor-dependent inhibition in females when 17β-estradiol levels are elevated. The μ-opioid receptor (MOR) antagonist Cys2,Tyr3,Orn5,Pen7-amide (CTOP; 300 nm) had a similar effect but the δ-opioid receptor (DOR) antagonist naltrindole (NTI; 1 μm) did not, implicating MORs in female MF transmission. The GABABreceptor antagonist saclofen (200 μm) occluded effects of CTOP but the GABAAreceptor antagonist bicuculline (10 μm) did not. For LTP, a low-frequency (LF) protocol was used because higher frequencies elicited hyperexcitability in females. Proestrous females exhibited LF-LTP but males did not, suggesting a lower threshold for synaptic plasticity when 17β-estradiol is elevated. NTI blocked LF-LTP in proestrous females, but CTOP did not. Electron microscopy revealed more DOR-labeled spines of pyramidal cells in proestrous females than males. Therefore, we suggest that increased postsynaptic DORs mediate LF-LTP in proestrous females. The results show strong MOR regulation of MF transmission only in females and identify a novel DOR-dependent form of MF LTP specific to proestrus.

It is widely accepted that the hippocampus plays a major role in learning and memory. The mossy fiber synapse between granule cells in the dentate gyrus and pyramidal neurons in the CA3 region is a key component of the hippocampal trisynaptic circuit. Recent work, partially based on direct presynaptic patch-clamp recordings from hippocampal mossy fiber boutons, sheds light on the mechanisms of synaptic transmission and plasticity at mossy fiber synapses. A high Na(+) channel density in mossy fiber boutons leads to a large amplitude of the presynaptic action potential. Together with the fast gating of presynaptic Ca(2+) channels, this generates a large and brief presynaptic Ca(2+) influx, which can trigger transmitter release with high efficiency and temporal precision. The large number of release sites, the large size of the releasable pool of vesicles, and the huge extent of presynaptic plasticity confer unique strength to this synapse, suggesting a large impact onto the CA3 pyramidal cell network under specific behavioral conditions. The characteristic properties of the hippocampal mossy fiber synapse may be important for pattern separation and information storage in the dentate gyrus-CA3 cell network.

SummaryWe investigated rearrangements of connectivity between hippocampal mossy fibers and CA3 pyramidal neurons. We found that mossy fibers establish 10-15 local terminal arborization complexes (LMT-Cs) in CA3, which exhibit major differences in size and divergence in adult mice. LMT-Cs exhibited two types of long-term rearrangements in connectivity in the adult: progressive expansion of LMT-C subsets along individual dendrites throughout life, and pronounced increases in LMT-C complexities in response to an enriched environment. In organotypic slice cultures, subsets of LMT-Cs also rearranged extensively and grew over weeks and months, altering the strength of preexisting connectivity, and establishing or dismantling connections with pyramidal neurons. Differences in LMT-C plasticity reflected properties of individual LMT-Cs, not mossy fibers. LMT-C maintenance and growth were regulated by spiking activity, mGluR2-sensitive transmitter release from LMTs, and PKC. Thus, subsets of terminal arborization complexes by mossy fibers rearrange their local connectivities in response to experience and age throughout life.

Presynaptic inhibitory G protein-coupled receptors play a critical role in regulating transmission at a number of synapses in the central and peripheral nervous system. We generated transgenic mice that express a constitutively active form of an inhibitory Gα subunit to examine the molecular mechanisms underlying the actions of one such receptor, metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) 2, at mossy fiber-CA3 synapses in the hippocampus. mGluR2 participates in at least three types of mossy fiber synaptic plasticity, ( i ) transient suppression of synaptic transmission, ( ii ) long-term depression (LTD), and ( iii ) inhibition of long-term potentiation (LTP), and we find that inhibitory Gα signaling is sufficient to account for the actions of mGluR2 in each. The fact that constitutively active Gα i2 occludes the transient suppression of synaptic transmission by mGluR2, while enhancing LTD, suggests further that these two forms of plasticity are expressed via different mechanisms. In addition, the LTP deficit observed in constitutively active Gα i2 -expressing mice suggests that mGluR2 activation may serve as a metaplastic switch to permit the induction of LTD by inhibiting LTP.

In the mammalian cortex, it is generally assumed that the output information of neurons is encoded in the number and the timing of action potentials. Here, we show, by using direct patchclamp recordings from presynaptic hippocampal mossy fiber boutons, that axons transmit analog signals in addition to action potentials. Excitatory presynaptic potentials result from subthreshold dendritic synaptic inputs, which propagate several hundreds of micrometers along the axon and modulate action potential–evoked transmitter release at the mossy fiber–CA3 synapse. This combined analog and action potential coding represents an additional mechanism for information transmission in a major hippocampal pathway.

Hebb (1949) proposed that after learning both presynaptic and postsynaptic structural changes form the neural substrate oflong-lasting memory. Despite this, there are few instances linking presynaptic remodeling with learning. Here the authors demonstrate in two different rat strains that learning the location of a hidden platform induces expansion of the presynaptic hippocampal mossy fiber terminal field (MFTF) from the stratum lucidum to the distal stratum oriens (dSO). Prior to any training, Long Evans rats (LER) showed an extensive endogenous MFTF innervation of DSO, in contrast to Wistar rats (WR) that showed minimal innervation. LER showed better recall than WR on the hidden platform water maze task and a visible reversal water maze task. In both strains, significant MFTF expansion to dSO, spanning approximately 200 μm, was detected 7 days after training on the hidden platform task, but only LER showed significant MFTF expansion 24 h after training. It is attractive to think that the MFTF expansion to dSO contributes both to long-lasting memory formation and to facilitating spatial navigation strategies. The present results establish learning-induced axonal remodeling of the hippocampal MF system in adult rats as an especially useful system for exploring presynaptic morphological adjustments consequent to learning. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate (MARCKS) is a primary protein kinase C (PKC) substrate in brain thought to transduce PKC signaling into alterations in the filamentous (F) actin cytoskeleton. Within the adult hippocampus, MARCKS is highly expressed in the dentate gyrus (DG)-CA3 mossy fiber pathway, but is expressed at low levels in the CA3-CA1 Schaffer collateral-CA1 pathway. We have previously demonstrated that 50% reductions in MARCKS expression in heterozygous Marcks mutant mice produce robust deficits in spatial reversal learning, but not contextual fear conditioning, suggesting that only specific aspects of hippocampal function are impaired by reduction in MARCKS expression. To further elucidate the role of MARCKS in hippocampal synaptic plasticity, in the present study we examined basal synaptic transmission, paired-pulse facilitation, post-tetanic potentiation, and long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampal mossy fiber-CA3 and Schaffer collateral-CA1 pathways of heterozygous Marcks mutant and wild-type mice. We found that LTP is significantly impaired in the mossy fiber-CA3 pathway, but not in the Schaffer collateral-CA1 pathway, in heterozygous Marcks mutant mice, whereas basal synaptic transmission, paired-pulse facilitation, and post-tetanic potentiation are unaffected in both pathways. These findings indicate that a 50% reduction in MARCKS expression impairs processes required for long-term, but not short-term, synaptic plasticity in the mossy fiber-CA3 pathway. The implications of these findings for the role of the mossy fiber-CA3 pathway in hippocampus-dependent learning processes are discussed.

The dentate gyrus provides the main input to the hippocampus. Information reaches the CA3 region through mossy fibre synapses made by dentate granule cell axons. Synaptic plasticity at the mossy fibre-pyramidal cell synapse is unusual for several reasons, including low basal release probability, pronounced frequency facilitation and a lack of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor involvement in long-term potentiation. In the past few years, some of the mechanisms underlying the peculiar features of mossy fibre synapses have been elucidated. Here we describe recent work from several laboratories on the various forms of synaptic plasticity at hippocampal mossy fibre synapses. We conclude that these contacts have just begun to reveal their many secrets.

We investigated whether new neurons generated in the adult rat brain following lateral fluid percussion traumatic brain injury (TBI) are capable of projecting axons along the mossy fiber pathway to the CA3 region of the hippocampus. Dividing cells were labeled by intraperitoneal injection of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) on the day of surgery/injury, and neurons that extended axons to the CA3 region were retrogradely labeled by fluorescent tracers (FluoSpheres), stereotactically injected into the CA3 region of both the ipsi- and contralateral hippocampus at 1 or 12 days following TBI (n = 12) or sham injury (n = 12) in anaesthetized rats. Animals (n = 6 injured and n = 6 sham-injured controls per time point) were sacrificed at either 3 or 14 days post-injury. Another group of animals (n = 3) was subjected to experimental TBI and BrdU administration and sacrificed 3 days after TBI to be processed for BrdU and immunohistochemistry for polysialylated neural cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM), a growth-related protein normally observed during CNS development. A fivefold bilateral increase in the number of mitotically active (BrdU+) cells was noted within the dentate gyrus when compared to uninjured controls as early as 3 days following TBI. A subgroup of dividing cells was also immunoreactive for PSA-NCAM at 3 days following TBI. By 2 weeks post-injury the number of BrdU+ cells within the dentate gyrus was increased twofold compared to the uninjured counterparts and a proportion of these newly generated cells showed cytoplasmic staining for the fluorescent tracer. These findings document rapid neurogenesis following TBI and show, for the first time, that newly generated granule neurons are capable of extending projections along the hippocampal mossy fiber pathway in the acute post-traumatic period.

At the zinc-enriched mossy fiber synapses from hippocampal CA3 area, electrical or chemical stimulation evokes zinc release from glutamatergic synaptic vesicles that may cause different pre- or postsynaptic actions. Besides zinc that can be co-localized with glutamate and GABA, the mossy fibers contain a very high density of ATP-sensitive potassium channels that are activated by zinc. We have investigated the possibility that intensely released zinc inhibits presynaptic calcium changes and consequently zinc and glutamate release. The studies were made combining optical recording of fast presynaptic calcium and zinc signals, using the fluorescent indicators Fura-2 and N-(6-methoxy-8-quinolyl)-para-toluenesulfonamide, respectively, with measurements of field potentials. We have observed that strong tetanic stimulation caused posttetanic depressions of electrically induced presynaptic calcium and zinc signals and of synaptic responses, the depressions being blocked by zinc chelators. These results suggest that endogenously released zinc has an inhibitory role, mediated by presynaptic ATP-sensitive potassium channels and/or presynaptic calcium channels, that leads to the depression of zinc and glutamate release.

SummaryPlasticity of feedforward inhibition in the hippocampal mossy fiber (MF) pathway can dramatically influence dentate gyrus-CA3 dialog. Interestingly, MF inputs to CA3 stratum lucidum interneurons (SLINs) undergo long-term depression (LTD) following high-frequency stimulation (HFS), in contrast to MF-pyramid (PYR) synapses, where long-term potentiation (LTP) occurs. Furthermore, activity-induced potentiation of MF-SLIN transmission has not previously been observed. Here we report that metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 7 (mGluR7) is a metaplastic switch at MF-SLIN synapses, whose activation and surface expression governs the direction of plasticity. In naive slices, mGluR7 activation during HFS generates MF-SLIN LTD, depressing presynaptic release through a PKC-dependent mechanism. Following agonist exposure, mGluR7 undergoes internalization, unmasking the ability of MF-SLIN synapses to undergo presynaptic potentiation in response to the same HFS that induces LTD in naive slices. Thus, selective mGluR7 targeting to MF terminals contacting SLINs and not PYRs provides cell target-specific plasticity and bidirectional control of feedforward inhibition.

Hippocampal mossy fiber synapses show unique molecular features and dynamic range of plasticity. A recent paper proposed that the defining features of mossy fiber synaptic plasticity are caused by a local buildup of extracellular adenosine (Moore et al., 2003). In this study, we reassessed the role of ambient adenosine in regulating mossy fiber synaptic plasticity in mouse and rat hippocampal slices. Synaptic transmission was highly sensitive to activation of presynaptic adenosine A1receptors (A1Rs), which reduced transmitter release by >75%. However, most of A1Rs were not activated by ambient adenosine. Field potentials increased only by 20-30% when A1Rs were fully blocked with the A1R antagonist 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (DPCPX) (1 μm). Moreover, blocking A1Rs hardly altered paired-pulse facilitation, frequency facilitation, or posttetanic potentiation. Frequency facilitation was similar inA1R-/-mice and when measured with NMDA receptor-mediated EPSCs in CA3 pyramidal cells in the presence of DPCPX. Additional experiments suggested that the results obtained by Moore et al. (2003) can partially be explained by their usage of a submerged recording chamber and elevated divalent cation concentrations. In conclusion, a reduction of the basal release probability by ambient adenosine does not underlie presynaptic forms of plasticity at mossy fiber synapses.

On the basis of the evidence that susceptibility to kainate-induced seizures is enhanced by zinc deficiency and that glutamate concentrations in hippocampal extracellular fluid are excessively increased during seizures, excitability of hippocampal mossy fibers and CA3 neurons was examined using hippocampal slices, which were prepare from mice fed a zinc-deficient diet for 4 weeks. The spatio-temporal dynamics of zinc and calcium was monitored using their indicators, membrane-impermeable ZnAF-2 and membrane-permeable fura-2 AM, respectively. When the molecular layer of dentate gyrus was stimulated with 100mM KCl for 1s, the increased percentages of extracellular zinc in the stratum lucidum and CA3 pyramidal cell layer were higher in zinc-deficient mice than in the control mice, implying that glutamate release from the mossy fibers of the dentate granular cells is enhanced by zinc deficiency. Judging from the increased percentages, however, the amount of zinc released was estimated to be less in zinc-deficient mice. On the other hand, the basal calcium concentrations in the stratum lucidum and CA3 pyramidal cell layer detected with fura-2 were higher in zinc-deficient mice than in the control mice, indicating that hippocampal calcium homeostasis is affected by zinc deficiency. Furthermore, the increased percentage of intracellular calcium in the stratum lucidum by stimulation with high K+ was enhanced by the zinc deficiency. The alteration of hippocampal calcium homeostasis seems to enhance excitability of dentate granular cells in zinc deficiency, following by an enhanced excitability of postsynaptic structures in CA3 neurons.

It has been suggested recently that presynaptic kainate receptors (KARs) are involved in short-term and long-term synaptic plasticity at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses. Using genetic deletion and pharmacology, we here assess the role of GLUK5and GLUK6in synaptic plasticity at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses. We found that the kainate-induced facilitation was completely abolished in theGLUK6-/-mice, whereas it was unaffected in theGLUK5-/-. Consistent with this finding, synaptic facilitation was reduced in theGLUK6-/-and was normal in theGLUK5-/-. In agreement with these results and ruling out any compensatory effects in the genetic deletion models, application of the GLUK5-specific antagonistLY382884[(3S,4aR,6S,8aR)-6-(4-carboxyphenyl)methyl-1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-decahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid] did not affect short-term and long-term synaptic plasticity at the hippocampal mossy fiber synapses. We therefore conclude that the facilitatory effects of kainate on mossy fiber synaptic transmission are mediated by GLUK6-containing KARs.

The hippocampal mossy fiber terminals of CA3 area contain high levels of vesicular zinc that is released in a calcium-dependent way, following high-frequency stimulation. However the properties of zinc release during normal synaptic transmission, paired-pulse facilitation and mossy fiber long-term potentiation are still unknown. Using the fluorescent zinc probe N-(6-methoxy-8-quinolyl)-para-toluenesulfonamide, we measured fast mossy fiber zinc changes indicating that zinc is released following single and low levels of electrical stimulation. The observed presynaptic zinc signals are maintained during the expression of mossy fiber long-term potentiation, assumed to be mediated by an increase in transmitter release, and are enhanced during paired-pulse facilitation. This zinc enhancement is, like paired-pulse facilitation, reduced during established long-term potentiation. The correlation between the paired-pulse evoked zinc and field potential responses supports the idea that zinc is co-released with glutamate.

Neurons exposed to zinc exhibit activation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1), an enzyme that normally participates in DNA repair but promotes cell death when extensively activated. Endogenous, vesicular zinc in brain is released to the extracellular space under conditions causing neuronal depolarization. Here, we used a rat model of insulin-induced hypoglycemia to assess the role of zinc release in PARP-1 activation and neuronal death after severe hypoglycemia. Zinc staining with N-(6-methoxy-8-quinolyl)-para-toluenesulfonamide (TSQ) showed depletion of presynaptic vesicular zinc from hippocampal mossy fiber terminals and accumulation of weakly bound zinc in hippocampal CA1 cell bodies after severe hypoglycemia. Intracerebroventricular injection of the zinc chelator calcium ethylene-diamine tetraacetic acid (CaEDTA) blocked the zinc accumulation and significantly reduced hypoglycemia-induced neuronal death. CaEDTA also attenuated the accumulation of poly(ADP-ribose), the enzymatic product of PARP-1, in hippocampal neurons. These results suggest that zinc translocation is an intermediary step linking hypoglycemia to PARP-1 activation and neuronal death.

Adaptor protein (AP)-2 and AP-3-dependent mechanisms control the sorting of membrane proteins into synaptic vesicles. Mouse models deficient in AP-3, mocha, develop a neurological phenotype of which the central feature is an alteration of the luminal synaptic vesicle composition. This is caused by a severe reduction of vesicular levels of the zinc transporter 3 (ZnT3). It is presently unknown whether this mocha defect is restricted to ZnT3 or encompasses other synaptic vesicle proteins capable of modifying synaptic vesicle contents, such as transporters or channels. In this study, we identified a chloride channel, ClC-3, whose level in synaptic vesicles and hippocampal mossy fiber terminals was reduced in the context of the mocha AP-3 deficiency. In PC-12 cells, ClC-3 was present in transferrin receptor-positive endosomes, where it was targeted to synaptic-like microvesicles (SLMV) by a mechanism sensitive to brefeldin A, a signature of the AP-3-dependent route of SLMV biogenesis. ClC-3 was packed in SLMV along with the AP-3-targeted synaptic vesicle protein ZnT3. Co-segregation of ClC-3 and ZnT3 to common intracellular compartments was functionally significant as revealed by increased vesicular zinc transport with increased ClC3 expression. Our work has identified a synaptic vesicle protein in which trafficking to synaptic vesicles is regulated by AP-3. In addition, our findings indicate that ClC-3 and ZnT3 reside in a common vesicle population where they functionally interact to determine vesicle luminal composition.

The hippocampal mossy fiber long-term potentiation (LTP) is an N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-independent form of long-lasting synaptic plasticity characteristic of the zinc-enriched mossy fiber synapses. Its expression is generally considered to have a presynaptic locus and to be mediated by a persistent increase of evoked transmitter release. Because the release process is calcium-dependent, the observed increase in synaptic efficacy could be due to a persistent modification of presynaptic calcium mechanisms, triggered by the large calcium influx associated with long-term potentiation induction. Alternatively, it might be caused by an enhancement in the sensitivity to calcium of some components of the synaptic vesicle release system, following the large intraterminal calcium accumulation. We investigated the first hypothesis by measuring presynaptic Fura-2 calcium signals associated with electrically induced mossy fiber long-term potentiation. We have observed that like residual calcium, single presynaptic calcium changes are not enhanced during the maintenance phase of mossy fiber long-term potentiation. This result supports the idea that this form of long-term potentiation may be mediated by persistent changes of some process occurring after calcium entry. It has been established that voltage-dependent calcium channels are inhibited by zinc and that endogenous zinc is released in a calcium-dependent way following intense mossy fiber activation. Because there is evidence that at these synapses zinc is also released following single electrical stimulation, we investigated the effect of endogenous zinc on single presynaptic calcium signals and on field potentials associated with mossy fiber LTP. We have observed that this form of LTP could be induced in the presence of the permeant heavy metal chelator N,N,N',N'-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethylenediamine (TPEN) and that application of this chelator, during LTP, caused an enhancement of the presynaptic calcium signals without affecting synaptic transmission. This enhancement is consistent with the idea that mossy fiber zinc, released following individual stimuli, inhibits presynaptic calcium mechanisms.

Two distinct forms of long-term depression (LTD) exist at mossy fiber synapses between dentate gyrus granule cells and hippocampal CA3 stratum lucidum interneurons. Although induction of each form of LTD requires an elevation of postsynaptic intracellular Ca2+, at Ca2+-impermeable AMPA receptor (CI-AMPAR) synapses, induction is NMDA receptor (NMDAR) dependent, whereas LTD at Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptor (CP-AMPAR) synapses is NMDAR independent. However, the expression locus of either form of LTD is not known. Using a number of criteria, including the coefficient of variation, paired-pulse ratio, AMPA-NMDA receptor activity, and the low-affinity AMPAR antagonist γ-d-glutamyl-glycine, we demonstrate that LTD expression at CP-AMPAR synapses is presynaptic and results from reduced transmitter release, whereas LTD expression at CI-AMPAR synapses is postsynaptic. TheN-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein-AP2-clathrin adaptor protein 2 inhibitory peptide pep2m occluded LTD expression at CI-AMPAR synapses but not at CP-AMPAR synapses, confirming that CI-AMPAR LTD involves postsynaptic AMPAR trafficking. Thus, mossy fiber innervation of CA3 stratum lucidum interneurons occurs via two parallel systems targeted to either Ca2+-permeable or Ca2+-impermeable AMPA receptors, each with a distinct expression locus for long-term synaptic plasticity.

The mossy fiber system in the hippocampus of amygdaloid-kindled rats was examined by using highly polysialylated neural cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM) as a marker for immunohistochemical detection of immature dentate granule cells and mossy fibers in combination with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) labeling of newly generated granule cells. Statistically significant increases in BrdU-labeled cells and PSA-NCAM-positive cells occurred in the dentate gyrus following kindling. The increase in PSA-NCAM-immunoreactive neurites was confined to the entire stratum lucidum of CA3. Immunoelectron-microscopic examination also revealed that PSA-NCAM-positive immature synaptic terminals of the sprouting mossy fibers increased in the stratum lucidum of CA3 in the kindled rats. The increase in the numbers of PSA-NCAM-positive granule cells correlated well with the increase in the immunopositive neurites and synaptic terminals on the mossy fiber trajectory. The increase in these PSA-NCAM-immunopositive structures is thought to reflect the enhancement of sprouting and synaptogenesis of mossy fibers by a subset of granule cells newly generated during amygdaloid-kindling and suggests that the reorganization of the mossy fiber system on the normal trajectory at least in part contributes to the acquisition and maintenance of an epileptogenic state.

AB/Gat mice and congenic mice bred for high aggressiveness (CS/ag) were tested for exploratory behavior in novel situations and anxiety-related behavior, using an open-field test and the elevated plus-maze test. Subsequently, the size of hippocampal mossy fiber terminal fields was evaluated. Considerably higher exploratory activity was found in nonaggressive mice, whereas aggressive mice exhibited more anxiety-related behavior. Larger intra- and infrapyramidal mossy fiber terminal fields (IIP-MF) and a larger hilus were found in the highly aggressive strain. Within the nonaggressive AB/Gat strain, larger IIP-MF were correlated with higher exploratory behavior and lower anxiety in the plus-maze test. Within the aggressive strain, no individual correlations between hippocampal morphometry and behavior were found. The results corroborate the "ecotype hypothesis," which suggests that mice of subpopulations with highly aggressive males tend to display reduced exploratory behavior. The findings support the view that genetic factors involved in aggressive behavior also affect hippocampal connectivity. However, our results do not support the hypothesis that a higher level of aggressiveness is necessarily related to smaller IIP-MF.

It is well established that the developing brain is a highly dynamic environment that is susceptible to toxicity produced by a number of pharmacological, chemical and environmental insults. We report herein on permanent behavioural and morphological changes produced by exposing newborn rats to very low (subconvulsive) doses of kainate receptor agonists during a critical window of brain development. Daily treatment of SD rat pups with either 5 or 20 microg/kg of domoic acid (DOM) from postnatal day 8-14 resulted in a permanent and reproducible seizure-like syndrome when animals were exposed to different tests of spatial cognition as adults. Similar results were obtained when animals were treated with equi-efficacious doses of kainic acid (KA; 25 or 100 microg/kg). Treated rats had significant increases in hippocampal mossy fiber staining and reductions in hippocampal cell counts consistent with effects seen in adult rats following acute injections of high doses of kainic acid. In situ hybridization also revealed an elevation in hippocampal brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA in region CA1 without a corresponding increase in neuropeptide Y (NPY) mRNA. These results provide evidence of long-lasting behavioural and histochemical consequences arising from relatively subtle changes in glutamatergic activity during development, that may be relevant to understanding the aetiology of seizure disorders and other forms of neurological disease.

Mammalian phospholipase D (PLD), a multifunctional signaling enzyme, has been reported to facilitate neurite outgrowth in cultured neurons. However, two mammalian isoforms have been found, PLD1 and PLD2, and it has not been determined which isoform is involved, or whether this in vitro phenomenon is relevant to neurite extension in vivo. Using confocal microscopy, we demonstrate that the PLDs are expressed by different cell types in the mouse brain: PLD1 by neurons, and PLD2 by astrocytes. Moreover, using a model of experimentally induced hippocampal mossy fiber sprouting, both isoforms were observed to increase dramatically in expression level along tracts of mossy fiber spouting, supporting the proposal that PLD plays a role in this process. Given that the two isoforms undertake unique molecular functions in cultured cells, our findings suggest that in vivo PLD1 and PLD2 may modulate neuronal plasticity via different pathways and cell types.

Kainate receptors function as mediators of postsynaptic currents and as presynaptic modulators of synaptic transmission at mossy fiber synapses. Despite intense research into the physiological properties of mossy fiber kainate receptors, their subunit composition in the presynaptic and postsynaptic compartments is unclear. Here we describe the distribution of kainate receptor subunits in mossy fiber synapses using subunit-selective antibodies and knock-out mice. We provide morphological evidence for the presynaptic localization of KA1 and KA2 receptor subunits at mossy fiber synapses. Immunogold staining for KA1 and KA2 was commonly seen at synaptic contacts and in vesicular structures. Postsynaptic labeling in dendritic spines was also observed. Although KA1 predominantly showed presynaptic localization, KA2 was concentrated to a greater degree on postsynaptic membranes. Both subunits coimmunoprecipitated from hippocampal membrane extracts with GluR6 but not GluR7 subunits. These results demonstrate that KA1 and KA2 subunits are localized presynaptically and postsynaptically at mossy fiber synapses where they most likely coassemble with GluR6 subunits to form functional heteromeric kainate receptor complexes.

Presynaptic calcium influx is mediated by a variety of different calcium channel subtypes with distinct pharmacological and biophysical properties. In this issue of Neuron , Dietrich et al. show that although Ca V 2.3 calcium channels do not contribute to fast transmitter release at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses, they play a specialized role in induction of multiple presynaptic forms of synaptic plasticity.

The neural substrates of memory likely include long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic strength that results from high-frequency stimulation (HFS) of the afferent pathway. The mechanisms that underlie the maintenance of LTP include RNA and protein synthesis, although the contribution of these molecular events typically does not become essential until several hours after LTP induction. We here show that, different from this pattern, (1) LTP maintenance at the mossy fiber (MF) input to CA3 pyramidal cells in the hippocampus depends on protein and RNA synthesis soon after LTP induction, and (2) some of these molecular events are controlled by signaling from the presynaptic granule cell soma. Bath application of the protein synthesis inhibitor emetine or cycloheximide 1 hr after MF LTP induction in hippocampal slices caused loss of MF potentiation. In contrast, application of emetine 1 hr after LTP induction at the commissural—associational input to CA3 pyramidal cells had no effect on this form of LTP. Administration of emetine or the RNA synthesis inhibitor actinomycin-D before delivery of HFS to MF input also caused a rapid decay of MF potentiation, although neither drug had an effect on the amplitude or the time-constant of decay of post-tetanic potentiation (PTP). Similarly, transection of MF axons near granule cell somas had no effect on baseline or PTP parameters but caused loss of potentiation at a rate comparable with that after actinomycin-D application. These results indicate that the mechanisms that underlie MF LTP maintenance differ from those involved in LTP maintenance at other glutamatergic synapses.

The rapid motility of axonal filopodia and dendritic spines is prevalent throughout the developing CNS, although the function of this motility remains controversial. Using two-photon microscopy, we imaged hippocampal mossy fiber axons in slice cultures and discovered that filopodial extensions are highly motile. Axonal filopodial motility is actin based and is downregulated with development, although it remains in mature cultures. This motility is correlated with free extracellular space yet is inversely correlated with contact with postsynaptic targets, indicating a potential role in synaptogenesis. Filopodial motility is differentially regulated by kainate receptors: synaptic stimulation of kainate receptors enhances motility in younger slices, but it inhibits it in mature slices. We propose that neuronal activity controls filopodial motility in a developmentally regulated manner, in order to establish synaptic contacts in a two-step process. A two-step model of synaptogenesis can also explain the opposite effects of neuronal activity on the motility of dendritic protrusions.

Mocha (mh), a mouse model for Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS), is characterized by platelet storage pool deficiency, pigment dilution, and deafness as well as neurological abnormalities. The trans-Golgi/endosome adaptor-related complex AP-3 is missing in mh mice owing to a deletion in the gene encoding the delta subunit. Mice mutant for a second allele, mh 2J, are as hyperactive as mh, and display both spike wave absence and generalized tonic clonic seizures, but have less coat color dilution, no hearing loss, and no hypersynchronized EEG. Here we show that the mh 2J mutation is due to an IAP element insertion in the Ap3d gene leading to a C-terminally truncated protein. Despite correct assembly of the AP-3 complex and localization to the trans-Golgi network and endosomes, AP-3 function in neurons remains impaired. While mh mice show a severe reduction of vesicular zinc (TIMM staining) owing to mislocalization and degradation of the Zinc transporter ZnT-3, the TIMM and ZnT-3 staining patterns in mh 2J varies, with normal expression in hippocampal mossy fibers, but abnormal patterns in neocortex. These results indicate that the N-terminal portion of the delta subunit is sufficient for AP-3 complex assembly and subcellular localization to the TGN/endosomes, while subsequent function is regulated in part by cell-specific interactions with the C-terminal portion.

Rapid activation of synaptic receptor-channels evokes an ion current that flows through the narrow synaptic cleft; this exerts a significant voltage drop and therefore strong electric field (10(4) V/m range) directed towards the current sinks in the cleft. To what extent this field affects fast diffusion of charged neurotransmitter molecules is not known. We draw a theoretical framework for this complex electrodiffusion phenomenon and establish the basic relationships between the synaptic current and the time course of neurotransmitter in the cleft. The analyses predict that excitatory currents could significantly accelerate the dispersion of negatively charged molecules from the cleft while attracting the positively charged molecules towards the current sinks. This previously unrecognized mechanism should affect the kinetics of synaptic receptor currents, thus contributing to fast synaptic signaling in the brain. (C) 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Zinc is found throughout the CNS in synaptic vesicles of glutamatergic neurons and has been suggested to have a modulatory role in the brain because of its interaction with voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels. We took advantage of zinc transporter 3 knockout mice, which lack vesicular zinc, to study the possible physiological role of this heavy metal in hippocampal mossy fiber neurotransmission. We examined postsynaptic responses evoked by mossy fiber activation, recorded in CA3 pyramidal cells in hippocampal slices prepared from zinc transporter 3 knockout and wild-type mice. Field-potential response threshold and amplitude, input-output curves, and paired-pulse evoked responses were the same in slices from zinc transporter 3 knockout and wild-type mice. Furthermore, neither amplitude nor duration of pharmacologically isolated N -methyl- d -aspartate, non- N -methyl- d -aspartate, GABA A , and GABA B receptor-mediated postsynaptic potentials differed between zinc transporter 3 knockout and wild-type mice. There was no difference in the magnitude of epileptiform discharges evoked by repetitive stimulation or kainic acid application. However, in slices from zinc transporter 3 knockout mice, there was greater attenuation of GABA A -mediated inhibitory postsynaptic potentials during tetanic stimulation compared with slices from wild-type animals. We conclude that lack of vesicular zinc in mossy fibers does not significantly affect the mossy fiber-associated synaptic excitability of CA3 pyramidal cells; however, zinc may modulate GABAergic synaptic transmission under conditions of intensive activation.

Aberrant reorganization of hippocampal mossy fibers occurs in human temporal lobe epilepsy and rodent epilepsy models. We generated a mouse model showing massive late-onset aberrant mossy fiber sprouting in the adult hippocampus. The mutation in this mouse model derives from an intronic insertion of transgene DNA in the mouse PLC-beta1 gene (PLC-beta 1(-/-)(TC) mutation) leading to a splice mutation of the PLC-beta 1 gene and a complete loss of downstream PLC-beta 1 expression. PLC-beta 1(-/-)(TC) mutants develop a loss of NMDA-receptors in the stratum oriens of region CA1, apoptotic neuronal death, and reduced hippocampal PKC activity. The phenotype of these mice further consists of a late-onset epileptiform hyperexcitability, behavioral modifications in a radial maze and in an open field, female nurturing defect, and male infertility. In the present study, we provide evidence that the arising of the behavioral phenotype in PLC-beta 1(-/-)(TC) mice correlates in time with the development of the aberrant mossy fiber projections and that the disruption of the PLC-beta 1-mediated signal transduction pathway may lead to a functional cholinergic denervation, which could cause hippocampal remodeling and, in consequence, epileptiform hyperexcitability.

Most excitatory intrahippocampal pathways are characterized by significant, highly ordered projections into the long, or septotemporal, hippocampal axis. However, the mossy fiber system, the excitatory projection by which the dentate gyrus projects to hippocampal area CA3, is considered an exception, being organized to innervate exclusively transversely oriented cortical layers of the hippocampus. In the present study, the anatomy of the rat mossy fiber system was investigated using axonal tracing techniques, with an emphasis on determining its projection pattern into the long hippocampal axis. To this end, we used dual ipsilateral retrograde tracer injections to determine whether individual granule cells extend divergent axon collaterals to septotemporally distinct levels of hippocampal area CA3. We combined this technique with the fluorescent immunohistochemical detection of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU), a marker of granule cell precursors and their progeny, to address whether the divergence of mossy fiber collaterals within area CA3 might by related to ontogenic gradients in granule cell genesis. We observed single granule neurons that had retrogradely transported both tracers, indicating that they had axon collaterals passing through or terminating within the distinct levels of area CA3 into which tracer had been injected. By using BrdU labeling, we identified divergent granule neurons that were produced during embryonic and postnatal development. We observed no adult-generated granule neurons with significantly diverging mossy fiber collaterals. However, many fewer cells were labeled with BrdU in adult-exposed animals. Because of this smaller sample, we cannot rule out the possibility that small numbers of divergent adult-generated granule cells exist. We conclude that a proportion of the hippocampal mossy fiber projection extends septotemporally divergent axon collaterals to hippocampal area CA3.

The effects of recombinant mouse stem cell factor (rmSCF) on paired-pulse facilitation (PPF) and long-term potentiation (LTP) in the mossy fiber (MF)-CA3 pathway were examined in mouse hippocampal slices by recording field EPSPs. When PPF was measured before and 30 min after tetanic stimulation, the initial PPF positively correlated with the amplitude of LTP and negatively correlated with changes in PPF (PPF after LTP minus initial PPF), indicating a presynaptic component in MF-CA3 LTP. Bath application of rmSCF for 30 min also produced negative correlation between initial PPF and changes in PPF after rmSCF, suggesting common mechanisms of the LTP- and rmSCF-induced modulation of PPF. The rmSCF-induced negative correlation was abolished by simultaneous perfusion with K252a, a receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor, and by wortmannin, a phosphatidylinositol-3'-kinase inhibitor. Although SCF activates phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) and diacylglycerol (DAG) lipase to produce arachidonic acid (AA) in mast cells, mepacrine, a PLA(2) inhibitor, but not RHC80267, a DAG lipase inhibitor, abolished the negative correlation. The induction of LTP was prevented by perfusion with rmSCF started 30 min before tetanus, while preincubation of slices with antibody for SCF receptor, c-kit, blocked LTP, suggesting that the intrinsic SCF is involved in the induction of LTP and the blockade of LTP by rmSCF might be due to an occlusion of SCF/c-kit signaling. In addition, since c-kit is expressed on the postsynaptic CA3 neurons but not on the MF terminals in mice, effects of rmSCF on PPF may be mediated by the PLA(2)-induced AA acting as a retrograde messenger.

The site of induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) at mossy fiber–CA3 synapses in the hippocampus is unresolved, with data supporting both pre- and postsynaptic mechanisms. Here we report that mossy fiber LTP was reduced by perfusion of postsynaptic neurons with peptides and antibodies that interfere with binding of EphB receptor tyrosine kinases (EphRs) to the PDZ protein GRIP. Mossy fiber LTP was also reduced by extracellular application of soluble forms of B-ephrins, which are normally membrane-anchored presynaptic ligands for the EphB receptors. The application of soluble ligands for presynaptic ephrins increased basal excitatory transmission and occluded both tetanus and forskolin-induced synaptic potentiation. These findings suggest that PDZ interactions in the postsynaptic neuron and trans-synaptic interactions between postsynaptic EphB receptors and presynaptic B-ephrins are necessary for the induction of mossy fiber LTP.

Synaptic adaptations are thought to be an important component of the consequences of drug abuse. One such adaptation is an up-regulation of adenylyl cyclase that has been shown to increase transmitter release at several inhibitory synapses. In this study the effects of chronic morphine treatment were studied on mossy fiber synapses in the guinea pig hippocampus using extracellular field potential recordings. This opioid-sensitive synapse was chosen because of the known role of the adenylyl cyclase cascade in the regulation of glutamate release. Long-term potentiation (LTP) at the mossy fiber synapse was enhanced after chronic morphine treatment. In control animals, opioid antagonists increased LTP but had no effect in morphine-treated guinea pigs. In contrast, the long-lasting depression of transmission induced by a mGluR agonist and CA1 LTP were not altered. Chronic morphine treatment neither caused tolerance to μ- and κ-receptor–mediated inhibition at the mossy fiber synapse nor modified total hippocampal dynorphin levels. The results suggest that the phasic inhibition of glutamate transmission mediated by endogenous opioids is reduced after chronic exposure to morphine.

Hippocampal mossy fiber boutons (hMFBs) are presynaptic terminals displaying various forms of synaptic plasticity. The presynaptic mechanisms underlying synaptic plasticity still remain poorly understood. Here, we have combined high temporal resolution measurements of presynaptic capacitance and excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) to measure the kinetics of exocytosis. In addition, total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy was employed to directly visualize dynamics of single synaptic vesicles adjacent to the plasma membrane at high spatial resolution. Readily releasable vesicles mostly consisted of already-tethered vesicles in the TIRF field. Vesicle replenishment had fast and slow phases, and TIRF imaging suggests that the fast phase depends on vesicle priming from already-tethered vesicles. Application of cyclic AMP (cAMP), a molecule crucial for LTP, mainly increases the vesicular release probability rather than the number of readily releasable vesicles or their replenishment rate, likely by changing the coupling between Ca2+ channels and synaptic vesicles. Thus, we revealed dynamic properties of synaptic vesicles at hMFBs.

Hippocampal mossy fiber long-term potentiation (LTP) is expressed presynaptically, but the exact mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we demonstrate the involvement of the hyperpolarization-activated cation channel ( I h ) in the expression of mossy fiber LTP. Established LTP was blocked and reversed by I h channel antagonists. Whole-cell recording from granule cells revealed that repetitive stimulation causes a calcium- and I h -dependent long-lasting depolarization mediated by protein kinase A. Depolarization at the terminals would be expected to enhance transmitter release, whereas somatic depolarization would enhance the responsiveness of granule cells to afferent input. Thus, I h channels play an important role in the long-lasting control of transmitter release and neuronal excitability.

The mechanisms generating giant miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) were investigated at the hippocampal mossy fiber (MF) to CA3 pyramidal cell synapse in vitro. These giant mEPSCs have peak amplitudes as large as 1,700 pA (13.6 nS) with a mean maximal mEPSC amplitude of 366 ± 20 pA (mean ± SD; 5 nS; n = 25 cells). This is compared with maximal mEPSC amplitudes of

Kainate-type ionotropic glutamate receptors (KARs) distribute widely and heterogenously throughout the central nervous system (CNS). There is now increasing evidence showing that, in addition to conventional action to mediate postsynaptic excitation, KAR also exerts presynaptic action modulating the amount of transmitter release at certain synapses in the CNS. The mechanism and physiological function of presynaptic KARs have been studied most extensively at the hippocampal mossy fiber (MF)-CA3 synapse, one of the CNS regions where the highest density of KAR subunits is expressed. One unique feature of presynaptic KARs is that their activation modulates transmitter release bi-directionally; weak activation enhances glutamate release, while strong activation leads to inhibition. These findings may be explained by their possible ionotropic action leading to axonal depolarization, which in turn regulates several voltage-dependent channels involved in action potential-dependent Ca2+ entry processes. Furthermore, physiological activation of presynaptic KAR involves an activity-dependent process. Large frequency facilitation, a form of short-term plasticity characteristic of the MF-CA3 synapse, is mediated, at least partly, by presynaptic KAR. Bi-directional and activity-dependent regulation of transmitter release by kainate autoreceptors might have physiological significance in information processing in the hippocampus and other CNS regions, as well as its well-known pathological action contributing to epileptogenesis.

Visual Abstract, Neural circuits balance excitatory and inhibitory activity and disruptions in this balance are commonly found in neurodevelopmental disorders. Mice lacking the intellectual disability and autism-associated gene Kirrel3 have an excitation-inhibition imbalance in the hippocampus but the precise synaptic changes underlying this functional defect are unknown. Kirrel3 is a homophilic adhesion molecule expressed in dentate gyrus (DG) and GABA neurons. It was suggested that the excitation-inhibition imbalance of hippocampal neurons in Kirrel3 knockout mice is due to loss of mossy fiber (MF) filopodia, which are DG axon protrusions thought to excite GABA neurons and thereby provide feed-forward inhibition to CA3 pyramidal neurons. Fewer filopodial structures were observed in Kirrel3 knockout mice but neither filopodial synapses nor DG en passant synapses, which also excite GABA neurons, were examined. Here, we used serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBEM) with 3D reconstruction to define the precise connectivity of MF filopodia and elucidate synaptic changes induced by Kirrel3 loss. Surprisingly, we discovered wildtype MF filopodia do not synapse exclusively onto GABA neurons as previously thought, but instead synapse with similar frequency onto GABA neurons and CA3 neurons. Moreover, Kirrel3 loss selectively reduces MF filopodial synapses onto GABA neurons but not those made onto CA3 neurons or en passant synapses. In sum, the selective loss of MF filopodial synapses with GABA neurons likely underlies the hippocampal activity imbalance observed in Kirrel3 knockout mice and may impact neural function in patients with Kirrel3-dependent neurodevelopmental disorders.

The hippocampal mossy fiber is characterized by its particular morphology, distinctsynaptic transmission and presynaptic plasticity. Moreover, this synapse has beencalled ―teacher‖ or ―detonator‖ for its proposed functional role in episodic memoryencoding. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms underlying its specific functionalproperties remain elusive. This work is composed of two main parts:1) Phenotyping Hippocampal Mossy Fiber Synapses in VAMP7 KO MiceVAMP7 is a vesicle SNARE of the longin family important in neurite growth duringdevelopment. In the adult brain, VAMP7 is enriched in a subset of nerve terminals,particularly at the hippocampal mossy fiber. We analyzed VAMP7 function inneurotransmitter release by characterizing basal and evoked transmission at thissynapse in KO mice and fully tested hypotheses relevant to short-term plasticity.Loss of VAMP7 has been previously reported not to cause major developmental orneurological deficits (Sato et al., 2011; Danglot et al., 2012). Presynapticmechanisms of short-term plasticity at the hippocampal mossy fiber also seemunaffected for potential reasons that will be discussed.2) CA3 Circuits Probed with RABV-Tracing and Paired RecordingsWe developed a technique to establish paired recordings between connected dentategyrus granule cells and CA3 pyramidal cells (GC-CA3) in mouse hippocampalorganotypic slice cultures. To identify direct presynaptic partners to a defined targetCA3 pyramidal cell, we combined single-cell electroporation (SCE) and mono-transsynaptictracing based on a pseudotyped, recombinant rabies virus (EnvApseudotyped RABV ΔG). Using SCE we transfected a single CA3 pyramidal cell perslice with the plasmids encoding: the RABV envelope glycoprotein (RG), afluorescent reporter, and TVA (the EnvA cognate surface receptor, which has nohomologue in mammalian cells). The slices were subsequently infected with EnvApseudotyped RABV ΔG. After 3-4 days, the RABV mono-trans-synaptic tracingrevealed the presynaptic inputs of that single neuron. Then, we were able toestablish paired recordings between connected GC-CA3 cells, as well as to quantifythe presynaptic partners of the starter CA3 pyramidal cell.; Les synapses fibres moussues de l‘hippocampe entre le gyrus denté et les cellulespyramidales de CA3 sont caractérisées par leur morphologie particulière, et par leurspropriétés distinctives de transmission synaptique et de plasticité présynaptique. Cessynapses sont parfois appelées «détonatrices» pour leur rôle fonctionnel dansl‘encodage de la mémoire épisodique. Cependant, les mécanismes moléculaires à labase des propriétés spécifiques de ces synapses restent peu connus. Ce travail estcomposé de deux parties principales:1) Phénotypage des synapses fibres moussues de l'hippocampe chez les sourisVAMP7 KOVAMP7 est une protéine SNARE vésiculaire de la famille des longins, qui joue unrôle dans la croissance des neurites durant le développement. Dans le cerveauadulte, VAMP7 est enrichi dans un sous-ensemble de terminaisons nerveuses, enparticulier dans les fibres moussues de l‗hippocampe. Nous avons analysé lafonction de VAMP7 dans la libération de neurotransmetteurs par une caractérisationextensive de la transmission synaptique et des mécanismes de plasticité de cettesynapse. L'absence de VAMP7 ne cause pas de graves déficits développementauxou neuronaux (Sato et al., 2011; Danglot et al., 2012). Les mécanismesprésynaptiques de la plasticité à court terme de la fibre moussue de l‘hippocampesemblent également normaux, pour des raisons éventuelles qui seront discutées.2) Circuits du CA3 examinés par traçage viral et enregistrements de pairesNous avons développé une technique pour établir des enregistrements en pairesentre cellules en grain du gyrus denté connectées et cellules pyramidales CA3 (GCCA3),sur des cultures organotypiques de tranches d'hippocampe de souris. Pouridentifier les partenaires présynaptiques directs à une cellule pyramidale CA3 ciblée,nous avons combiné l‘électroporation cellulaire unitaire et le traçage mono-transsynaptiquebasé sur un virus de la rage recombinant et pseudotypé. Nous avonstransfecté une cellule pyramidale CA3 unique par tranche avec les plasmides codantla glycoprotéine d‘enveloppe du virus de la rage (RG), un rapporteur fluorescent, etla protéine TVA (récepteur de surface apparenté au EnvA, qui n'a pas d‘homologuechez les cellules de mammifères). Les tranches ont ensuite été infectées avec levirus de la rage recombinant et pseudotypé. Après 3-4 jours, le traçage mono-transsynaptiquerévèle les entrées présynaptiques de ce neurone unique. Ensuite, nousavons pu établir des enregistrements de paires entre les cellules en grain-CA3connectés, ainsi que de quantifier les partenaires présynaptiques de la cellulepyramidale CA3 de départ.; De mosvezel van de hippocampus kenmerkt zich door een bijzondere morfologie,uitzonderlijke synaptische transmissie en presynaptische plasticiteit. De synapswordt ook wel "leraar" of "detonator" genoemd vanwege zijn waarschijnlijke rol in decodering van het episodisch geheugen. Toch blijven de specifieke moleculairemechanismen van dit synaps onbekend. Dit werk bestaat uit twee delen:1) Fenotypering van mosvezel synapsen van de hippocampus in VAMP7 KO muizenVAMP7 is een vesicle-SNARE van de longin familie van belang bij de groei vanneurieten tijdens de ontwikkeling. In de volwassen hersenen, wordt VAMP7 verrijkt ineen subset van zenuwuiteinden, vooral in de mosvezel van de hippocampus. Weanalyseerden VAMP7 functie in neurotransmitter afgifte door het karakteriseren vanbasale en opgeroepen transmissie bij deze synaps in KO muizen. Eerder is algesteld dat gebrek aan VAMP7 niet leidt tot grote ontwikkelings- of neurologischeafwijkingen (Sato et al., 2011; Danglot et al., 2012). Presynaptische mechanismenvan korte termijn plasticiteit in de mosvezel van de hippocampus lijken ookonaangetast te zijn, de mogelijke redenen hiervoor zullen worden besproken.2) CA3 circuits onderzocht met behulp van RABV-tracing en gekoppelde opnamesWe ontwikkelden een techniek om gekoppelde opnames tussen korelcellen van degyrus dentatus en aangesloten CA3 piramidale cellen (KC-CA3) op zogenaamde‗mouse hippocampal organotypic slice cultures‘ te meten. Om rechtstreeksepresynaptische partners te identificeren van een specifieke CA3 piramidale cel,combineerden we single-cell electroporation (SCE) en mono-trans-synaptic tracingop basis van een pseudo-typed, recombinant rabiësvirus (EnvA pseudogetypedRABV ΔG). Met behulp van SCE transfecteerde we één CA3 piramidale cel per slicemet plasmiden die coderen voor: het RABV glycoproteïne-envelop (RG), eenfluorescerende reporter, en TVA (de aan EnvA verwante oppervlakte receptor diegeen homoloog in zoogdiercellen heeft). De slices werden vervolgens geïnfecteerdmet ENVA pseudogetyped RABV ΔG. Na 3-4 dagen bracht de RABV mono-transsynaptischetracing de presynaptische ingangen van die ene neuron aan het licht.Hierna konden we gekoppelde opnames doen tussen verbonden KC-CA3 cellen.Daarnaast konden we de presynaptische partners van de starter CA3 pyramidale celkwantificeren.

The hippocampal mossy fiber is characterized by its particular morphology, distinctsynaptic transmission and presynaptic plasticity. Moreover, this synapse has beencalled ―teacher‖ or ―detonator‖ for its proposed functional role in episodic memoryencoding. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms underlying its specific functionalproperties remain elusive. This work is composed of two main parts:1) Phenotyping Hippocampal Mossy Fiber Synapses in VAMP7 KO MiceVAMP7 is a vesicle SNARE of the longin family important in neurite growth duringdevelopment. In the adult brain, VAMP7 is enriched in a subset of nerve terminals,particularly at the hippocampal mossy fiber. We analyzed VAMP7 function inneurotransmitter release by characterizing basal and evoked transmission at thissynapse in KO mice and fully tested hypotheses relevant to short-term plasticity.Loss of VAMP7 has been previously reported not to cause major developmental orneurological deficits (Sato et al., 2011; Danglot et al., 2012). Presynapticmechanisms of short-term plasticity at the hippocampal mossy fiber also seemunaffected for potential reasons that will be discussed.2) CA3 Circuits Probed with RABV-Tracing and Paired RecordingsWe developed a technique to establish paired recordings between connected dentategyrus granule cells and CA3 pyramidal cells (GC-CA3) in mouse hippocampalorganotypic slice cultures. To identify direct presynaptic partners to a defined targetCA3 pyramidal cell, we combined single-cell electroporation (SCE) and mono-transsynaptictracing based on a pseudotyped, recombinant rabies virus (EnvApseudotyped RABV ΔG). Using SCE we transfected a single CA3 pyramidal cell perslice with the plasmids encoding: the RABV envelope glycoprotein (RG), afluorescent reporter, and TVA (the EnvA cognate surface receptor, which has nohomologue in mammalian cells). The slices were subsequently infected with EnvApseudotyped RABV ΔG. After 3-4 days, the RABV mono-trans-synaptic tracingrevealed the presynaptic inputs of that single neuron. Then, we were able toestablish paired recordings between connected GC-CA3 cells, as well as to quantifythe presynaptic partners of the starter CA3 pyramidal cell., Les synapses fibres moussues de l‘hippocampe entre le gyrus denté et les cellulespyramidales de CA3 sont caractérisées par leur morphologie particulière, et par leurspropriétés distinctives de transmission synaptique et de plasticité présynaptique. Cessynapses sont parfois appelées «détonatrices» pour leur rôle fonctionnel dansl‘encodage de la mémoire épisodique. Cependant, les mécanismes moléculaires à labase des propriétés spécifiques de ces synapses restent peu connus. Ce travail estcomposé de deux parties principales:1) Phénotypage des synapses fibres moussues de l'hippocampe chez les sourisVAMP7 KOVAMP7 est une protéine SNARE vésiculaire de la famille des longins, qui joue unrôle dans la croissance des neurites durant le développement. Dans le cerveauadulte, VAMP7 est enrichi dans un sous-ensemble de terminaisons nerveuses, enparticulier dans les fibres moussues de l‗hippocampe. Nous avons analysé lafonction de VAMP7 dans la libération de neurotransmetteurs par une caractérisationextensive de la transmission synaptique et des mécanismes de plasticité de cettesynapse. L'absence de VAMP7 ne cause pas de graves déficits développementauxou neuronaux (Sato et al., 2011; Danglot et al., 2012). Les mécanismesprésynaptiques de la plasticité à court terme de la fibre moussue de l‘hippocampesemblent également normaux, pour des raisons éventuelles qui seront discutées.2) Circuits du CA3 examinés par traçage viral et enregistrements de pairesNous avons développé une technique pour établir des enregistrements en pairesentre cellules en grain du gyrus denté connectées et cellules pyramidales CA3 (GCCA3),sur des cultures organotypiques de tranches d'hippocampe de souris. Pouridentifier les partenaires présynaptiques directs à une cellule pyramidale CA3 ciblée,nous avons combiné l‘électroporation cellulaire unitaire et le traçage mono-transsynaptiquebasé sur un virus de la rage recombinant et pseudotypé. Nous avonstransfecté une cellule pyramidale CA3 unique par tranche avec les plasmides codantla glycoprotéine d‘enveloppe du virus de la rage (RG), un rapporteur fluorescent, etla protéine TVA (récepteur de surface apparenté au EnvA, qui n'a pas d‘homologuechez les cellules de mammifères). Les tranches ont ensuite été infectées avec levirus de la rage recombinant et pseudotypé. Après 3-4 jours, le traçage mono-transsynaptiquerévèle les entrées présynaptiques de ce neurone unique. Ensuite, nousavons pu établir des enregistrements de paires entre les cellules en grain-CA3connectés, ainsi que de quantifier les partenaires présynaptiques de la cellulepyramidale CA3 de départ., De mosvezel van de hippocampus kenmerkt zich door een bijzondere morfologie,uitzonderlijke synaptische transmissie en presynaptische plasticiteit. De synapswordt ook wel "leraar" of "detonator" genoemd vanwege zijn waarschijnlijke rol in decodering van het episodisch geheugen. Toch blijven de specifieke moleculairemechanismen van dit synaps onbekend. Dit werk bestaat uit twee delen:1) Fenotypering van mosvezel synapsen van de hippocampus in VAMP7 KO muizenVAMP7 is een vesicle-SNARE van de longin familie van belang bij de groei vanneurieten tijdens de ontwikkeling. In de volwassen hersenen, wordt VAMP7 verrijkt ineen subset van zenuwuiteinden, vooral in de mosvezel van de hippocampus. Weanalyseerden VAMP7 functie in neurotransmitter afgifte door het karakteriseren vanbasale en opgeroepen transmissie bij deze synaps in KO muizen. Eerder is algesteld dat gebrek aan VAMP7 niet leidt tot grote ontwikkelings- of neurologischeafwijkingen (Sato et al., 2011; Danglot et al., 2012). Presynaptische mechanismenvan korte termijn plasticiteit in de mosvezel van de hippocampus lijken ookonaangetast te zijn, de mogelijke redenen hiervoor zullen worden besproken.2) CA3 circuits onderzocht met behulp van RABV-tracing en gekoppelde opnamesWe ontwikkelden een techniek om gekoppelde opnames tussen korelcellen van degyrus dentatus en aangesloten CA3 piramidale cellen (KC-CA3) op zogenaamde‗mouse hippocampal organotypic slice cultures‘ te meten. Om rechtstreeksepresynaptische partners te identificeren van een specifieke CA3 piramidale cel,combineerden we single-cell electroporation (SCE) en mono-trans-synaptic tracingop basis van een pseudo-typed, recombinant rabiësvirus (EnvA pseudogetypedRABV ΔG). Met behulp van SCE transfecteerde we één CA3 piramidale cel per slicemet plasmiden die coderen voor: het RABV glycoproteïne-envelop (RG), eenfluorescerende reporter, en TVA (de aan EnvA verwante oppervlakte receptor diegeen homoloog in zoogdiercellen heeft). De slices werden vervolgens geïnfecteerdmet ENVA pseudogetyped RABV ΔG. Na 3-4 dagen bracht de RABV mono-transsynaptischetracing de presynaptische ingangen van die ene neuron aan het licht.Hierna konden we gekoppelde opnames doen tussen verbonden KC-CA3 cellen.Daarnaast konden we de presynaptische partners van de starter CA3 pyramidale celkwantificeren.

Camillo Golgi's "Reazione Nera" led to the discovery of dendritic spines, small appendages originating from dendritic shafts. With the advent of electron microscopy (EM) they were identified as sites of synaptic contact. Later it was found that changes in synaptic strength were associated with changes in the shape of dendritic spines. While live-cell imaging was advantageous in monitoring the time course of such changes in spine structure, EM is still the best method for the simultaneous visualization of all cellular components, including actual synaptic contacts, at high resolution. Immunogold labeling for EM reveals the precise localization of molecules in relation to synaptic structures. Previous EM studies of spines and synapses were performed in tissue subjected to aldehyde fixation and dehydration in ethanol, which is associated with protein denaturation and tissue shrinkage. It has remained an issue to what extent fine structural details are preserved when subjecting the tissue to these procedures. In the present review, we report recent studies on the fine structure of spines and synapses using high-pressure freezing (HPF), which avoids protein denaturation by aldehydes and results in an excellent preservation of ultrastructural detail. In these studies, HPF was used to monitor subtle fine-structural changes in spine shape associated with chemically induced long-term potentiation (cLTP) at identified hippocampal mossy fiber synapses. Changes in spine shape result from reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton. We report that cLTP was associated with decreased immunogold labeling for phosphorylated cofilin (p-cofilin), an actin-depolymerizing protein. Phosphorylation of cofilin renders it unable to depolymerize F-actin, which stabilizes the actin cytoskeleton. Decreased levels of p-cofilin, in turn, suggest increased actin turnover, possibly underlying the changes in spine shape associated with cLTP. The findings reviewed here establish HPF as an appropriate method for studying the fine structure and molecular composition of synapses on dendritic spines.

In year 01, we completed the majority of our studies in Aim 1 and a portion of Aim 2. We found, in both rats and mice, that severe pilocarpine-induced seizures that result in long-term appearance of spontaneous epileptic seizures are associated with marked changes in the structure of hippocampal mossy fiber presynaptic terminals and functional hyperexcitability of presynaptic vesicular transmitter release. Mossy fiber terminals as a whole, their transmitter release active zone and readily-releasable vesicle pool, were greatly increased in size, and there was even sprouting of new mossy fiber terminals into regions where they do not normally synapse. Functionally, these presynaptic glutamatergic terminals showed greatly enhanced rate of vesicular release from the rapidly-recycling vesicle pool and accelerated endocytotic recycling of vesicles. We commenced studies to be completed in year 02 to test the ability of four antiepileptic drugs that act via differing mechanisms (levetiracetam, lamotrigine, carbamezipine and topiramate), to control presynaptic vesicular release two months after pilocarpine-induced seizures, when the brain has become spontaneously epileptic. We also discovered that the presynaptic vesicle protein dynamin, which is an essential component of one vesicle recycling pathway, is markedly down-regulated in expression and the dynamin pathway loses its ability to keep up with vesicular release in the epileptic brain. If we can find agents that can control presynaptic release, and do so even after development of epilepsy when release is enhanced, we would have a whole new class of treatments to help the 40% of epileptic patients who do not respond to any current therapeutics.

BACKGROUND One unique feature of chronic human and experimental epilepsy is hippocampal dentate granule cell axon (mossy fiber) sprouting which creates an aberrant positive-feedback circuit that may be epileptogenic. However, the mechanism underlying this process remains unclear. Rho guanine nucleotide triphosphatases (RhoGTP ases) Rac1 and RhoA are important regulators of axon growth and synaptic plasticity and can be blocked by treatment with fasudil. We hypothesized that Rac1 and RhoA are involved in aberrant mossy fiber sprouting (MFS). METHODS A temporal lobe epilepsy model was established by intraperitoneal pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) injection for animals in PTZ group, and fasudil was injected 30 minutes prior to PTZ injection for animals in PTZ + Fas group. The expression of Rac1 and RhoA in the rat hippocampus was tested at different time points by immunohistochemistry, Western blot and quantitative real-time PCR. Mossy fiber sprouting in the hippocampus was evaluated by Timm staining. RESULTS Rac1 and RhoA were significantly up-regulated in the PTZ group, and as predicted, the degree of aberrant MFS was correspondingly increased. However, the expression of Rac1 and RhoA was not inhibited in the PTZ + Fas group, and the epileptiform activity, EEG and aberrant MFS were not suppressed following PTZ + Fas treatment. CONCLUSIONS RhoGTPases play a role in MFS but fasudil is not sufficient to inhibit RhoGTPases and MFS in the PTZ kindling model.

Mossy fiber sprouting (MFS) is a unique feature of chronic epilepsy. However, the molecular signals underlying MFS are still unclear. The repulsive guidance molecule A (RGMa) appears to contribute to axon growth and axonal guidance, and may exert its biological effects by dephosphorylating focal adhesion kinase (FAK) at Tyr397, then regulating the activation of Ras. The objective of this study was to explore the expression patterns of RGMa, FAK (Tyr397) and Ras in epileptogenesis, and their correlation with MFS. The epileptic models were established by intraperitoneal pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) injection of Sprague-Dawley rats. At 3 days and at 1, 2, 4 and 6 weeks after the first PTZ injection, Timm staining was scored at different time points in the CA3 region of the hippocampus and dentate gyrus. The protein levels of RGMa, FAK (Tyr397) and Ras were analyzed at different time points in the CA3 region of the hippocampus using immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis. Compared with the control (saline-injected) group, the expression of RGMa in the CA3 area was significantly downregulated (P

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are expressed widely in the CNS, and mediate both synaptic and perisynaptic activities of endogenous cholinergic inputs and pharmacological actions of exogenous compounds (e.g., nicotine and choline). Behavioral studies indicate that nicotine improves such cognitive functions as learning and memory. However, the mechanism of nicotine's action on cognitive function remains elusive. We performed patch-clamp recordings from hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons to determine the effect of nicotine on mossy fiber glutamatergic synaptic transmission. We found that nicotine in combination with NS1738, an α7 nAChR-positive allosteric modulator, strongly potentiated the amplitude of evoked EPSCs (eEPSCs), and reduced the EPSC paired-pulse ratio. The action of nicotine and NS1738 was mimicked by PNU-282987 (an α7 nAChR agonist), and was absent in α7 nAChR knock-out mice. These data indicate that activation of α7 nAChRs was both necessary and sufficient to enhance the amplitude of eEPSCs. BAPTA applied postsynaptically failed to block the action of nicotine and NS1738, suggesting again a presynaptic action of the α7 nAChRs. We also observed α7 nAChR-mediated calcium rises at mossy fiber giant terminals, indicating the presence of functional α7 nAChRs at presynaptic terminals. Furthermore, the addition of PNU-282987 enhanced action potential-dependent calcium transient at these terminals. Last, the potentiating effect of PNU-282987 on eEPSCs was abolished by inhibition of protein kinase A (PKA). Our findings indicate that activation of α7 nAChRs at presynaptic sites, via a mechanism involving PKA, plays a critical role in enhancing synaptic efficiency of hippocampal mossy fiber transmission.

The earliest stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are characterized by deficits in memory and cognition indicating hippocampal pathology. While it is now recognized that synapse dysfunction precedes the hallmark pathological findings of AD, it is unclear if specific hippocampal synapses are particularly vulnerable. Since the mossy fiber (MF) synapse between dentate gyrus (DG) and CA3 regions underlies critical functions disrupted in AD, we utilized serial block-face electron microscopy (SBEM) to analyze MF microcircuitry in a mouse model of familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD). FAD mutant MF terminal complexes were severely disrupted compared to control - they were smaller, contacted fewer postsynaptic spines and had greater numbers of presynaptic filopodial processes. Multi-headed CA3 dendritic spines in the FAD mutant condition were reduced in complexity and had significantly smaller sites of synaptic contact. Significantly, there was no change in the volume of classical dendritic spines at neighboring inputs to CA3 neurons suggesting input-specific defects in the early course of AD related pathology. These data indicate a specific vulnerability of the DG-CA3 network in AD pathogenesis and demonstrate the utility of SBEM to assess circuit specific alterations in mouse models of human disease.