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This study investigates skeletal metric traits of long bones of upper limb and the relationship between these traits and human activity in males of a recent, well-documented skeletal sample of Italian population from the Frassetto collection (Department of Experimental Evolutionary Biology, University of Bologna). The study analyzes the impact of some human activities on the skeleton, taking into account the possibility of an assessment of functional stresses caused by these activities on the basis of metric characteristics. The data consist of measurements of linear and angular bone traits, obtained by traditional and new instruments. With the purpose to find out the best indicators of occupational stress among the measured traits and indices, univariate and multivariate statistical analyses were carried out. Then the results obtained previously were used to analyze a sample with unknown occupation. The efficacy of metric stress indicators is discussed.

Background: The purpose of the present study was to examine the importance of the somatometric components of elite male and female volleyball players in relation to their different game roles and levels of performance., Methods: Two hundred and thirty-four male athletes (aged 24.7+/-4.4 years) and 244 female athletes (aged 23.1+/-4.4 years) from the Italian A1 and A2 volleyball leagues underwent anthropometric measurements during the 1992-1993 and 1993-1994 seasons. Somatotypes were estimated with the Heath-Carter method., Results: Marked sexual dimorphism in somatotype was observed in the total sample. The average somatotype for men was 2.2-4.2-3.2 (SD 0.7-0.9-0.9), and for women it was 3.0-3.3-2.9 (SD 0.8-1.0-0.9). The somatotype was significantly different in players at different levels of performance (A1 vs A2 leagues), as it follows: 2.1-4.1-3.3 (SD 0.6-0.8-0.7) vs 2.3-4.3-3.0 (SD 0.7-1.0-0.8) in males; 2.9-3.1-3.0 (SD 0.8-1.0-0.9) vs 3.1-3.5-2.7 (SD 0.8-0.9-0.8) in females. The somatotype was also significantly different in players in different roles. In male sex the mean somatotypes for setters were 2.4-4.5-2.8 (SD 0.7-0.9-0.8), for centres they were 2.0-4.0-3.5 (SD 0.6-1.0-0.8), for spikers they were 2.2-4.3-3.0 (SD 0.6-0.9-0.7), for opposites they were 2.2-4.3-3.1 (SD 0.6-0.9-0.8). In female sex the mean somatotypes for setters were 3.1-3.6-2.5 (SD 0.8-1.0-1.0), for centres they were 2.8-3.1-3.1 (SD 0.8-0.9-0.7), for spikers they were 3.0-3.5-2.8 (SD 0.9-1.0-0.9) and for opposites they were 3.0-3.2-3.0 (SD 0.7-0.9-0.8)., Conclusions: The physique of athletes in the A1 league is characterized by higher ectomorphy and lower endomorphy and mesomorphy. There is also a slight tendency of male players to a greater homogeneity in somatotype within the group at the maximum level of performance. Moreover somatotype differs in relation to game role in volleyball players of both sexes: the mesomorphic component is maximal in setters, while the ectomorphic component is maximal in centres.

The biological problems considered in this study are sexual dimorphism in angular osteometric traits, changes in these traits with aging and their bilateral asymmetry in the same individual. The sample comprises the right and left long bones of 200 skeletons (100 males and 100 females) of Sardinian adults (Frasetto collection) for whom the sex and age at death are known. As concerns the sexual dimorphism, some angular traits of upper limb (joint axis angle of the ulna in particular) and the lower limb (condylo-diaphyseal angle of the femur and retroversion angle of the tibia) are significantly different between males and females. Torsion angles of long bones (especially the femur) were found to change with age. In sides comparison revealed a clear right-left asymmetry in our sample. The asymmetry, sexual dimorphism and changes with age are discussed in relation to varying stresses of different living activities. Our data indicate that the angular traits of long bones could be very informative in biomechanical interpretations of human activities based on skeletal remains.

A sample of 104 adults underwent testing of body composition by multiple frequency bioelectric impedance analysis (MBIA) under controlled conditions, by anthropometric methods (skinfold thicknesses and BMI) and by the urinary creatinine method. The statistical comparison of body composition parameters (Fat, FFM, TBW), estimated by different methods for the same subjects, pointed out significant differences in mean values. The precision of skinfold and MBIA measurements was evaluated by a second control measurement. Concerning the MBIA, the reliability increased with increasing frequencies. Nevertheless, measurement reliability is higher for skinfolds than for MBIA. Under the condition that there is a real anthropometric technical ability, we affirm that the body composition parameters may at present be better estimated by the skinfold method.

In this paper we present a new instrument for measurements on long bones. The instrument is based on the use of a digital coordinatometer-goniometer connected to an optical collimator: such device allows angles as well as lengths to be measured. With regard to observing procedures, an innovative method for bone axis location by points has been applied. It is also possible to locate an axis using a symmetry and tangency criterion. As for torsion angles, the proposed technique is absolutely new; it utilizes a reference plane, which the bone must be leaned against, and the symmetry conditions that are generated by rotating the bone around an axis orthogonal to this plane. In order to verify the precision of the new instrument (digital osteogoniometer), several tests were performed. For this purpose we have studied the results of measurements carried out with the new instrument as well as with traditional apparatuses by four different observers on a sample of 10 skeletons (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia of left side). The analysis of intrapersonal and interpersonal differences points out that the new osteogoniometer is more precise in angular measurements than traditional instruments. Moreover the time requested for carrying out measurements prooved to be shorter, above all with regard to torsion angles measurements.

Somatotypes of 1593 young Italian sport participants (717 males and 876 females) were described and analyzed. The average somatotype for sport participants was 2.7-4.7-2.7 for males and 3.6-3.7-2.8 for females. The predominance of mesomorphy on the other two components was found in all sport-groups examined. This was particularly evident in males for gymnasts and rowers and in females for martial arts competitors. As for sexual dimorphism, females were endo-mesomorphs, while males were balanced mesomorphs. Somatotypes show statistically significant changes with the level of performance in some sport-groups with an increase in the mesomorphic component (in ballgames and martial arts) and in the endomorphic component (in swimming). Comparisons with other sport-groups from literature were greatly limited by several genetic and environmental factors.

Body composition of 1815 North-Italian young sports participants in relation to sex, age, sport and level of performance was investigated. About thickness and anatomical distribution of subcutaneous fat females showed skinfolds thicker than males. Significant differences were observed in skinfold thicknesses means of different sport-groups. Subscapular and forearm skinfolds were the best discriminant variables for males and females respectively. Body density was estimated according to Katch and McArdle (1973) and Durnin and Womersley (1974) equations. Males showed higher body density and lower fat percentage values than females. The lowest value of body density and the highest fat percentage were in male martial art competitors and in females practising skating and athletics. The highest values of body density and the lowest of fat percentage were in males practising athletics and rowing and in female martial art competitors. Highest and lowest values of fat-free mass were in games players and in soccer players and gymnasts respectively. "High aptitude" subjects showed higher fat-free mass values than "middle aptitude" group, besides a tendency towards higher body density values and lower fat percentage than "middle aptitude" group. With aging body density decreased whereas fat percentage and fat-free mass increased.

Biological distances for dermatoglyphic qualitative and quantitative traits have been obtained from a group of beta-thalassemic heterozygotes and normal controls. The results indicate that the digital patterns have been the most efficient dermatoglyphic characters that differentiate between the two groups.

This paper discusses some problems relating to the study and the utilization of discontinuous traits in anthropology. The importance of sex, age and laterality in the manifestation of these traits is discussed on the basis of investigations on a numerous skeletal sample of Siena (Tuscany, Italy) and on data from literature. It is pointed out that sides and sexes should be considered separately. The age of adult subjects seems to be insignificant as the incidence of these traits is concerned.