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Geophagy was studied among 827 pregnant women in western Kenya, during and after pregnancy. The women were recruited at a gestational age of 14-24 weeks and followed-up to 6 months post-partum. The median age (range) of the women was 23 years and median parity 2. At recruitment, 378 were eating earth, of which most (65%) reported earth-eating before pregnancy. The preferred type of earth eaten was soft stone, known locally as odowa (54.2%) and earth from termite mounds (42.8%). The prevalence remained high during pregnancy, and then declined to 34.5% and 29.6% at 3 and 6 months post-partum respectively (P < 0.001). The mean daily earth intake was 44.5 g during pregnancy, which declined to 25.5 g during lactation (P < 0.001). A random sample of 204 stools was collected from the women and analysed for silica content as a tracer for earth-eating. The mean silica content was 2.1% of the dry weight of stool. Geophagous women had a higher mean silica content than the non-geophagous ones (3.1% vs. 1.4%, P < 0.001). Faecal silica and reported geophagy were strongly correlated (P < 0.001).

Geophagia, the intentional and repeated ingestion of soil material, is a complex eating behaviour with incomprehensible aetiology. It is generally assumed that geophagia may help supplement mineral nutrients and thus should not be dissuaded, particularly in subsistence communities. This is largely based on the assumption that a large proportion of mineral nutrients in geophagic materials is potentially available for absorption in the body. We tested this hypothesis on five soils collected from geophagia-prevalent communities by using an in vitro soil ingestion simulation test that is broadly similar to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The results show that, despite the soils being rich in mineral nutrients, soil ingestion, inadvertent or through geophagia can potentially reduce the absorption of already bioavailable nutrients, particularly micronutrients such as Fe, Cu and Zn. These in vitro findings, while disagreeing with the commonly held view of geophagia as a source of nutrient supplementation, are consistent with micronutrient deficiency problems observed in clinical nutrition studies conducted amongst geophagic populations. The work also showed that, in some cases, the ingested soils may become a source of Ca, Mg and Mn, although it is not clear why other similar soils should not release any of these mineral nutrients.

To the Editor: Baylisascaris procyonis (Ascaridoi- dea: Ascarididae) parasites are facultatively heteroxenous nematodes that are widely distributed in the United States and Canada, where prevalence rates reach 70%–90%. They colonize the small intestine of their final host, the northern raccoon (Procyon lotor), whose feces can contain up to 25 × 103 eggs/g. Under ideal environmental conditions (100% humidity and 24°C), eggs become infective in soil (1,2). When ingested by other mammalian hosts, third-stage lar- vae can produce pathologic changes called larva migrans, which can lead to chronic neurologic disorders and even death (1,3). B. procyonis parasite infection of humans oc- curs by the fecal–oral route (ingestion of eggs in contami- nated food) (1). Small children are particularly vulnerable through accidental geophagia. Public health concerns arise where raccoon and human populations overlap. Al editor: Baylisascaris procyonis (Ascaridoi- dea: Ascarididae) son nematodos facultativamente heteroxenos nematodos facultativos que están ampliamente distribuidos en y Canadá, donde las tasas de prevalencia alcanzan el 70%-90%. Se colonizan el intestino delgado de su huésped final, el mapache (Procyon lotor), cuyas heces pueden contener hasta 25 × 103 huevos/g. En condiciones ambientales ideales (100% de humedad y 24°C), los huevos se vuelven infecciosos en el suelo (1,2). Cuando son ingeridos por otros huéspedes mamíferos, las larvas de tercer estadio pueden producir cambios patológicos. vae pueden producir cambios patológicos denominados larva migrans que pueden dar lugar a trastornos neurológicos crónicos e incluso muerte (1,3). La infección por el parásito B. procyonis en humanos se produce por vía fecal-oral. por la vía fecal-oral (ingestión de huevos en alimentos contaminados) (1). nado) (1). Los niños pequeños son especialmente vulnerables por geofagia accidental. Los problemas de salud pública surgen de los mapaches y las poblaciones humanas. Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria

Geophagy is the deliberate consumption of soil and clay deposits by animals, including man. Various hypotheses have been advanced to explain geophagic behavior, the main ones being: detoxification of noxious or unpalatable compounds present in the diet, alleviation of gastrointestinal upsets such as diarrhea, supplementation of mineral nutrients, and as a means of dealing with excess acidity in the digestive tract. This review focuses on the mineralogical and chemical nature of the materials consumed, and considers whether this has been adequately characterized, particularly in the contexts of the above hypotheses. In many cases, the information provided is fragmentary and a number of inconsistencies and anomalies are identified. In particular, it is suggested that for these materials further information on their mineral constituents is required, particularly with respect to the kaolin minerals, interstratified kaolinite/smectite, the smectitic minerals and iron oxide and aluminous minerals. It is suggested that total chemical analyses of these materials are of little relevance unless supported by a physiologically based extraction test, this approach being essential in any study seeking to confirm the nutrient supplementation hypothesis.

The article discusses geophagia, which is the practice of eating dirt. The authors note that geophagia is classified in the fourth edition of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-IV)" as an eating disorder subtype, called pica, in which individuals consume things that are not food. Topics include the prevalence of geophagia among animals, such as parrots, deer, and elephants, evolution research investigating whether geophagia is abnormal of adaptive behavior, and the idea that eating dirt may be a way to detoxify the body.

Summary Background: Bacteria in the Pantoea genus are plant and soil associated Gram-negative rods described as nosocomial pathogens and as rare causes of community-acquired infections. The latter have been classically associated with gardening and plant thorn injuries and immunocompromised states are additional risk factors. We report a patient with pica and geophagia, Pantoea sepsis, and sickle cell crisis, associations not previously described. Case Report: A 23-year-old pregnant female presented to the emergency department with sickle cell pain crisis. On the third day of hospitalization the patient developed fever subsequently determined to be caused by Pantoea bacteremia and sepsis. She was successfully treated with a two-week course of ceftriaxone. The patient admitted to a habit of frequently eating large amounts of soil and this geophagia had increased since she became pregnant. She had marked clinical improvement with treatment and she was counseled to stop eating soil. Conclusions: This is the first reported case of Pantoea infection possibly associated with geophagia and the first reported case of Pantoea bacteremia and sepsis related to an episode of sickle cell crisis.

The social pattern of geophagy (soil-eating) and its possible role in the transmission of Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and hookworm were investigated in a rural area of South Africa between March 1998 and July 1999. Schoolchildren (median age = 10.7 years; interquartile range 8.3-14.8 years) were examined for geohelminth infection at baseline and re-examined 3 and 29 weeks after treatment with albendazole. Interviews were conducted with the pupils in order to find out about their socio-economic background and their behaviour regarding geophagy. Soil-eating was less frequent in boys (39%), where it decreased with age, than in girls (53%), where no such age trend was apparent. The habit was more common in children from families of higher socio-economic status. The baseline prevalence of A. lumbricoides infection was higher in pupils who regularly ate soil from termite mounds (28%) when compared with non-geophageous pupils (19%; prevalence ratio (PR) = 1.46; 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.04-2.03). In contrast it was markedly lower in the groups who preferred eating tree termite soil (13%; PR = 0.67; 95% CI 0.43-1.04) or soil from other sources (8%; PR = 0.40; 95% CI 0.15-1.04). This pattern was still apparent after adjusting for possible confounders and was also found when analysing A. lumbricoides reinfection. In contrast, differences in prevalence of T. trichiura and hookworm infection between groups with different soil preference were small.

We studied the use of mineral licks by African elephants (Loxodonta africana) during the dry season in a Kalahari-sand habitat in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, to investigate the role of geophagy as a mechanism for supplementing low Na 1 levels in browse and natural water supplies. Plant, water, and soil macrominerals were measured to evaluate mineral availability for elephants during the dry season. Elephant behavior was monitored at licks to investigate the intensity of geophagy (measured by number of mouthfuls of soil consumed) in relation to fecal-Na 1 loss. Female elephants, which probably had greater requirements than did males because of pregnancy and lactation, consumed more mouthfuls of soil and spent a greater part of their activity budget feeding on soil than did males, suggesting that geophagy may be driven by a nutritional requirement. We found the following consistent with the Na 1 -supplementation hypothesis: 1) unlike other minerals, Na 1 in woody plants and natural water supplies may be inadequate to meet the minimum requirements of elephants during the dry season; 2) soils consumed by elephants differed from other soils primarily in their high Na 1 content; 3) intensity of geophagy was negatively correlated with fecal Na 1 ; and 4) elephants in non‐Kalahari-sand habitats do not appear to create or use licks, probably because they are able to meet their Na 1 requirements from ubiquitous Na 1 -rich water supplies, which do not occur naturally in Kalahari-sand habitats.

Geophagia, the deliberate ingestion of soil, is a complex eating behaviour with obscure aetiology and numerous health/medical problems. It is conventionally assumed that geophagia may help supplement mineral nutrients in individuals with limited intake of trace elements such as Fe and Zn. This view, however, has largely been based on the bulk nutrient composition of geophagic materials and the assumption that these nutrients are potentially available for absorption in the body. We have tested this assumption by equilibrating five geophagic materials collected from Uganda, Tanzania, Turkey and India with mineral nutrient concentrations and conditions similar to the gastrointestinal tract. The results showed that all five geophagic materials, regardless of their composition, sorbed large amounts of Fe and Zn across a range of dietary intake scenarios, even under acidic conditions (pH 2) similar to the stomach. However, significant amounts of Ca desorption were observed from calcareous soil samples. The findings show that while calcareous geophagic materials may supplement Ca, geophagia can potentially cause Fe- and Zn-deficiency. This is consistent with mineral nutrient deficiency problems observed in clinical nutrition studies conducted amongst geophagic populations.

A specific enzootic form of geophagia (the deliberate ingestion of soil) occurs in young cattle and sheep in restricted areas of the Barkley-West, Postmasburg and Vryburg Districts of the Northern Cape- and North West Provinces of the Republic of South Africa. It results in severe, subacute to chronic hepatitis and jaundice, with a high mortality rate in untreated cases. An association between the disease and high concentrations of manganese in soils was shown since all the affected farms are situated on outcrops of the Reivilo Formation of the Campbell Rand Subgroup, which consists mainly of manganiferous dolomite. Furthermore high concentrations of manganese were found in the analysis of liver specimens from affected calves and the characteristic microscopic pathological changes in the liver could be induced experimentally in a calf and lamb by oral administration of manganese sulphate. The highest incidence of geophagia occurs at 7 to 14 days, whereas calves older than about 2 months are rarely affected. The symptoms usually start with intermittent, progressive geophagia, followed by constipation, dehydration and death within ca. 7–10 days in untreated cases. Young calves and lambs display an insatiable appetite for soil and sometimes lick iron poles. The treatment of calves by the parenteral injection of commercial iron-dextran- and vitamin B12 preparations at 1 to 2 days after birth, and at 14 days of age, at the registered therapeutic doses, appeared to have a marked preventative effect on the occurrence of geophagia and its complications. Regional geochemical maps show a northeast–southwest trending anomaly in MnO, Zn and Pb, visually correlating with the distribution of the affected farms. Anomalously high distributions of Pb and Zn are also spatially related to the Pering (Pb,Zn) Mine. In this study, two farms were selected for comparative purposes. Gam, a farm situated on the Reivilo Formation of the Campbellrand Subgroup was chosen where a high incidence of geophagia occurred, as well as the farm Holpan on the Lyttelton Formation of the Malmani Subgroup where the problem was not known to be present. The farm Holpan was chosen as a control area, and is situated close to an old manganese mine on dolomite with a high MnO content. Geographically, Holpan is situated in an area with a high rainfall, with leaching and the formation of deep red soils on the dolomite, together with a hilly relief and low soil pHH2O. Gam is situated in an area with lower rainfall, where precipitation would be less than evapotranspiration. The dolomite of the Malmani Subgroup and the Reivilo Formation are significantly different in their soil geochemistry. The MnO, Fe2O3T and Co contents are significantly higher in the soils of the Malmani Subgroup than in the Reivilo Formation. The MnO, Zn and Pb contents on Gam are higher than on Holpan, whereas the Fe2O3T and Co contents are lower. Soil on Holpan contains iron-minerals such as haematite, while no iron minerals were detected in the soils of Gam. The concretions, found in the soils on both farms, differs remarkably in iron-contents. Concretions on both farms have similar high concentrations of MnO, whereas the FeO content are low for the concretions on Gam and high for Holpan. Preliminary comparative analytical results of the colostrum, sampled from cows with new born calves within three days of birth, do not entirely reflect the soil geochemistry of the different farms. Whereas the soils on Gam have higher MnO, Zn and Pb, and lower Fe2O3T and Co than Holpan, the colostrum produced on Gam has lower Mn, Fe and Co than on Holpan. The Pb and Zn concentrations in the colostrum on both farms do not differ significantly. The comparative regional geochemical soil data, together with the colostrum data, suggest that young calves on the farm Gam probably suffer from Fe and Co deficiency. Conversely, it was illustrated that the Fe and Co content in the soils are high and the Fe is abundant in the concretions on the farm Holpan. These findings, together with the apparent absence of geophagia at Holpan, as well as the observed effect of iron and cobalt supplementation in the prevention of geophagia on the farm Gam, suggests an association of geophagia with iron and cobalt deficiencies on the farm Gam.

Howler monkeys, Alouatta spp., are the most folivorous of neotropical primates (Platyrrhini), although Amazonian red-handed howlers (Alouatta belzebul) are relatively frugivorous. The feeding ecology of a free-ranging group of A. belzebul was monitored at a site in eastern Brazilian Amazonia over a ten-month period (November 1997 to August 1998). The first half of the study period encompassed the peak of the wet season, during which the study group's diet was predominantly frugivorous (scan sample records: 53.5% fruit, 40.8% leaves), and the second half, the transition from wet to dry season, characterized by a marked shift to folivory (18.9% fruit, 77.9% leaves). This shift was accompanied by a marked increase in mature, as opposed to flush leaves, which are relatively rich in secondary compounds. Ingestion of soil from termitaria was recorded on a total of 26 occasions, all of which occurred during the second half of the study period. Soil from termitaria was relatively rich in elements such as Ca and Na and in organic carbon, in comparison with that from the forest floor. The extent to which the monkeys ingested soil for their mineral supplements, or as an aid for the digestion of leaves, in particular the absorption of secondary compounds, remains unclear. The marked correlation with the observed patterns of folivory suggests that the latter function may have been the primary motive for geophagy in this species.

Geophagia is defined as deliberate consumption of earths' materials, e.g. soil, clay and soft stones. The practice is widespread among pregnant women, and there are conflicting views as to whether it is beneficial to health or not. Geophagic materials may be a source of micronutrients though the materials may bind the micronutrients thus reducing or hindering their bioavailability in the body. Geophagia is closely associated with geohelminthic infections among pregnant women and heavy metal poisoning, which constitute significant public health problem in many developing countries such as Kenya. In our research, the geophagic materials consumed by the pregnant women were studied. A total of 38 geophagic materials in the possession by different pregnant women were analysed. The collected samples were subjected to standard digestion procedures and analysed for zinc, lead and iron by atomic absorption spectroscopy. Results indicated that the geophagic materials contained elevated levels of Fe at mean concentration value of 80.10 ppm, Pb at 3.28 ppm and Zn 1.81 ppm for a 1.00 g sample. An average of 20 g of the geophagic materials was being consumed per day. Based on the average consumption, the pregnant women were exposed to 65.52 ppm Pb per day, 36.2 ppm Zn per day and 1602 ppm Fe per day. Lead exceeded the WHO-lead exposure limits of 25 ppm/day for pregnant women. The materials were also subjected to microscopic examination for Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, Taenia Spp., Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale. In conclusion, the women were exposed to heavy metals-iron, zinc and lead, but there was no observable eggs, larvae or adult species of the geohelminths. The key recommendation was that there is need to integrate public health education on geophagia, lead screening and testing with antenatal support care systems. This will enhance maternal and child health, thus reducing infant and maternal morbidity and mortality rates.

Los grupos humanos comparten con algunas especies animales la costumbre de ingerir determinadas tierras como complemento alimenticio, sin embargo, son pocas las evidencias arqueológicas de este consumo. Una peculiar forma de preparación de estos complementos alimenticios ha permitido su preservación y recuperación en los sitios de Atacames y Japotó, en la costa del Ecuador. En este artículo se presentan dichos artefactos y se sugieren hipótesis sobre sus posibles usos. Divers groupes humains partagent avec plusieurs espèces animales la « géophagie » qui consiste à ingérer certaines terres comme un complément alimentaire naturel. Toutefois, les évidences archéologiques en sont rarissimes. Un type particulier de préparation de tels compléments a permis leur conservation et leur découverte sur les sites d’Atacames et de Japoto sur la côte de l’Équateur. Dans cet article sont présentés ces artefacts et plusieurs hypothèses sur leur éventuels usages. Both human groups and some animal species share the custom of ingesting certain kinds of earth as a dietary complement, nevertheless, there is little archaeological evidence of this practice. The preparation of edible earth resulted in a peculiar kind of artifact that has been preserved and recovered from archaeological sites at Atacames and Japoto in the coast of Ecuador. In this paper these artifacts are described and their possible uses are discussed.

Geophagia is practised in many parts of the world and can be associated with medicinal treatments, ceremonial events and spiritual behaviours/practices. This is the first report on a systematic investigation and description of the bacterial diversity in soil regularly ingested by geophagic individuals using a culture-independent method. Diversity in 17 different mining sites was investigated using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Genetic material from Pantoea, Stenotrophomonas, Listeria, Rhodococcus and Sphingomonads was present in most of the soil samples. Species from these genera are recognised, potential or immerging human pathogens, and are of special interest in immune-compromised individuals. Other genera able to produce a variety of bacteriocins and antimicrobial/antifungal substances inhibitory towards food borne pathogens (Dactylosporangium and Bacillus) and able to degrade a range of environmental pollutants and toxins (Duganella and Massilia) were also present. These essential insights provide the platform for adjusting culturing strategies to isolate specific bacteria, further phylogenetic studies and microbial mining prospect for bacterial species of possible economic importance.

Trace elements are inorganic constituents of the human body present in concentrations less than 50mg/kg body weight. An exception is iron that is found in slightly higher amounts, 60 mg/kg body weight, but it is classified within this category due to its physiological roles. Requirements of trace elements can vary according to age, gender, growth, body composition, genetics, pregnancy, lactation, wound healing and burns, alcohol abuse, infections, and diseases (anemia, coronary artery, Keshan, Kashin-Beck). Additionally, interactions may occur with dietary factors, such as other minerals (iron versus copper), phytates (zinc), oxalates (iron), fiber (manganese), and polyphenolic compounds (molybdenum). On a global basis, requirements can vary according to soil and geographical location, food preparation and processing, food accessibility, cultural practices (geophagia) and pollution. Furthermore, global differences exist in body composition, ethnicity, and age of menarche.

Kaolin geophagia is associated with the relief of gastrointestinal distress, but it may also cause adverse health effects on the body. This study was designed to: assess kaolin composition; test if 129SvEv mice would consume kaolin and determine the consequences of consumption; and assess rotational stress modulation of consumption. Thirteen kaolin samples were purchased from Alabama and Georgia stores. Chemical and physical properties were characterized for each sample using a Munsell chart, pH meter, Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy, Transmission Electron Microscopy, Visible Near-InfraRed Spectra, and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry. Kaolin was then given to mice as food supplements and consumption was determined by weight/volume consumed and recorded in 12 hour intervals. Soil physical/chemical, mouse hematological, blood chemical and kaolin consumption data suggested that kaolin contained various elements, and geophagia was not exacerbated by rotational stress.

We gathered data on the amount, composition, and rate of ingestion of foods and soils by the provisioned Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata) at Arashiyama, Japan. Behavioral observations spanned one year on 8 adult females, using focal animal sampling. We analyzed a subsample of their foods for nutritional and toxic secondary compound content. We also analyzed soils eaten by the macaques for several physical-chemical properties and tested their adsorption affinity to tannins and alkaloids. Geophagy occurred at a high rate of 2.97 g/indiv./day with an elevated frequency in the afternoon. About two-thirds of their foods (by fresh weight) were provisioned items, which are extremely rich in proteins and soluble carbohydrates. The soils that they ingested were generally poor in mineral elements, the bio-availability of which was low. The soils had a high adsorption capacity for plant alkaloids but were poorly absorptive for tannins. They were rich in clay minerals of proven buffering capacity. Geophagy at Arashiyama may improve the health of macaques via buffering gastric upset. We discuss the results from the viewpoint of several hypotheses on geophagy.

A syndrome occurring in males, characterized by severe iron deficiency anemia, hypogonadism, dwarfism, hepatosplenomegaly and geophagia, has been observed in villagers in Iran suffering from malnutrition. Eleven such patients, studied in detail, are described. Despite hepatosplenomegaly, results of the liver function tests were uniformly normal except for the serum alkaline phosphatase, which was consistently elevated. The anemia was not associated with blood loss, hookworm infestation or intestinal malabsorption, and responded promptly to oral iron therapy. Although the diet contained adequate amounts of iron it is believed that the predominantly wheat diet, with its high phosphate content, interfered with absorption because of the formation of insoluble iron complexes. Correction of the anemia resulted in marked decrease in the size of the liver and spleen. Prolonged follow-up of patients receiving a well balanced diet indicates that the endocrine abnormalities of growth and sexual development are reversible. The relationship of geophagia (which occurred in nearly all patients) to this syndrome is not clear, and is discussed. The possibility of zinc deficiency is considered as an explanation of hypogonadism, dwarfism and changes in alkaline phosphatase.

Termite mound soils eaten by chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains and Gombe National Parks, Tanzania, have mineralogical and geochemical compositions similar to many soils eaten by higher primates, but release very low levels of either toxic or nutritional inorganic elements to solution at acid pH. Comparison with control (uneaten) soils from the same areas showed lower levels of carbon and nitrogen in the eaten soils, a relationship confirmed by surface analysis. Surface analysis also revealed lower levels of iron on particle surfaces versus interiors, and higher levels of iron on ingested versus control soil particle surfaces. The soils can adsorb dietary toxins, present in the plant diet or those produced by microorganisms. Taking the toxic alkaloids quinine, atropine, sparteine, and lupanine as examples, it is evident that soils from Mahale have a very good adsorptive capacity. A new adaptive advantage of geophagy is proposed, based on the prevention of iron uptake. The behavior of the soils in vitro is consistent with the theory that geophagy has a therapeutic value for these chimpanzees.

Aim We propose a Megacatalyst Theory, based on the pivotal role of the micronutrients iodine (I), cobalt (Co) and selenium (Se), in answer to the body size anomaly of herbivores on different continents, and the previously unexplained absence of megaherbivores in certain environments. Location It is anomalous that megaherbivores are absent from Australia while present in even dry and nutrient-poor parts of southern Africa, and that they have been exterminated from the Americas, but not south-east Asia. Methods We hypothesize that I, Co and Se are micronutrients in quantity, but megacatalysts in effect, determining maximum body size and pace of life, hence whether energy is used by animals or fire. The Megacatalyst Theory suggests that the greater the reproductive rate and brain size relative to body size, the greater the probable demand for I, Co and Se. Results Balanced supply of I, Co and Se, within narrow tolerances, is elusive because of disparate cycles: I gravitates towards the sea, whereas Co and Se are concentrated in ultramafics and organic shales, respectively. Sufficiency of these micronutrients, at less than toxic concentrations, is vital for rapid metabolism and growth, particularly of the nervous system. Iodine controls thermogenesis, Co controls the gut fermentation supplying herbivores, and Se controls biochemical damage where both processes occur rapidly. The supply of Co allows vegetation to be metabolized instead of combusted, by promoting digestion of fibre by gut microbes. Herbivores demand I, Co and Se in greater concentrations than palatable plants necessarily contain, as an increasing proportion of energy is fermented from fibre with increasing body size. Economy of scale is limited by loss of I in urine (partly compensated by thyroid size), Co in faeces (partly compensated by gut compartments), and Se both ways. Main conclusions The larger the herbivore species, the more it may depend on supplementation in order to survive predation by humans. As body mass increases, Co becomes deficient before I, because it is essential for rumination, and cannot be absorbed by the skin. Moderate uplift of a fairly flat landscape sustainably supplies I from mineralized springs, and Co from rocks (and Se from both), avoiding the excess of I in the sea and the excess of Co on high mountains. Iodine and Se leached to groundwater under dry climates are inaccessible to herbivores on a continent as flat as Australia, where even kangaroos have limited fecundity and intelligence compared to southern African ruminants of similar body mass. Where springs and associated earth-licks were available in the late Pleistocene, megaherbivores could evolve to survive the era of domestication.

It has been postulated that endomyocardial fibrosis (EMF), a common cardiac disease in certain tropical communities including parts of Uganda, may be related to the presence of elevated levels of dietary Ce, and deficient levels of dietary Mg. In Uganda, significant variation in dietary exposure to both elements is likely due to variations in local soil geochemistry and dietary habits, including geophagia (the deliberate consumption of soil). This paper reports the concentration and bioaccessibility (determined from a physiologically based extraction test—PBET) of Ce and other essential (Mg and Fe) and trace elements in soils from the Mukono district of Uganda. Trace element concentrations varied markedly between soil samples (ground soils) and soils eaten deliberately, such as termite nest soils and traditional herbal–soil remedies. The highest bioaccessibility values were reported for the chelate-rich, intestinal phase of the PBET. Median percentage bioaccessibility values for Ce (1–15%), Mg (7–33%), Fe (0.1–2.9%) and other trace elements varied considerably, but were generally higher in geophagic (herbal–soil remedies and terminte nest soils) than common (ground) soil samples. Only in the case of Fe does the ingestion of soil account for a major proportion of recommended daily intake (RDI). The revised estimates of Ce and Mg dietary intake (based on bioaccessibility data rather than an assumption of 100% bioavailability) significantly reduced the importance of geophagia relative to exposure through the ingestion of food and water.

Summary Geophagia is an ancient practice which is still widely seen in many parts of the world, especially in traditional societies. Soils, selected for particular qualities, such as flavour and plasticity, from carefully chosen sites, are consumed for a variety of reasons, from religious to medicinal, as well as part of a regular diet. The practice has been criticised as unhygienic because it can expose consumers to toxic soil constituents, such as heavy metals or parasites. It has also been suggested that it causes iron deficiency anaemia. However, there is evidence that soil can be a valuable source of trade elements and nutrients. A number of investigations are currently been carried out to resolve such conflicting views and to provide data on which an objective judgement can be made regarding the clinical, medicinal and nutritional implications of the practice.

Five Javanese soil samples, including three earths eaten by humans as therapeutic medicine, were analyzed for their physical, mineral and chemical properties along with suitable control samples (no...

The aetiology of geophagia in periurban dairy cattle in Nigeria was assessed in relation to the mineral status of the serum, the herbage consumed, and the soil from where the herbage was consumed. The study was carried out using nine herds in the derived savannah zone during both the wet and dry seasons. Generally, the Na, Ca, Fe, Zn and Cu levels in the samples were adequate. However, the forages were low in Ca and the serum was deficient in P. Forage, soil and termite hill samples were also deficient in P. The low levels of P in the soil and termite hill samples showed that the consumption of sand by the cattle did not have any positive impact on their P intake. A seasonal effect was apparent (p 0.05) the concentration of P in the serum, the reported cause of geophagia. Geophagia is probably caused by a marginal level of P in the serum and low levels in the forage and soil. Experimental trials will be required to confirm these observations.

Subsamples of termite mound soil used by chimpanzees for geophagy, and topsoil never ingested by them, from the forest floor in the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania, were analysed to determine the possible stimulus or stimuli for geophagy. The ingested samples have a dominant clay texture equivalent to a claystone, whereas the control samples are predominantly sandy clay loam or sandy loam, which indicates that particle size plays a significant role in soil selection for this behaviour. One potential function of the clays is to bind and adsorb toxins. Although both termite mound and control samples have similar alkaloid-binding capacities, they are in every case very high, with the majority of the samples being above 80%. The clay size material (2Si2O4·nH2O), present in the majority of both the termite mound soil and control soil samples.Metahalloysite, one of the principal ingredients found in the pharmaceutical Kaopectate™, is used to treat minor gastric ailments in humans. The soils commonly ingested could also function as antacids, as over half had pH values between 7.2 and 8.6. The mean concentrations of the majority of elements measured were greater in the termite mound soils than in the control soils. The termite mound soils had more filamentous bacteria, whereas the control soils contained greater numbers of unicellular bacteria and fungi.

This study tests hypotheses on the biochemical functions of geophagy in parrots: mechanical enhancement of digestion, acid buffering capacity, mineral supplementation, adsorption of dietary toxins, and gastrointestinal cytoprotection. Parrots showed clear preferences for specific soil horizons. Comparisons of preferred and nonpreferred soils from several sites suggest that soils have little ability to enhance grinding and no measurable ability to buffer gastric pH. Soils offered insignificant mineral supplementation since most minerals occurred at similar levels in samples regardless of preference, and the minerals were generally more plentiful in the birds' diets. Sodium was available in moderate levels at some sites (>1000 ppm), but was well below sodium detection thresholds of parrots. X-ray diffraction, cation exchange capacity, and in vitro adsorptive trials showed that the preferred soils are capable of exchanging substantial quantities of cations and are capable of adsorbing low-molecular-weight secondary compounds. In captive Amazona parrots, orally administered clay reduced the bioavailability of the alkaloid quinidine by roughly 60%, demonstrating that in vivo adsorption of potentially toxic compounds may be a biologically important function of geophagy. Labeled clay remained in the lower gastrointestinal tract of captive parrots for >12 hr, which along with high adsorptive capacities, further suggests a potential role in protecting the gastrointestinal lining from various biological and chemical insults. Detoxification and cytoprotection are the most likely functions of geophagy for parrots and herbivores with similar ecologies. Given the variety of chemically defended seeds consumed by these herbivores, geophagy likely protects consumers from dietary toxins, allowing increased diet breadth and/or enhancing digestibility.

The impact of reproduction and its interaction with sediment type on feeding activity of Lumbriculus variegatus are important because one major pathway in bioaccumulation of hydrophobic sediment-associated contaminants takes place through ingested sediment. In this study, the surface egesting behavior and the reproduction of the oligochaete were studied to understand this relationship and to give recommendations for the use of L. variegatus in sediment toxicity testing. Single individuals were used as replicates allowing proper control of reproduction behavior and egestion rate. Reproduction, growth, and egestion rates were clearly different in the two fine-grained unpolluted lake sediments used in the first 28-d experiment. The feeding of oligochaetes stopped during the reproduction process in the second 30-d experiment. Individuals divided at their middle; the anterior part took 2 d and the posterior part took 6 to 7 d to regenerate new segments and to initiate egestion. Culture conditions determined at what size the animals were able to reproduce during the test. In our tests 9 mg wet weight was the approximate minimum organism size needed for reproduction behavior. Recommendations for sediment toxicity and bioaccumulation testing using L. variegatus include using the largest oligochaetes in culture if reproduction is the endpoint and using recently fragmented individuals with complete segments if animals are employed in bioaccumulation tests.

In a cross sectional survey based in an antenatal clinic at Kilifi District Hospital, Coast Province, Kenya, 154 of 275 pregnant women (56%) reported eating soil regularly. Geophagous women had lower haemoglobin and serum ferritin concentrations than non-geophagous women (mean haemoglobin level 9.1 vs. 10.0 g/dL, P < 0.001; median ferritin level 4.5 vs. 9.0 micrograms/L, P < 0.001). In multiple linear regression analyses, geophagy was a significant predictor of haemoglobin (beta = -6.4, P = 0.01) and serum ferritin concentrations (beta = -6.6, P = 0.002), while controlling for gestational age and malaria and hookworm infection. Another 38 pregnant women, who reported eating soil regularly, participated in focus group discussions and were interviewed on geophagy. The most commonly eaten soil was from the walls of houses. The median estimated daily intake was 41.5 g (range 2.5-219.0 g). Twenty-seven of these women assisted in the collection of soil samples which were then analysed for their content of iron, zinc and aluminium after extraction with 0.1 M HC1. The average daily soil intake supplied the geophagous women with 4.3 mg of iron, corresponding to 14% of the recommended dietary allowance of iron for pregnant women. The study revealed a strong negative association between geophagy and both haemoglobin and ferritin status. At the same time it demonstrated the potential of soil as a source of dietary iron for geophagous women. These seemingly contradictory results might be due to other components in the soil interfering with iron uptake or metabolism. Alternatively, it may be that the geophagous women had extremely depleted iron stores before starting to eat soil. From these cross-sectional data, no inference about causality could be made.

Ingestion of soil by humans has been a documented phenomenon for centuries and still takes place today according to various literature. The literature reviewed here shows that there are two distinct soil ingestion phenomenon: inadvertent and purposeful (geophagia). Certain lifestyles, occupations, and living conditions will likely put different individuals or different groups at risk to these separate, but sometimes related, phenomenon. In particular, reports of geophagia are relatively common for the life stages of adolescence and periods of growth, and during pregnancy and lactation. Geophagia also appears to be relatively common among indigenous peoples on all continents, sometimes taking place to extreme degrees. Because of their high dependence on the land, indigenous peoples are also at highest risk for inadvertent ingestion. Inadvertent intake is more a function of either primitive living conditions or professions that may bring workers into close and continual contact with the soil. It is the purpose of this report to review and summarize literature related to ingestion of soil by humans with emphasis on the relevance of soil ingestion to radiological dose assessment, the etiology of geophagia and its relationship to risk assessment, qualitative observations and quantitative studies of direct soil ingestion by humans with interpretations useful for different lifestyle scenarios, the status of a number of current radiological assessment models in accounting for soil ingestion, and some unresolved issues in modeling the ingestion of soil.

Ce travail analyse les transformations qui conduisent à augmenter le contenu en phosphore inorganique (Pi) assimilable du sol suite à l'ingestion d'un ferralsol par le ver géophase #Pontoscolex corethrurus$. Le contenu en phosphore total, inorganique et organique d'échantillons de sol témoin, de sol non-ingéré mais incubé et de déjections de surface a été mesuré. Le phosphore extractible par NaHCO3 et NaOH a été dosé dans des échantillons ayant préalablement subi un fractionnement granulométrique (plus de 20, 2-20 et moins de 2 micromètres). La teneur en phosphore total est la même dans le sol témoin, le sol non-ingéré et les déjections ; la réhumectation du sol et l'ingestion du sol par le ver diminuent la teneur en phosphore organique et augmentent la teneur en phosphore inorganique. La teneur en argile des déjections (19.7%) est significativement supérieure à celle de l'échantillon témoin (9,1%). Les turricules ont une teneur en phosphore inorganique extractible par NaHCO3 significativement supérieure à celle du sol non-ingéré (5,04 micromètres Pi/g sol contre 3,17). La même tendance est observée dans l'extrait NaOH (45,8 micromètres Pi/g sol dans les déjections contre 27,4 dans le sol non-ingéré). Les phosphates dans les déjections sont essentiellement concentrés dans les fractions granulométriques fines (0-2 micromètres) (8.3% des phosphates extraits contre 61% pour le sol non-ingéré). Ces modifications résultent de l'ingestion sélective par le ver de particules fines et de la minéralisation partielle du phosphore organique. (Résumé d'auteur)

Geophagy, the deliberate act of eating soil, has been observed in various primate species, although the reasons for this behavior are poorly understood. The present study supports the general hypothesis that the physical and/or chemical nature of the soil is a likely reason for geophagy in hybrid macaque monkeys of Kowloon, Hong Kong. Samples were taken from areas where macaques were seen to be eating soil and from areas where there was no evidence of geophagy. Samples that were refused by the macaques were also obtained. Soils were analyzed for the following chemical and physical properties: soil pH, cation exchange capacity, organically bound and inorganic crystalline and poorly crystalline Fe and Al, organic carbon, acid extractable elements, particle size, and soil mineralogy. The study supports a hypothesis that the monkeys are using visual cues to choose preferentially soils for ingestion. More frequently they chose fine-textured soils that were higher in Fe and Al oxides. We speculate that these properties are sought to aid in digestive processes.

Parasite levels were determined for 141 members of a naturally formed social group of rhesus macaques living under free-ranging conditions. Results indicate that group members harbor Trichuris trichiura, Balantidium coli, and large numbers of Strongyloides fuelleborni. Parasite counts decrease significantly with age in this population. Females have significantly fewer parasites than males and a significantly lower prevalence of multiple infections. There were no rank effects regarding parasitosis. While 89% of the animals examined are infected with one or more species of enteric parasite, the prevalence of diarrhea is negligible (2%). The low prevalence of diarrhea in the presence of high parasite loads may be due to the practice of geophagy, which is engaged in by 76% of group members. Soil eaten by these monkeys contains large amounts of kaolinitic clays. Kaolin-based pharmaceuticals (i.e. Kaopectate®) are commonly used in human populations to treat diarrhea and intestinal upsets. The mechanical and pharmaceutical properties of the natural kaolinite-based clays may counteract the effects of parasitosis in this free-ranging population. Am. J. Primatol. 44:71-82, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Summary Soil can affect human health in several ways leading either to specific diseases or to more general ill health. Some illnesses are caused by people's eating soil (geophagia), or by their inhaling it which can lead to malignancy if the soil contains asbestiform minerals; pathogens in the soil can lead to tetanus and infestations of hookworm, and particles may enter the body through abrasions and cause a form of elephantiasis. Radon from the soil is implicated in some cancers, and poorly drained soil has been linked recently with infant mortality. Most examples of ill health associated with the soil are caused by concentrations of elements in food or water that are either deficient or toxic. These elements include aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, copper, fluorine, iodine, lead, selenium, thallium and zinc. Their concentrations might reflect the natural condition of the soil, or the effects of people's actions, such as pollution. In isolated subsistence communities that grow their own food, distinct relations between elements and the aetiology of diseases can be identified. Examples include Keshan disease caused by selenium deficiency, and itai-itai disease caused by excess cadmium. Some of the relations between soil and health are uncertain and the causes putative, and they require further research to validate them. They include the association of heart disease with poor acid soil, as in the glaciated regions of northern Europe and the coastal plain of the eastern United States of America. Even for well-defined relations it is evident that many are more complex than was originally thought, however, and greater understanding will require multidisciplinary investigation.

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 285 school children aged 5–18 years in Nyanza Province, Western Kenya, to determine the prevalence of geophagy and the types and amounts of soil eaten. Stool samples were taken from a subsample of 53 (19%) and their silica content determined to compare the results with the reported geophagy. Geophagy was practised by 73% of the children. The prevalence decreased with age for both sexes up to age 15, then remained stable for girls between 15 and 18 years but continued to decrease for boys in that age range. Most children ate soil from the surface of termitaria; others preferred the edges of paths and gullies, material from the wall of huts, and a chalk-like, soft stone commonly found in the area. The soil was eaten dry and was occasionally ground, but not processed in other ways. All but 4 of the children practising geophagy reported to eat soil at least once daily. The median amount reported eaten was 28 g daily, ranging from 8 to 108 g. The reported amount of soil eaten daily was significantly correlated to the results of the stool silica determinations. Using the median of 1% silica of faecal wet weight as a cut-off point to distinguish geophageous children from non-geophageous, the examination of a single stool sample had a sensitivity of 76% and a specificity of 80% to detect a geophageous child compared to the interview method. The cultural context of geophagy and its potential health impact in terms of infection and nutrition need to be further investigated, and it is suggested that more school and community-based studies on geophagy in different societies should be undertaken.

False-positive Ascaris suum egg counts in pig faeces are frequently observed under both experimental and natural conditions. Data from 12 experiments with A. suum infections in pigs were summarized and showed that the percentage of false-positive faecal samples ranged from 4 to 36%. False-positive egg count values varied greatly between pigs and experiments (range 20-1060 eggs per gram faeces). Indoor experiments with pigs housed groupwise in pens generally produced more and higher false-positive egg counts, which may reflect differences in surface area and hence exposure to infective eggs, compared with pasture experiments. The positive predictive value (the number of pigs diagnosed positive by faecal sample that actually harboured worms) was low for indoor experiments (45%) compared with pasture experiments (89%). Differences in design for indoor experiments, such as floor type and use of bedding material, did not influence the positive predictive value (44-47%). A positive correlation was found (r = 0.56, P < 0.05) between faecal egg counts of true-positive and false-positive pigs that were penned together. The results of this survey strongly support previous suggestions that false-positive A. suum egg counts in pigs are the result of coprophagia in indoor experiments and coprophagia/geophagia in pasture experiments. False-positive A. suum egg counts in pig faeces may vary greatly in prevalence and magnitude, and depend in part on management/housing factors.

An extensive survey was conducted during 1992–1993 in the Varanasi region to identify the most common species of earthworms which could be utilized for improving soil fertility and garbage decomposition. Eleven species of earthworms (Metaphire posthuma, Lampito mauritii, Eutyphoeus incommodus, Eutyphoeus nicholsoni, Eutyphoeus waltoni, Octochaetona surensis, Ramiella bishambari, Drawida calebi, Glyphidrilus sp., Dichogaster bolaui and Amynthas morrisi) were identified for the first time from this region. Among these L. mauritii, E. incommodus, E. nicholsoni, O. surensis and D. bolaui were very common and abundant species in each of the habitats sampled. D. bolaui, L. mauritii and E. incommodus were identified as major potential species and results suggest utilization of these species in soil fertility programmes.

The Zanzibar red colobus monkey is the only primate, aside from humans, known to eat charcoal in the wild. All age classes and both sexes eat charcoal, but only those groups living in perennial gardens or near human dwellings do so. The habit appears to be transmitted from mother to offspring by imitation, but how it developed in the first place is unknown. Sources of charcoal include charred stumps, logs, and branches, as well as that produced in kilns by humans. These charcoals adsorb organic materials, such as phenolics, particularly well and, as a consequence, remove these compounds, which have the potential to be toxic or interfere with digestion or both. The extreme inertness of charcoal makes it an unlikely source of minerals to the colobus. We conclude that, by eating charcoal, monkeys living in gardens with a high density of food species dominated by exotic trees — Indian almond and mango — are able to exploit this abundant food resource that is high in total phenolic content much more effectively than in the absence of charcoal. The young leaves of these exotic tree species are also very high in protein and highly digestible. The benefits of charcoal eating are most likely due to the fact that charcoal adsorbs phenolics better than proteins. This may explain in large part why the birth rates and population densities of the colobus living in the Indian almond and mango habitat adjacent to the Jozani Forest are significantly higher than those in the ground-water forest. The population density of colobus in this small area is the highest ever recorded for a nonhuman anthropoid (≥700/km 2 ). It may not, however, be a stable situation, as there are indications of higher levels of aggression, lower recruitment into the medium-juvenile size class, and overbrowsing.

Background. Geophagia, a form of pica, has been shown to be widely practised in sub-Saharan Africa, especially among pregnant women. Objective. To assess the prevalence of geophagia and examine exposure to selected metals and associated risk factors in women attending an antenatal clinic at Rahima Moosa Mother and Child Hospital, Johannesburg, South Africa, during June and July 2010. Methods. We conducted a cross-sectional study on a convenience sample of 307 pregnant women, ranging in age from 18 to 46 years. Structured interviews were conducted to understand geophagia practices. Blood samples were collected to determine haemoglobin values and concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, mercury and lead. Statistical analyses using the χ 2 test, Wilcoxon’s rank-sum test and logistic regression analyses were performed as appropriate. Results. Mean parity was 1.4 and the mean (standard deviation) gestational age 30.3 (6.0) weeks. Geophagia was reported by 60 women (19.5%), and the majority purchased soil from street vendors (83.3%). The prevalence of anaemia in the study sample was 16.9% (95% confidence interval 13.1 - 21.6%). Geophagic women had significantly higher blood lead levels than non-geophagic women (2.1 v. 1.4 µg/dl; p

Geophagia, which involves ingestion of non-food lithospheric substances, is the major form of pica in many African cultures. A common lithospheric pica substance ingested in the Cape Three Point region of West Africa, particularly Ghana and Togo, is a white loamy clay soil. This clay soil is usually ingested by women of reproductive age. Some of the reasons assigned to clay geophagia include appealing flavour, to alleviate nausea during pregnancy, and for absorption of toxins in the gastrointestinal tract. Some speculation indicates that geophagia may be an attempt to replenish mineral nutrients in undernourished persons. The study of the acid extractable mineral contents of this white clay soil was done to provide information on the mineral contents that could potentially be absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. Results showed that the clay soil was very dry with mean moisture content of 0.19±0.01%. On dry weight basis, the geophagia clay soil contained (mg/100 g) aluminium, 1,239.6; iron, 962.9; lead, 2.4; magnesium, 64.3; and zinc, 54.6. The extractable mineral contents of this clay soil, on dry weight basis, were (mg/100 g): zinc, 1.40±0.05; iron, 14.19±0.13; magnesium, 23.83±0.31; and aluminium, 37.91±2.94. Compared to the total minerals contents of the clay soil, the acid extractable fractions represented 2.6% of zinc, 1.5% of iron, 36.4% of magnesium, and 3.2% of aluminium. Even though lead was not detected in the acid extracts, a small amount was detected in the dry clay soil. Arsenic was not detected in any clay sample or extracts. It was concluded that the main mineral nutrient potentially contributed by this clay pica substance was iron. The clay soil liberated a substantial amount of iron (14.2 mg/100g), which constituted 78.9% of the 18 mg/d iron RDA for women of reproductive age and 53.0% of the 27 mg/day iron RDA for pregnant women. The potentially undesirable effect of ingesting this clay soil is the high level of aluminium (37.9 mg/100g). Key words : Geophagia, pica, pregnancy, clay, iron

Background: Soil has been eaten by humans under various names all over the world. It was used as a spread on the bread instead of butter in Austria known as ‘mountain tallow’ and in German known as ‘stone butter’. Earth is tasty in various countries, termed as ‘American earth’, ‘Earth of Samos’ and ‘Nishapoor earth’, continues to make geophagia habit. Objective: To highlight the problem of geophagia in the Transkei region of South Africa. Case reports: First, one is (XM) of a 35 years woman who divulges her history of geophagia at Sinawe Center. She consumed fresh earthworm dig-out soil after smelling it. This has happened in her first pregnancy in her first trimester. The second, one is an adult women 55-years; she had consumed red bricks for last 15 years. It is not related with her pregnancy. She keeps bricks close her bed and eats when she feels to eat. She used to complain abdominal pain and off and on loose motions. She had bladder stones, which passed through urethra. The history of geophagia, mechanism of craving for soil, and associated cultural belief has discussed in this case report. Conclusion: There is geophagia in the Xhosa community is prevalent and socially accepted. Keywords: soil, earth, craving, earthworm, and belief.

The prime aim of our work is to report and comment on the bioaccessible concentrations – i.e., the soluble content of chemical elements in the gastrointestinal environment that is available for absorption – of a number of essential mineral nutrients and potentially harmful elements (PHEs) associated with the deliberate ingestion of African geophagical materials, namely Calabash chalk and Undongo. The pseudo-total concentrations of 13 mineral nutrients/PHEs were quantified following a nitric-perchloric acid digestion of nine different Calabash chalk samples, and bioaccessible contents of eight of these chemical elements were determined in simulated saliva/gastric and intestinal solutions obtained via use of the Fed ORganic Estimation human Simulation Test (FOREhST) in vitro procedure. The Calabash chalk pseudo-total content of the chemical elements is often below what may be regarded as average for soils/shales, and no concentration is excessively high. The in vitro leachate solutions had concentrations that were often lower than those of the blanks used in our experimental procedure, indicative of effective adsorption: lead, a PHE about which concern has been previously raised in connection with the consumption of Calabash chalk, was one such chemical element where this was evident. However, some concentrations in the leachate solutions are suggestive that Calabash chalk can be a source of chemical elements to humans in bioaccessible form, although generally the materials appear to be only a modest supplier: this applies even to iron, a mineral nutrient that has often been linked to the benefits of geophagia in previous academic literature. Our investigations indicate that at the reported rates of ingestion, Calabash chalk on the whole is not an important source of mineral nutrients or PHEs to humans. Similarly, although Undongo contains elevated pseudo-total concentrations of chromium and nickel, this soil is not a significant source to humans for any of the bioaccessible elements investigated.

We conducted direct observation of 23 caregiver–infant pairs for 130 hours and recorded wash-related behaviors to identify pathways of fecal–oral transmission of bacteria among infants. In addition to testing fingers, food, and drinking water of infants, three infants actively ingested 11.3 ± 9.2 (mean ± SD) handfuls of soil and two ingested chicken feces 2 ± 1.4 times in 6 hours. Hand washing with soap was not common and drinking water was contaminated with Escherichia coli in half (12 of 22) of the households. A one-year-old infant ingesting 1 gram of chicken feces in a day and 20 grams of soil from a laundry area of the kitchen yard would consume 4,700,000–23,000,000 and 440–4,240 E. coli, respectively, from these sources. Besides standard wash and nutrition interventions, infants in low-income communities should be protected from exploratory ingestion of chicken feces, soil, and geophagia for optimal child health and growth.

Geophagia is the practice of eating earth or clay and is nearly universal around the world in traditional rural societies. Many animals across genera are known to eat mineral rich soil. Some animals travel long distances to seek specific soils that are rich in minerals that they are deficient. According to the WHO dietary iron deficiency is a documented threat to public health in Nepal and iron deficiency anaemia affects 60-85% in the general population. Iron deficiency holds developing communities back with reduced growth, reduced academic achievement and reduced physical productivity. While it would be possible to simply provide iron medications, the long term delivery to remote areas would make this logistically difficult to be sustainable and in our view would provide the wrong sort of aid. We analysed local Nepalise hill clays in Kavre District to assess feasibility of use as an iron supplement. Providing a manual pill press would allow communities to make their own clay iron tablets facilitating more precise dosing in a truly sustainable way at ongoing zero cost. 23 mineral elements were measured by Inductively Coupled Mass Spectrometry in the two common clays, white and red, following a protocol based on the UK Environmental Protection Agency method "Acid digestion of sediments, sludges and soils (Method 3050B)". Iron was present in useful amounts in both white and red clays; 33,485 μg/g and 35,091 μg/g respectively. All other mineral elements were present at low levels and unlikely to pose a health threat, with the exception of aluminium. Aluminium was present at 20,577 μg/g in white clay and 53,125 μg/g in red clay, which is above UK recommended dietary intake levels. However, in the absence of dialysis dependant renal failure, excess aluminium is excreted in urine and there are no documented cases of environmental aluminium toxicity. Aluminium levels in antacid tablets can be 20% with no toxicity documented even with chronic use. This is a project with local Nepali community leaders working together with UK laboratories and haematologists. Further work will assess the homogeneity of the clay composition over a wider area. We are currently developing methods to facilitate the production of clay pills with a hand press alongside developing a school based education and iron supplementation programme. Iron deficiency is a worldwide problem in developing countries. We believe this approach could be used to empower communities to improve iron nutrition across the globe. Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Soil mining and eating (geophagy) behavior of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) on Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico, is described and assessed with respect to the chemical, geochemical, and mineralogical composition of the ingested materials. The samples forming the uneaten (control) and eaten (matrix and blocky) groups of soils come from the top and flanks of a marine terrace underlain with volcanic tuff on Cayo Santiago, off the east shore of Puerto Rico. Both the uneaten and geophagy samples were analyzed to determine particle size distributions, clay and primary mineralogy, and soil chemical and geochemical compositions. Primary minerals such as orthoclase and plagioclase feldspar in the clay fraction is higher in the control group than in the ingested samples. Both the control and matrix plus blocky samples have moderate to abundant amounts of kaolinite and halloysite (both silicon:aluminum = 1:1 type clay minerals) that may be important as a stimulus to geophagy behavior. The pH, total salts, and phosphorus levels in both the control and geophagy samples show considerable overlap with little clear indication of causal factors. Analysis of the geochemical data showed no clear cut elemental differences to suggest elemental supplementation as a possible explanation for mining and eating of tropical soil. It is possible that rhesus macaques ingest clay to obtain kaolinite/halloysite minerals which may alter the taste of their provided food, and may act as pharmaceutical agents to alleviate intestinal ailments such as diarrhea.

Geophageous Rwandan mountain gorillas excavate and eat weathered leucite-rich regolith (subsoil C horizons) from the slopes of Mount Visoke in the Virunga Mountains. In the months of the dry season, the gorillas reportedly ingest a halloysitic natural earth having a chemical composition similar to that of Kaopectate, a pharmaceutical used by humans to treat gastrointestinal upsets. Several plants known to contain potential toxins are consumed more heavily by gorillas in these months. New information from geochemical and mineral analyses suggests that geophagy may alleviate intestinal problems associated with changes in their diet because the ingested weathered regolith,containing halloysitic clay minerals, may act as a pharmaceutical agent that helps to adsorb toxins and to control dehydration in the dry season.

A post-mortem examination was carried out on a 4-month-old giraffe which was reported dead early hours of the morning in the zoological garden, University of Ilorin. The carcass of the animal appeared slightly emaciated and on opening of the carcass the abomasum was distended with a hard mass felt inside the organ. On opening of the organ, it was filled with sand and weighing 3.8kg. Geophagia due to various factors were queried in the cause of the condition including seasonal prevalence, nutrient deficiencies, feeding regimen and also housing inadequacies. Although poor milk intake, absence of maternal nurturing and inadequate captive conditions are the most likely causes of geophagia which eventually led to the death of the animal. Keywords: Abomasum, Sand impaction, Geophagia, Giraffe, Nigeria