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A fourth-century Gothic bishop Ulfila lived at a time when the larger church was in the process of figuring out its "orthodox" Trinitarian beliefs. Apart form several excerpts of his Bible translation, only Ulfila's creedal statement is extant. It is cited in the end of an account of Ulfila's theology, written by his disciple Auxentius of Durostorum. It is a relatively compressed statement with lacunae and without a reconstructable end. Because of its brevity, and especially because of the availability of secondary yet contradictory information about Ulfila and his theology by a heteroousian Philostorgius, homoean Auxentius, and the pro-Nicene "synoptic" historians Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, Ulfila's short creedal statement can be interpreted in various ways. This article assesses the theology of Ulfila's creedal statement and argues that while representing some kind of triadic subordinationism, it does not match well with "Arian," homoean, or heteroousian creeds. Rather, it seems to follow, in broad terms and with certain twists, the subordinationism of Eusebius of Caesarea/"Eusebians." Ulfila's creedal statement is a short but vivid example of theology that does not fit perfectly into the existing categories of the fourth-century Trinitarian debates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of synthetic organic chemicals that enrich the food chain via biomagnification where the highest levels have been detected in cetaceans. While several studies have reported cetaceans as sentinels of environmental pollution, information on the contamination status of PCBs in cetaceans found stranded along Philippine coasts has been very limited over the past decades. An important contributory factor to this paucity is the challenging analytical method for the analysis of PCBs in lipid-rich biological tissues due to lipid interferences that can affect gas chromatographic systems especially column efficiency and lifetime. Thus, a modified method consisting of a series of three cleanup steps -- involving isolation column chromatography, gel permeation chromatography (GPC), and solid-phase extraction (SPE) using silica gel following Soxhlet extraction, plus macro- and micro-concentration prior to gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric analyses -- was used. Recovery of added analytes corresponding to appropriate concentration ranges and repeatability of data values were excellent as values obtained were within the established performance criteria of 40-120% recovery, including a 106% mean recovery for the QC material (FAPAS T05100QC -- Oily Fish) and < 30% RSD for an analyte concentration of 1 µg kg-1. Thus, the modified cleanup technique in conjunction with GC/MS detection is proven suitable for its intended use. Thirty-eight (38) congeners (PCBs-8, -12, -19, -18, -33, -38, -35, -37, -52, -44, -57, -74, -79, -78, -81, -77, -104, -99, -123, -118, -114, -126, -155, -153, -162, -167, -156, -157, -169, -188, -189, -202, -195, -194, -205, -208, -206, and -209) were detected in cetacean blubber (n = 15) ranging from 21.7 ng g-1 lipid weight (in an adult female dwarf sperm whale (Kogia sima) found in Camarines Sur) to 1460 ng g-1 lipid weight (in an adult male rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis) found in Zambales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On a global scale, cetaceans are recognized well indicators of marine ecosystem health. Trace elements accumulate in their bodies and potentially constitute a toxicological threat. Here, the concentrations of essential Se; unknown physiological elements Br, Rb, Cs, Ni, and Sr; and pollutants arsenic, Cd, Hg, and Ag were assessed in the skin of false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens) stranded at Estrecho de Magallanes, South America, and next, tissue comparisons and relationships between elemental concentrations in the skin and internal tissues (liver, kidney, spleen, lung, skeletal muscle, and testis) were assessed. Results showed elemental concentration variations among tissues. Selenium concentration was found to be higher in the liver 398 (75) μg g−1 dry weight (DW) (standard deviation in parenthesis), followed by skin. Rubidium and Br concentrations were higher in testis 7.92 (0.42) and 99.1 (5.4) μg g−1 DW, respectively, and Cs in muscle 0.36 (0.12) μg g−1 DW, while Ni concentrations range (<0.05–0.91 μg g−1 DW) did not show differences among tissues. Cadmium and arsenic were found to be higher in kidneys, 71.2 (17.6) and 2.54 (1.77) μg g−1 DW, respectively, while Hg was highest in the liver 1068 (234) μg g−1 DW. Concerning inter-tissue relationships, a positive skin-to-kidney and skin-to-muscle correlations were observed for Cs concentrations, and also Hg showed positive skin-to-spleen, skin-to-kidney, and skin-to-testis correlations, which support its use as potential offshore marine biomonitor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has resulted in physical and biological changes in the world's oceans. How the effects of these changes are buffered by top predator populations, and therefore how much plasticity lies at the highest trophic levels, are largely unknown. Here endocrine profiling, longitudinal observations of known individuals over 15 years between 2004 and 2018, and environmental data are combined to examine how the reproductive success of a top marine predator is being affected by ecosystem change. The Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, is a major summer feeding ground for humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the North Atlantic. Blubber biopsy samples (n = 185) of female humpback whales were used to investigate variation in pregnancy rates through the quantification of progesterone. Annual pregnancy rates showed considerable variability, with no overall change detected over the study. However, a total of 457 photo‐identified adult female sightings records with/without calves were collated, and showed that annual calving rates declined significantly. The probability of observing cow–calf pairs was related to favourable environmental conditions in the previous year; measured by herring spawning stock biomass, Calanus spp. abundance, overall copepod abundance and phytoplankton bloom magnitude. Approximately 39% of identified pregnancies were unsuccessful over the 15 years, and the average annual pregnancy rate was higher than the average annual calving rate at ~37% and ~23% respectively. Together, these data suggest that the declines in reproductive success could be, at least in part, the result of females being unable to accumulate the energy reserves necessary to maintain pregnancy and/or meet the energetic demands of lactation in years of poorer prey availability rather than solely an inability to become pregnant. The decline in calving rates over a period of major environmental variability may suggest that this population has limited resilience to such ecosystem change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Baleen whales are subject to a myriad of natural and anthropogenic stressors, but understanding how these stressors affect physiology is difficult. Measurement of adrenal glucocorticoid (GC) hormones involved in the vertebrate stress response (cortisol and corticosterone) in baleen could help fill this data gap. Baleen analysis is a powerful tool, allowing for a retrospective re-creation of multiple years of GC hormone concentrations at approximately a monthly resolution. We hypothesized that whales that died from acute causes (e.g. ship strike) would have lower levels of baleen GCs than whales that died from extended illness or injury (e.g. long-term entanglement in fishing gear). To test this hypothesis, we extracted hormones from baleen plates of four humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) with well-documented deaths including multiple and chronic entanglements (n = 1, female), ship strike (n = 2, male and female) and chronic illness with nutritional stress (n = 1, male). Over ~3 years of baleen growth and during multiple entanglements, the entangled whale had average corticosterone levels of 80–187% higher than the other three whales but cortisol levels were similar to two of the other three whales. The nutritionally stressed and chronically ill whale showed a slow increase in both cortisol and corticosterone spanning ~3 years, followed by a sharp decline in both hormones before death, possibly indicative of adrenal failure in this moribund individual. This whale's correlation between cortisol and corticosterone was significant but there were no correlations in the other three whales. Our results show that cortisol and corticosterone concentrations vary according to the type and duration of illness or injury. Single-point GC concentrations should be interpreted with caution as low values can occur in whales experiencing pronounced stress and individual baselines can be highly variable. Baleen analysis is a promising tissue type for retrospective analyses of physiological responses to various stressors affecting baleen whales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Endocrine tools can provide an avenue to better understand mammalian life histories and predict how individuals and populations may respond to environmental stressors; however, few options exist for studying long-term endocrine patterns in individual marine mammals. Here, we (i) determined whether hormones could be measured in teeth from four marine mammal species: narwhal (Monodon monoceros), beluga (Delphinapterus leucas), killer whale (Orcinus orca) and Atlantic walrus (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus); (ii) validated commercially available enzyme immunoassay kits for use with tooth extracts; and (iii) conducted biological validations for each species to determine whether reproductive hormone concentrations in teeth correlated with age of sexual maturity. Tooth extracts from all species had measurable concentrations of progesterone, testosterone, 17β-estradiol, corticosterone, aldosterone and triiodothyronine (T3); however, cortisol was undetectable. Parallelism between the binding curves of assay kit standards and serially diluted pools of tooth extract for each species was observed for all measurable hormones. Slopes of accuracy tests ranged from 0.750 to 1.116, with r2 values ranging from 0.977 to 1.000, indicating acceptable accuracy. Biological validations were inconsistent with predictions for each species, with the exception of female killer whales (n  = 2), which assumed higher progesterone and testosterone concentrations in mature individuals than immature individuals. Instead, we observed a decline in progesterone and testosterone concentrations from infancy through adulthood in narwhal (n  = 1) and walruses (n  = 2) and higher reproductive hormone concentrations in immature individuals than mature individuals in belugas (n  = 8 and 10, respectively) and male killer whales (n  = 1 and 2, respectively). While unexpected, this pattern has been observed in other taxa; however, further analytical and biological validations are necessary before this technique can be used to assess individual mammalian endocrine patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding calving rates of wild whale populations is critically important for management and conservation. Reproduction of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) is difficult to monitor and, even with long-term sighting studies, basic physiological information such as pregnancy rates and calving intervals remain poorly understood in many populations. We hypothesized that pregnant whales have sustained elevations in baleen progesterone that temporally correlate with gestation. To test this hypothesis, baleen progesterone profiles from two adult female North Pacific humpbacks, both with extensive sighting records and documented pregnancies, were compared to those of a nulliparous female (adult female never seen with a calf) and a juvenile male. Baleen specimens recovered during necropsy were subsampled every 2 cm from the base to the tip of the plate, with each interval representing 30–45 days of growth. Homogenized baleen powder was assayed for progesterone using enzyme immunoassays. The date of growth of each sampling location on the baleen plate was estimated based on stable isotope analysis of annual δ15N cycles. Progesterone profiles from both pregnant whales showed sustained high progesterone content (>350 ng/g) in areas corresponding to known pregnancies, inferred from calf sightings and post-mortem data. The younger female, estimated to be 13 years old, had higher progesterone during pregnancy than the 44.5 year old, but levels during non-pregnancy were similar. The nulliparous female and the male had low progesterone throughout their baleen plates. Baleen hormone analysis can determine how progesterone concentrations change throughout gestation and has potential for estimating age at first reproduction, pregnancy intervals, failed pregnancies and early calf mortality. Understanding rates of calving and current and historic reproductive patterns in humpbacks is vital to continuing conservation measures in this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid climate warming is decreasing sea ice thickness, extent and duration. Marine mammals such as bearded (Erignathus barbatus) and ringed (Pusa hispida) seals, which use sea ice for pupping, molting and resting, may be negatively affected. Claws from bearded and ringed seals store up to 14 and 12 years of sequential analyte data, respectively. These data can be used to compare reproduction, stress and diet across decades. In this study, we compare progesterone, cortisol and carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes in female bearded and ringed seals during 1953–1968 (pre-1968, a period prior to sea ice decline) to 1998–2014 (post-1998, a period during sea ice decline). When comparing these periods, bearded seals had statistically higher cortisol concentrations post-1998, and for both species δ13C was more negative post-1998, while progesterone and δ15N did not change. There was a positive relationship between progesterone and cortisol Z-scores for both species, except for ringed seals post-1998. There was a negative relationship between cortisol Z-scores and δ13C for bearded seals evident in post-1998 indicating that higher cortisol Z-scores are associated with more negative δ13C in bearded seals in recent years. This negative relationship between cortisol and δ13C in bearded seals suggests a shift to higher prey diversity, possibly due to changes in sea ice in the Pacific Arctic evident post 1998. Progesterone Z-scores corresponded to expected differences among non-pregnant, unimplanted, implanted and post-partum individuals. Using these data, pregnancy history was determined for reproductive years for each individual female sampled, which could allow for yearly pregnancy rates to be calculated given a large enough representative sample of the population. These results combine decades of observational studies with hormones and stable isotopes to infer changes in reproduction, stress and diet, as well as the connection between these life history parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keratinized tissues, including whiskers, are ideal for acquiring a record of physiological parameters. Most tissues provide a snapshot of physiological status; however, whiskers may support longitudinal sampling for reproductive and stress-related hormones, if hormones are incorporated as whiskers grow and concentrations change with physiological state. Whiskers from female Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) and northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) were serially sectioned and pulverized and steroid hormones were extracted. Standard methods were used to validate enzyme immunoassay kits for cortisol, progesterone, 17β-estradiol and testosterone. All hormones were measurable in whisker segments from both species with progesterone concentrations showing cyclical patterns, which appear to signify previous pregnancies or luteal phases. Yearly progesterone concentrations were greater in years a pup was produced compared with years when no pup was observed. Free-ranging female Steller sea lions had reproductive rates between 0 and 1.0 (0.53 ± 0.33, n  = 12) using a yearly progesterone concentration of 30 pg/mg or greater to classify a reproductive year as producing a pup and below 30 pg/mg as non-reproductive. Cortisol concentrations were greater near the root and rapidly declined, lacking any obvious patterns, throughout the rest of the whisker. Progesterone and testosterone concentrations were able to help determine sex of unknown individuals. Immunohistochemistry revealed that steroid hormones most likely do not leach out of whiskers based on the deposition patterns of progesterone and cortisol being present throughout the whisker length. Overall, measuring steroid hormones in whiskers can reveal individual reproductive histories over multiple years in sea lions and fur seals. Cyclical patterns of δ15N were useful for identifying periods of up to ~10 years of growth within whiskers, and measuring both stable isotopes and hormones may be useful for differentiating periods of active gestation from diapause and potentially track multi-year reproductive histories of female otariids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Pacific walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens) is an iconic Arctic marine mammal and an important resource to many Alaska Natives. A decrease in sea ice habitat and unknown population numbers has led to concern of the long-term future health of the walrus population. There is currently no clear understanding of how walrus physiology might be affected by a changing Arctic ecosystem. In this study, steroid hormone concentrations (progesterone, testosterone, cortisol and estradiol) were analysed in walrus bones collected during archaeological [3585–200 calendar years before present (BP)], historical [1880–2006 common era (CE)] and modern (2014–2016 CE) time periods, representing ~ 3651 years, to track changes in reproductive activity and cortisol concentrations (biomarker of stress) over time. Our results show that modern walrus samples have similar cortisol concentrations (median = 43.97 ± standard deviation 904.38 ng/g lipid) to archaeological walruses (38.94 ± 296.17 ng/g lipid, P  = 0.75). Cortisol concentrations were weakly correlated with a 15-year average September Chukchi Sea ice cover (P  = 0.002, 0.02, r 2 = 0.09, 0.04, for females and males, respectively), indicating a possible physiological resiliency to sea ice recession in the Arctic. All steroid hormones had significant negative correlations with mean walrus population estimates from 1960 to 2016 (P  < 0.001). Progesterone in females and testosterone in males exhibited significant correlations with average September Chukchi Sea ice cover for years 1880–2016 (P  < 0.001 for both, r2  = 0.34, 0.22, respectively). Modern walruses had significantly lower (P  = < 0.001) reproductive hormone concentrations compared with historic walruses during times of rapid population increase, indicative of a population possibly at carrying capacity. This is the first study to apply bone as a tool to monitor long-term changes in hormones that may be associated with changes in walrus population size and sea ice cover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As studies quantifying steroid hormones in marine mammal blubber progress, methodological refinements may improve the utility and consistency of blubber hormone measurements. This study advances blubber extraction methodologies by testing a simplified extraction protocol that reduces time and complexity compared to a protocol widely used in cetacean blubber studies. Using blubber samples archived from remote biopsy (n  = 21 live whales) and necropsy collection (n  = 7 dead whales) of North Atlantic right whales (NARW; Eubalaena glacialis) of known life history states, we performed analytical and biological validations to assess the feasibility of measuring reproductive (testosterone, progesterone) and glucocorticoid (cortisol) hormones in blubber via enzyme immunoassay following the simplified extraction. Analytical validations (parallelism, accuracy, extraction efficiency, repeatability) showed the simplified extraction produced similar results to the extended protocol, offering a more efficient and consistent technique. In live, apparently healthy whales, blubber testosterone concentrations (mean ± SE) were significantly higher in males (2.02 ± 0.36 ng/g) compared to females (0.81 ± 0.15 ng/g). Blubber progesterone was highest in a confirmed pregnant female (60.3 ng/g), which was 12-fold greater than the mean concentration of non-pregnant females (4.56 ± 0.88 ng/g). Blubber cortisol concentrations in whales that died from anthropogenic causes averaged 5.31 ± 2.28 ng/g, whereas most live, healthy whales had cortisol values below 1 ng/g. Among living whales, a whale actively entangled in fishing gear had the highest blubber cortisol measurement (3.51 ng/g), exhibiting levels similar to whales that died from acute entanglement (2.88 ± 0.42 ng/g). Overall, the highest blubber cortisol concentration (18.0 ng/g) was measured in a dead whale with a severe chronic entanglement, approximately 30-fold greater than mean blubber cortisol of apparently healthy whales (0.58 ± 0.11 ng/g). The methodological approach presented here provides a reference for researchers interested in an alternative, streamlined technique for hormone extraction of cetacean blubber and contributes to the diverse tool set for stress and reproductive assessments of endangered NARWs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indigenous arctic communities access terrestrial and marine wildlife. This access contributes to their food sovereignty. Ineffective management of wildlife that migrate internationally jeopardizes local and regional access to these species and subsequently hunting practices and human health. Despite general recognition of the role of effective transboundary management in food security, the issue remains under-studied. One puzzle is why some food sources (i.e. marine mammals) with transboundary policies have been sustainably managed, while others have not. Guided by Mitchell's 'four factors' framework, this research compares the effectiveness of the transboundary management of the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort bowhead whale population and the Chukchi Sea polar bear population in the Northern Bering-Chukchi Sea Large Marine Ecosystem. We find that the cases diverged in terms of governance and transparency. Regarding the management of the Chukchi Sea polar bear population, information and incentives were only sometimes present and capacities were rarely present. Based on the effective aspects of the evaluated transboundary agreements, we recommend the following for transboundary marine mammal management in the Arctic: 1) that local and regional financial, administrative, and technical capacities are included at the decision-making table, and 2) that western science is used in conjunction with Indigenous Knowledge or to co-produce knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been increasing concern about trace element accumulation in finless porpoises over the past decades, while the long-term variation of its concentration has been little known. Since most soft tissues of porpoises in the past were not preserved until now, the bone tissue is the only ideal material available. Here, 27 East Asian finless porpoise bone samples collected from Nantong, the East China Sea during two periods (1984–1992 and 2009) were used to explore the temporal variation of nine typical elements' concentration (Fe, Mn, Cu, Ni, Hg, Cr, Pb, As, and Cd, dry weight). An upward trend for total trace element accumulation from 329.04 mg/kg in 1984–1992 to 1535.81 mg/kg in 2009 was found; this could have resulted from the increasing industrial development in the Nantong region. The Mn, Fe, and As levels increased significantly while the concentrations of Cd, Cu, and Pb significantly decreased. Generally, our results suggested that most trace elements posed low threats to East Asian finless porpoises' health during both periods, while elements Mn (2009), Ni (both periods), Fe (2009), and As (2009) posed a potentially higher health risk to porpoises. Thus, the trace element levels warrant concern and continuous monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Endocrine profiling is an increasingly utilized tool for detecting pregnancies in wild populations of mammals. Given the difficulty in calculating reproductive rates of Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus divergens) the use of endocrine techniques for determining pregnancy rates could be particularly useful for management of the population. The goals of this study were to 1) determine if progesterone and total estrogen concentrations in ovarian tissues of female walruses could be used to determine reproductive state and 2) determine if walruses undergo a functional postpartum estrus, as is seen in other pinnipeds. Ovaries were collected from female walruses (n = 13) hunted in subsistence hunts by Alaska Native communities. Females were categorized as postpartum, full-term pregnant, pregnant diapause or unbred. Total estrogen concentrations were greatest in unbred (n = 2) and pregnant (n = 2) females. Progesterone concentrations were also nominally larger in unbred (n = 2) than pregnant (n = 2) and postpartum (n = 9) animals. Small samples sizes precluded the use of statistical comparisons among groups. Corpora lutea tissue samples in this study did not reflect the presence of a postpartum estrus in the month of May as postpartum females yielded lower total estrogen concentrations than unbred or pregnant animals. Both unbred animals were in a state of pseudopregnancy, which has not been physiologically described for this species before. The progesterone profiles in late (59 ng/g) and early (140 ng/g) pregnancy were lower than expected and fell within the range of the postpartum females (36–210 ng/g), suggesting low production of the hormone by the corpus luteum during these phases of pregnancy. Profiling reproductive hormones in free-ranging walruses demonstrates that an endocrine approach may be a valuable tool for determining reproductive status of females, however increased sample sizes and time of year must be considered to accurately separate pregnant versus pseudopregnant individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article delves into the relationship between South Arabian Jews and Jewish sympathizers and offers an interpretative framework for the monotheism of fourth- and fifth-century Ḥimyar which contextualizes the choice of South Arabia's elites to become Jewish sympathizers. The process of conversion to monotheism also shares features with the first stage of Christianity in Aksūm and in the Graeco-Roman world, as well as the henotheism of pre-Islamic North Arabia. I argue that the Ḥimyarite kings' cautious conversion follows a broad late antique trend which aimed to ease the transition for their subjects and/or to assume a neutral position towards the developments of the surrounding empires. In the brand new reign of Ḥimyar, the cult of a single, institutionalized, and translocal deity provided a strong mechanism for establishing identities which were reshaped in a wider syncretistic framework through a socio-political exploitation of cults, as characteristic of the broader late antique world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bowhead whales are among the longest‐lived mammals with an extreme lifespan of about 211 years. During the first 25 years of their lives, rib bones increase in mineral density and the medulla transitions from compact to trabecular bone. Molecular drivers associated with these phenotypic changes in bone remain unknown. This study assessed expression levels of osteogenic genes from samples of rib bones of bowheads. Samples were harvested from prenatal to 86‐year‐old whales, representing the first third of the bowhead lifespan. Fetal to 2‐year‐old bowheads showed expression levels consistent with the rapid deposition of the bone extracellular matrix. Sexually mature animals showed expression levels associated with low rates of osteogenesis and increased osteoclastogenesis. After the first 25 years of life, declines in osteogenesis corresponded with increased expression of EZH2, an epigenetic regulator of osteogenesis. These findings suggest EZH2 may be at least one epigenetic modifier that contributes to the age‐related changes in the rib bone phenotype along with the transition from compact to trabecular bone. Ancient cetaceans and their fossil relatives also display these phenotypes, suggesting EZH2 may have shaped the skeleton of whales in evolutionary history. Research Highlights: How the rib bones of whales respond to aging remains poorly understood. We show that, under the control of the epigenetic regulator EZH2, ribs of aging bowhead whales experience a decline in extracellular matrix production, and increased erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Baleen whale fecal samples have high potential for endocrine monitoring, which can be used as a non-invasive tool to identify the physiological response to disturbance events and describe population health and vital rates. In this study, we used commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to validate and quantify fecal steroid (progestins, androgens and glucocorticoids) and thyroid hormone metabolite concentrations in eastern North Pacific gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) along the Oregon coast, USA, from May to October of 2016–2018. Higher mean progestin metabolite concentrations were observed in postweaning females, followed by pregnant females. Mean androgen, glucocorticoid and thyroid metabolites were higher in mature males. Progestin, glucocorticoids and thyroid fecal metabolites varied significantly by year, with positive correlations between progestin and androgen, and between glucocorticoid and thyroid metabolites. We also present two case studies of a documented injured whale and a mature male displaying reproductive competitive behavior, which provide reference points for physiologically stressed individuals and adult breeding males, respectively. Our methods and findings advance the knowledge of baleen whale physiology, can help guide future research on whale physiology and can inform population management and conservation efforts regarding minimizing the impact of anthropogenic stressors on whales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ringed (Pusa hispida) and bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus) inhabit vast and often remote areas in the Arctic, making it difficult to obtain long-term physiological information concerning health and reproduction. These seals are experiencing climate-driven changes in their habitat that could result in physiological stress. Chronic physiological stress can lead to immunosuppression, decreased reproduction and decreased growth. Recently, keratin has become a popular matrix to measure steroid hormones, such as stress-related cortisol and reproduction-related progesterone. We developed and validated methods to extract cortisol and progesterone from the claws of adult female ringed (n  = 20) and bearded (n  = 3) seals using enzyme immunosorbent assays. As ringed and bearded seal claws grow, a pair of dark- and light-colored bands of keratin is deposited annually providing a guide for sampling. Two processing methods were evaluated, removal of claw material with a grinding bit or grinding followed by mechanical pulverization (102 paired samples from six claws, two each from three seals). Adding the mechanical pulverization step resulted in a 1.5-fold increase in hormone extraction. Progesterone from the proximal claw band was evaluated to biologically validate claw material as a measure of pregnancy in ringed seals (n  = 14). Claws from pregnant seals had significantly higher claw progesterone concentrations than from non-pregnant seals. This suggests that the elevated progesterone associated with gestation was reflected in the claws, and that the most proximal claw band was indicative of pregnancy status at time of death. Thus, although the sample size was low and the collection dates unbalanced, this study demonstrates the potential to use claws to examine an extended time series (up to 12 yrs) of cortisol and progesterone concentrations in ringed and bearded seal claws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing the physiological impact of stressors in pinnipeds is logistically challenging, and many hormones are altered by capture and handling, limiting the utility of metabolically active tissues. Hair is increasingly being used to investigate stress-related and reproductive hormones in wildlife populations due to less-invasive collection methods, being metabolically inert once grown and containing multiple biomarkers of ecological interest. We validated enzyme immunoassays for measuring aldosterone, cortisol, corticosterone, and testosterone in lanugo (natal hair grown in utero) samples collected from Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus), California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), and northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus). We applied laboratory validation methods including recovery of added mass, parallelism and dilution linearity. We found no effects due to differences in alcohol- versus detergent-based cleaning methods. Further, there were no significant differences in hormone concentrations in hair samples collected immediately after the molt and the subsequent samples collected over 1 year, indicating steroid hormones are stable once deposited into pinniped hair. We found no sex differences in any hormone concentrations, likely due to the lanugo being grown in utero and influenced by maternal hormone concentrations. For Steller sea lion and California sea lion pups, we found hormone concentrations significantly differed between rookeries, which warrants future research. Hair provides a novel tissue to explore the intrinsic or extrinsic drivers behind hormone measurements in otariids, which can be paired with multiple health-related metrics to further investigate possible drivers of physiological stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utility of progesterone concentration in blubber as a means of determining reproductive status in the Antarctic minke whale Balaenoptera bonaerensis was assessed through a comparative analysis of progesterone concentration in blubber and plasma among 230 female whales of known reproductive status (immature, resting, ovulating or pregnant). Whales were sampled during the austral summer in the Antarctic Ocean. The general pattern of progesterone concentration by reproductive category was well correlated between blubber and plasma samples, validating in principle the use of progesterone concentrations in blubber to determine the reproductive status of females. However, some differences were found for resting and ovulating females, which require further consideration. For blubber, overlap of progesterone concentrations was observed between reproductive categories with the exception of immature/ovulating and immature/pregnant. This result suggests that the method of using progesterone concentration in blubber cannot distinguish between pregnant and non-pregnant mature females. However, it can be used to distinguish between immature and mature females. Although a low overlap ratio in concentration was found between immature and resting females, the method is still useful for determining sexual maturity, because resting females of the Antarctic minke whale are seldom found in the Antarctic Ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A literary criticism is presented in which the historian Ammianus Marcellinus offered an account of death of Bishop George, torn asunder by an Alexandrian mob. It mentions that emperor Julian summoned Artemius to Antioch, "Historia acephala," which is an account of ecclesiastical events focused on career of Athanasius; and the siege of Aquileia and the Chalcedon trials.

We determinated Hg and Se concentrations in liver, kidney, brain, lung and muscle of five bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), four common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) and four Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus) stranded along the Murcia coast, Southeast Spain, in order to evaluate the risk of Hg toxicity. Hg concentrations showed similar concentrations to other individuals in the Mediterranean Sea with the same length in the same period. We observed a positive correlation of Hg and Se in liver (r = 0.948, p < 0.001) and kidney (r = 0.939; p = 0.001) and ratio the Se/Hg molar was higher than 1 in most cases. Our results suggest that the protective effects of Se against Hg toxicity occur in cetaceans. However, we detected levels of Hg described as responsible liver damage and neurotoxicological effects so other tools, as biochemical markers, should be included. Besides, more studies are needed to evaluate the risk of Hg exposure in dolphins from Murcia coastline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Constantine defeated Maxentius and entered Rome in October 312. Perhaps about one year later Eusebius of Caesarea wrote his description of the emperor's victory and arrival in his Ecclesiastical History. His source was most likely a panegyric from Rome, which can be compared to Pacatus's panegyric welcoming Theodosius to Rome in 389. Eusebius added his own Christian gloss to the laudatory evaluation of Constantine and the hostile evaluation of Maxentius in this panegyric. He also misunderstood some details. A consideration of Eusebius's source for this episode is a contribution to assessing the value and context of the information in his Ecclesiastical History and Life of Constantine for the reign of Constantine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The meaning of the term miles in post-Roman sources as a reference to "soldier" has always been taken for granted. This paper presents a detailed analysis of this word as used in the Frankish written evidence from the 6th to the 9th centuries. It demonstrates that when referring to inhabitants of the Merovingian realm, miles was consistently used to refer to custodians of prisoners. While the narrative sources locate these milites inside the civitas, the legal evidence points to a legal status of dependence. From the 8th century onwards, a second semantic shift entailed that the same term was used to refer to military men again. This analysis thus demonstrates that the meaning of miles had not remained static until the upgrading of its connotation from the 10th century onwards, a phenomenon largely studied by scholars working on the emergence of vassalage and knighthood, but that significant semantic shifts had already taken place during the preceding centuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have demonstrated that the analysis of biogeochemical tracers along baleen can provide seasonal, annual, and longer term insights into whale movements, habitat use, diet, and ecosystem processes. We measured the mercury (Hg) concentration and stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope compositions along baleen plates of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) harvested between 1988 and 1996 from the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort (BCB) and the Eastern Canada-West Greenland (EC-WG) populations. These measurements were compared among individuals and between populations to assess seasonal cycling and to determine if bowhead whales forage year-round rather than fasting in winter. Individuals from the BCB population had synchronous cycles with higher Hg concentrations and lower δ13C values in summer and lower Hg concentrations and higher δ13C values in winter. EC-WG individuals also had synchronized periodic variations with peak values in isotopic ratios during summer. These results reflect an annual cycle of seasonal migration between distinct food webs in both populations. Spring and fall feeding activity was indicated in the intra-annual Hg and δ13C cycles along the baleen plates of all whales in our study. These shorter periods, spanning about half the annual growth, have not been previously described in the baleen of these populations, and are consistent with separate foraging areas along the migration routes. The results of this study provide further support for year-round foraging in a species previously thought to fast during winter. Future monitoring of seasonal foraging patterns in baleen would help to determine whether bowhead whales alter their foraging patterns in response to shifts in zooplankton community availability, composition, and phenology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of a hair hormone concentration assay is increasingly recognized as a useful and noninvasive technique for monitoring the endocrinological status of animals. However, few studies have focused on reproductive and stress hormones together. We used a chemiluminescent immunoassay to determine whether the progesterone, estradiol, and cortisol concentrations could be measured from hair and whether these hormone concentrations varied in different hair segments of captive Père David deer hinds. We found that progesterone, estradiol, and cortisol could be measured in the hair samples and that the progesterone concentration varied but the estradiol and cortisol concentrations did not among different hair segments. Contrary to the segmental decline in hair cortisol found in many studies, we found that progesterone concentration was higher near the tip than at the base of hair in Père David deer. This suggests that the variation in segmental hair steroid hormone concentration in seasonal molting animals may be mainly due to internal reproductive cycles and that hair steroid hormones may reflect long-term physiological changes and can thus be used for the conservation and management of wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study proposes an analysis of the concepts of ousia and hypostasis in the theology of the Council of Antioch which condemned Paul of Samosata in 268 CE. The authentic reports preserved from the assembly unveil the fact that the synodals who condemned Paul of Samosata employed the two terms interchangeably to denote the individual entity or person rather than the common essence or nature of the Father and Son. Additionally, they defended Christ's divinity before time and simultaneously assumed a certain subordinationism. The study additionally explores the Sitz im Leben of this theology, an accepted language embraced in the Eastern part of the Roman world in the third century. The article further traces the elements of this Antiochene theology in the fourth century in what was traditionally viewed as the “Arian” councils held in Antioch in 341 and 345 as well as in such authors as Eusebius of Caesarea and the Homoiousians. While Antioch 341 and 345 distanced themselves from Arianism, it is more coherent to interpret them, together with Eusebius and the Homoiousians, through this new hermeneutical lens, namely Antioch 268, rather than the traditional polarization between Nicaea and Arianism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the role of the Treuhandanstalt agency in the privatization of formerly state-operated corporate entities and publicly-owned real estate in the wake of German reunification. Information is provided on the socioeconomic consequences of the agency's alleged financial mismanagement, ineptitude, and corruption.

The k -INAA has been applied for determining nineteen elements in six medicinal plants used to cure various diseases in West Pokot, Kenya. It was observed that some elements are accumulated in excessive amount by the tested plants. Care has to be taken to control the daily dose of these herbs. Reference materials (IAEA-155 and IAEA-V-10) were analyzed simultaneously with the samples to evaluate the accuracy of the analysis protocol. It was found that the measured elemental concentrations were in a good agreement with the reported values with a maximum deviation of 20%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Glory to the Confessors 20 Gregory of Tours describes how he establishes an oratory for the veneration of the relics of Martin of Tours, Julian of Brioude, Saturninus of Toulouse, and Illidius of Clermont in his own house. This paper will show that Gregory does not only establish his personal relic cult in honor of members of his family or their patron saints to promote his family and himself, but that he uses elements of the Roman domestic cult together with the ceremonies of dedication and adventus of the saints in order to demonstrate that he is the rightful bishop of Tours and a powerful aristocratic leader of his civitas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cortisol, which is produced in the adrenal glands, is an endogenous glucocorticoid hormone that delivers its hormonal message to cells by acting on glucocorticoid receptors. It is one of the main stress hormones responsible for stress responses in animals and humans, and its overproduction is characteristic of certain diseases. While acute stress disorder can be evaluated by means of measuring the cortisol concentration in blood and urine, chronic stress disorder can be detected by monitoring the cortisol concentration in fur or hair. Hair collection is simple, inexpensive and non-invasive, and can be performed easily and rapidly; thus, it appears to be a suitable method for determining the level of stress in dogs from shelters, abused dogs or dogs involved in different types of animal interactions. Since it is a relatively new method, monitoring cortisol in hair or fur requires further research in order to definitively prove its efficacy, and possibly to determine reference range values for different breeds of dogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For their technological sustainability innovations to become successful, entrepreneurs can strategically shape the technological field in which they are involved. The technological innovation systems (TISs) literature has generated valuable insights into the processes which need to be stimulated for the successful development and implementation of innovative sustainability technologies. To explore the applicability of the TIS framework from the perspective of entrepreneurs, we conducted a case study in the Dutch smart grids sector. We found that the TIS framework generally matches the perspectives of entrepreneurs. For its use by entrepreneurs, we suggest a slight adaptation of this framework. The process ‘Market formation’ needs to be divided into processes that are driven by the government and processes that are driven by entrepreneurs. There should be a greater emphasis on collaborative marketing, on changing user behaviour and preferences and on the development of fair and feasible business models. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The skin of cetaceans is the most accessible tissue, and its sampling has been proposed as a noninvasive method to evaluate trace element concentrations in free-ranging populations. In the present work, concentrations of essential (Cl, Na, K, Mg, Fe, Zn, Mn and Co), nonessential (As and Ag), and of unknown essentiality (Br, Rb and Cs) elements were determined in the skin from nine by-caught Commerson's dolphins ( Cephalorhynchus commersonii) from Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Skin correlations with internal tissues-lung, liver, kidney and muscle-were assessed to evaluate how the skin represents internal element concentration for monitoring purposes. Elemental contents were analyzed by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Regarding tissue distribution, skin had the highest concentration of Zn being two orders of magnitude higher than internal tissues, while other elements such as Co and Rb had similar concentrations among tissues. High mean concentrations of Cl, Na, Mg, Br and Mn were observed in the lung and liver. Our results support the use of skin to evaluate Fe, Br and Rb concentrations in internal tissues for biomonitoring purposes; however, other elements did not show significant skin-to-tissue correlations. Overall, toxic element levels were far below concentrations found to cause harm in marine vertebrates. This study provided baseline data on elemental concentrations in tissues of Commerson's dolphins in subantarctic waters from the South Atlantic Ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring reproductive rates in wild cetaceans is a crucial step towards adequate management of their populations. Their reproductive hormone profiles can be of importance, especially when combined with behavioural or life history monitoring. Sampling biological matrices of wild, free-ranging cetaceans can be a difficult task., The purposes of this review are: to describe briefly the different methods available for monitoring the reproductive endocrine parameters of wild and captive cetaceans, and to evaluate the feasibility of using various matrices - blood, urine, faeces, saliva, bubbler, muscle, ocular secretions, blow (respiratory vapour), milk, baleen, and earplug materials - to measure sex hormones in free-ranging cetaceans., We performed a retrospective analysis of the measurement and sample collection methods and the most commonly used matrices for constructing reproductive hormone profiles. The Pub Med and Google Scholar data bases were used, and scientific articles and book chapters published from 1980 to the present were considered., In the past, the most commonly used matrix for measuring hormones of free-ranging cetaceans was blood. This has been changing since studying live whales became more common: researchers have dispensed with using blood samples from dead animals. Matrices such as blow, which can be obtained non-invasively, and other matrices that can be obtained with minimal invasion, such as blubber, appear to be feasible options for monitoring the hormones of live, free-ranging cetaceans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mercury (Hg) biomonitoring of pinnipeds increasingly utilizes nonlethally collected tissues such as hair and blood. The relationship between total Hg concentrations ([THg]) in these tissues is not well understood for marine mammals, but it can be important for interpretation of tissue concentrations with respect to ecotoxicology and biomonitoring. We examined [THg] in blood and hair in multiple age classes of four pinniped species. For each species, we used paired blood and hair samples to quantify the ability of [THg] in hair to predict [THg] in blood at the time of sampling and examined the influence of varying ontogenetic phases and life history of the sampled animals. Overall, we found that the relationship between [THg] in hair and blood was affected by factors including age class, weaning status, growth, and the time difference between hair growth and sample collection. Hair [THg] was moderately to strongly predictive of current blood [THg] for adult female Steller sea lions ( Eumetopias jubatus), adult female California sea lions ( Zalophus californianus), and adult harbor seals ( Phoca vitulina), whereas hair [THg] was poorly predictive or not predictive (different times of year) of blood [THg] for adult northern elephant seals ( Mirounga angustirostris). Within species, except for very young pups, hair [THg] was a weaker predictor of blood [THg] for prereproductive animals than for adults likely due to growth, variability in foraging behavior, and transitions between ontogenetic phases. Our results indicate that the relationship between hair [THg] and blood [THg] in pinnipeds is variable and that ontogenetic phase and life history should be considered when interpreting [THg] in these tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has resulted in physical and biological changes in the world's oceans. How the effects of these changes are buffered by top predator populations, and therefore how much plasticity lies at the highest trophic levels, are largely unknown. Here endocrine profiling, longitudinal observations of known individuals over 15 years between 2004 and 2018, and environmental data are combined to examine how the reproductive success of a top marine predator is being affected by ecosystem change. The Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, is a major summer feeding ground for humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the North Atlantic. Blubber biopsy samples (n = 185) of female humpback whales were used to investigate variation in pregnancy rates through the quantification of progesterone. Annual pregnancy rates showed considerable variability, with no overall change detected over the study. However, a total of 457 photo-identified adult female sightings records with/without calves were collated, and showed that annual calving rates declined significantly. The probability of observing cow-calf pairs was related to favourable environmental conditions in the previous year; measured by herring spawning stock biomass, Calanus spp. abundance, overall copepod abundance and phytoplankton bloom magnitude. Approximately 39% of identified pregnancies were unsuccessful over the 15 years, and the average annual pregnancy rate was higher than the average annual calving rate at ~37% and ~23% respectively. Together, these data suggest that the declines in reproductive success could be, at least in part, the result of females being unable to accumulate the energy reserves necessary to maintain pregnancy and/or meet the energetic demands of lactation in years of poorer prey availability rather than solely an inability to become pregnant. The decline in calving rates over a period of major environmental variability may suggest that this population has limited resilience to such ecosystem change., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)