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Hunting can influence population structure with consequences in ecological and evolutionary processes. Populations of Iberian red deer ( Cervus elaphus hispanicus) in Spain occur under two different management regimes: fenced and unfenced (open) estates. We compared census data, hunting bags and data from hunted individuals between both types of estates. Harvest on stags was moderate in fenced estates but strong in open ones, probably due to the competition between neighbouring landowners over the same deer populations. On the contrary, female culling was low in open estates compared to fenced ones. As a result, populations in open estates have mostly young males and strongly female-biased sex ratios. Female-biased population structure in open estates did not result in higher number of males being harvested per year compared with fenced estates, probably due to negative effects on development, survival and reproduction, and harvested males were younger, and hence, with smaller antlers. There is published evidence for undesirable effects of biased population sex ratio and age structure in these red deer populations. Our results indicate that this type of management may be unsustainable and recommend that harvest on males in open estates should be reduced and that on females increased, in order to maintain a more balanced population structure that may allow sustainable population dynamics and the operation of natural evolutionary processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A phylogeographic analysis of the control region of mitochondrial DNA was done in 346 individuals of the red-legged partridge Alectoris rufa ( Linnaeus 1758), sampled throughout the species distribution range. The analysis indicated that there is no distinct intraspecific phylogeographical structure, in contrast to earlier studies with lower number of samples. The results are not in accord with the expected distribution of three A. rufa subspecies based on morphological characters ( A. r. rufa, A. r. intercedens and A. r. hispanica). The results do not provide statistical support for the five groups (or management units) proposed in some earlier papers because the variation within populations is greater than that found among populations. The absence of a population structure might be a consequence of management activity, consisting of release into the field of individuals bred in farms with no control of their genetic identity and geographic origin. Only the north-west Iberian populations show a weak population structure, suggesting that A. r. hispanica may have suffered less human influence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analysed yearly estimates of population size data during 2001-2012 for five carnivores species of conservation interest (Ursus arctos, Canis lupus, Lynx lynx, Felis silvestris and Canis aureus). Population size estimations were done by the game management authorities and integrated by the competent authorities on the Ministry of Environment and Climate Change. Trends in data were detected using non-parametric Mann-Kendall test. This test was chosen considering the short length of data series and its usefulness for non-normal distributed data. The trend was tested at three spatial scales: game management units (n = 1565), biogeographical region (n = 5) and national. Trends depicted for each game management unit were plotted using ArcGIS, resulting species trend distribution maps. For the studied period, increasing population trends were observed for Ursus arctos, Canis lupus, Canis aureus and Lynx lynx, while for Felis silvestris there was no trend recorded. The analysis could be especially useful for conservation proposes, game management and reporting obligations under article 17 of the EC Habitat Directive, using population trend as a proxy for population dynamics. We conclude that the status of the five carnivore species is favourable during the study period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Riassunto Un nuovo marcatore per l'identificazione rapida del sesso del cervo (Cervus elaphus) Il cervo (Cervus elaphus) è una specie cacciabile economicamente importante che risente di alcuni problemi di conservazione. La conoscenza di parametri di popolazione come il rapporto sessi è importante per la sua gestione e conservazione. In questo studio, utilizzando condizioni poco specifiche per l’amplificazione di un frammento del cromosoma Y già descritto in precedenza, descriviamo un metodo che permette una rapida e corretta identificazione del sesso in questa specie, producendo due amplicons diversi nei maschi e uno nelle femmine. I due frammenti, diversi per il peso molecolare, sono facilmente separabili mediante elettroforesi in gel di agarosio, permettendo l'identificazione del sesso con un unico test in campioni biologici come carcasse, embrioni recuperati da femmine abbattute e, forse, peli o escrementi (se la qualità del DNA è accettabile). Questo metodo può essere di aiuto in studi sul rapporto sessi degli embrioni, sulla mortalità associata al sesso o sul rapporto sessi in popolazioni selvatiche o semi-selvatiche, con ricadute applicative per le analisi demografiche, la gestione venatoria e la conservazione. doi:10.4404/hystrix-20.2-4449

Wild reindeer in Norway, presently (winter 2005-06) numbering some 25 000 animals, are found in 23 more or less separated areas in the mountainous southern part of the country (see map in appendix). All herds are hunted and management is organized in close cooperation between owner organizations and state agencies. I will provide a historical review of the wild reindeer management and research in Norway and conclude with the present situation. We identify 3 types of wild reindeer on basis of their origin: (1) the original wild reindeer with minor influence from previous domestic reindeer herding activities (Snøhetta, Rondane and Sølenkletten), (2) wild reindeer with some influx of animals from past domestic reindeer herding in the area (Nordfjella, Hardangervidda, Setesdal-Ryfylke) and (3) feral reindeer with a domesticated origin (reindeer released or escaped from past reindeer husbandry units; Forolhogna, Ottadalen North and Ottadalen South, Norefjell-Reinsjøfjell and several smaller areas). In Norway, genetic origin (wild or domesticated), body size and reproductive performance of reindeer differ among areas. Feral reindeer have higher body weights and enjoy higher reproductive rates than their originally wild counterparts. These differences may partially be explained by differences in food quality and availability among the populations. However, there is a growing suspicion that other explanatory factors are also involved. Wild reindeer are more vigilant and show longer fright and flight distances than feral reindeer. Number of animals harvested was 4817, or ca. 20% of the total population in 2005, but varies between 40% in feral reindeer areas to below 20% in some of the "wild" reindeer areas. Causal factors behind this variation include differences in age at maturation, postnatal calf mortality and herd structure. The Norwegian Institute for nature research (NINA) in cooperation with the Directorate for nature management (DN) allocate considerable resources to monitoring 36 wild reindeer herds and pastures, especially winter pastures. A total of 8 wild reindeer areas are monitored annually (the monitoring program was initiated in 1991), recording calf recruitment rates in nursery bands in June/July from aerial photographs and herd composition from ground counts of rutting groups in September/ October. Carcass weights and mandibles are sampled at regular intervals from harvested animals in the same areas in order to investigate reindeer body weight development. The botanical part of the monitoring program is concentrated on renewal growth of lichen in areas under variable reindeer grazing pressure, and annual measurements of radiocesium load in plants and reindeer meat from fall-out areas following the Chernobyl accident in 1986. Reindeer research relating to the wild reindeer herds in southern Norway is mainly conducted by NINA in Trondheim and the Biology Institute, University of Oslo. Most mountain ranges and wild reindeer populations in Norway are experiencing an increase and expansion of human use, including infrastructure such as road and power-lines, and private cabins, tourism/recreation, etc. Present research activities focus on wild reindeer area use, behaviour and activity budgets in selected areas on a 24 hour and a seasonal basis by use of GPS-technology. An important part of the ongoing projects emphasizes a close monitoring and investigation of reindeer behaviour and activity in relation to human activities and infrastructure. Furthermore, development and quality control of methods for measurement of response towards anthropogenic activities and population reproduction and early calf mortality are included in the research activities. Villrein i Norge; Populasjonsøkologi, forvaltning og jakt Abstract in Norwegian / Sammendrag: Villreinen i Norge utgjør i 2005-06 en vinterbestand på ca. 25 000 dyr fordelt på 23 stort sett isolerte villreinområder (kart i appendiks) som jaktelig sett forvaltes enkeltvis og i et samarbeid mellom rettighetshavere og statlige forvaltningsorganer. Presentasjonen gir en historisk fremstilling av villreinforvaltningen i Norge og den forskningsutvikling som ligger bak dagens situasjon. Vi har 3 typer villrein i Norge: (1) den opprinnelige med liten tamreininnblanding karakterisert ved områdene Snøhetta, Rondane og Sølenkletten, (2) villrein med varierende innslag av tamreinpåvirkning (Nordfjella, Hardangervidda, Setesdal-Ryfylke) og (3) villrein med tamreinopphav (dvs. forvillet tamrein; Forolhogna, Ottadalen Nord og Ottadalen Syd, Norefjell-Reinsjøfjell og en rekke mindre områder). Reinens kroppsvekter i kategori 3-områdene er vesentlig høyere enn de i kategori 1 og 2. Forskjeller i beiteforhold områdene i mellom er nok medvirkende årsak, men adferdsundersøkelser som omfatter vaktsomhetsadferd og frykt- og fluktadferd i ulike områder tyder på at vaktsomhet og aktivitetsmønster kan være andre viktige påvirkningsfaktorer. Avkastningen i form av felte dyr var i 2005 ca. 20% av samlet vinterbestand, men varierer mellom 40% i områder der kroppsvektene er store til under 20% der reinen har lavere kroppsvekter. Forklaringsfaktorer omfatter forskjeller knyttet til alder for kjønnsmodning og reproduksjon, postnatal kalvedødlighet og kjønns- og alderssammensetning i de ulike villreinområdene. Norsk villreinforvaltning i regi av Norsk institutt for naturforskning (NINA)/Direktoratet for naturforvaltning (DN) satser store ressurser på overvåkning av villrein og deres beiter, særlig vinterbeiter. Til sammen 7 spesielt utvalgte villreinområder overvåkes årlig (start 1991) med flyfotografering av fostringsflokker i juni/juli for å bestemme kalvetilvekst og bakkeregistreringer om høsten for å bestemme bestandsstruktur. Med jevne mellomrom innsamles også kjever og slaktevekter fra høstjakten for å vurdere reinens kondisjonsutvikling i overvåkningsområdene. I den botaniske del av overvåkningsaktivitetene måles gjenvekst av lav i områder utsatt for vekslende beitepress og radiocesiumbelastningen etter Tsjernobylulykken i 1986 i næringsplanter og i kjøttprøver fra felt villrein i de områdene som ble hardest rammet av nedfall. Villreinforskningen er særlig lokalisert til NINA og Universitetet i Oslo. Forskningsaktivitetene omfatter måling av reinens adferd og aktivitet gjennom døgnet og dyrenes sesongmessige områdebruk i relasjon til menneskelig infrastruktur i utvalgte områder ved hjelp av bl.a. GPS-instrumentering og utvikling og kvalitetskontroll av metodeverktøy til bestemmelse av reproduksjon og tidlig kalvedødlighet.

Abstract: Wildlife population management is thought to destabilize existing host–parasite equilibriums in opposing directions, that is, it may increase parasite success or host resilience once infection takes place. This process is of special importance for species such as the wild boar (Sus scrofa) that are managed for game purposes throughout much of Europe. However, little is known about how this practices influcences either gastrointestinal or pulmonary parasitism in the wild boar. Twelve hunting estates were chosen in order to study the relationship of management measures (feeder density, wild boar abundance, the ratio of wild boar per feeder and the percentage of sclerophyllous vegetation) and host factors (age and sex) with gastrointestinal and pulmonary parasite aggregation, richness, infection probability and intensity of infection. Parasitological analyses from 300 wild boar gastrointestinal and 269 respiratory tracts were performed for this purpose. A set of general linear models with combinations of the explanatory variables was built and the model with the smallest Akaike Information Criterion was selected as the best. The feeder density increased gastrointestinal parasite traits (richness, infection probability and intensity of infection), probably due to the contamination of feeding sites with infective parasite forms. Pulmonary parasite traits, on the other hand, were only influenced by host sex and age class, and parasite aggregation was as expected for a wild population. Managers should be aware of the consequences on parasitism when implementing supplemental feeding in hunting estates. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The aim of this study was to estimate long-term changes in the winter feeding pattern of red foxes Vulpes vulpes and in their predation on brown hares Lepus europaeus in relation to the decreasing abundance of hares in western Poland in 1965/1966-2006/2007. The frequencies of occurrence in the stomachs of culled foxes ( N = 726) were used as indices of prey capture rates. The average autumn density of brown hares in the study area decreased from 48 individuals/km at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s to seven individuals/km in 1999-2006. Hares and small rodents were the main food classes of foxes in western Poland at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s; however, the occurrence of hares in the fox diet subsequently decreased, and they were replaced by livestock carrion. The relationship between the occurrence frequency of hares in the fox diet and the hare density was best described by sigmoid equation. It indicates that the red fox showed a type III functional response to long-term changes in hare abundance. When predation rate index was estimated on the basis of functional response, the potential fox predation was density-dependent at low to intermediate hare densities (<25 individuals/km). This finding suggests that the increase in the number of low-density hare populations may require intensive management measures, e.g. simultaneous use of fox control and habitat improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food composition of the Eurasian badger Meles meles was studied in the mountain zone and foothills of the Western Carpathians (Southern Poland). The diet, obtained by scat analysis, was compared with availability of earthworms, fruits, amphibians, rodents and ground nesting birds (capercaillie Tetrao urogallus and hazel grouse Bonaso bonasiä) within both altitudinal zones. Earthworms and fruits were the most abundant food source in the foothills, while amphibians were scarce and rodents were equally available in both altitudinal zones. Capercaillie and hazel grouse occurred in the forests above 560 m a.s.l. In the foothills, vegetable matter (mainly fruits), constituted 56.3%, and earthworms 39.6%, of the biomass consumed, while mammals were supplementary resources (2.9%). In the mountains, the importance of vegetable matter was smaller (47.9%). Earthworms and insects had a similar share (37.8% and 1.8%, respectively), but mammals were eaten much more intensively (13.9%). Birds (ex-clusively domestic hen) were taken by badgers only in the foothills (0.6%). There was a seasonal variation in badger diet composition in both altitudinal zones, as earthworms dominated in spring, while fruits were eaten mainly in summer and autumn. The composition of the badgers' diet only slightly differed between foothills and mountains. This was probably caused by regular movement of badgers between elevational zones during foraging. We conclude that the present hunting regulation, which allows year-round hunting on badgers in areas inhabited by capercaillie, is not justified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Pulsed food resources may strongly affect the population dynamics of several consumer species, with consequences on the ecosystem. One of the most common pulsed resources is forest mast seeding. Aims: We analysed mast seeding in deciduous forests in a mountainous area of northern Apennines and its effect on population dynamics of wild boar ( Sus scrofa L.). Methods: We performed a quantitative, 20-year analysis on annual seed production in Turkey oak ( Quercus cerris L.), beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.) and chestnut ( Castanea sativa Mill.) forest stands using litter traps. The wild boar population density was estimated by means of drive censuses and hunting bag records. The role of other biotic (density of predators) and abiotic (climate) factors potentially affecting wild boar mortality was also investigated. Results: Turkey oak and chestnut showed high levels of seed production, whereas lower levels were found in beech. The pulsed resources of chestnut and Turkey oak positively affected piglet density. Analyses also highlighted the influence of snow cover and wolves on wild boar population dynamics. Conclusion: Wild boar can be considered a pulse rate species, the management of which can be improved by annual monitoring of seed production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most important human-wildlife conflicts in the world is that where predators are involved. Predators may compete with us for the same resources, such as game species. As a consequence, predators have been frequently controlled by game managers, which has negatively affected many predator populations worldwide. The understanding of human-wildlife conflicts requires a multidisplicinary framework that is rarely considered. We aim to evaluate the attitudes and behavior of game managers with regard to predator management in central Spain, as well as to explore factors that lead to these attitudes and behavior. Data were gathered through face to face interviews with game managers from 59 small-game hunting estates within central Spain. Predator control was employed in 90% of the estates, but control intensity was very variable among estates. Economic interests and perceptions about predators apparently influenced variation in control intensity. The main methods employed were cage-traps and shooting, but some illegal practices (e.g., leg-hold traps or snares without stopping devices) were also admittedly used for carnivores. Most managers considered that efficacy of legal methods for control of foxes (Vulpes vulpes) was very limited. Overall, nonselective methods, such as some types of snares, were more frequently employed in commercial than in noncommercial estates. Most managers believed that predators had an important effect on prey, and therefore that not doing it would lead to smaller hunting bags. Only managers from commercial hunting estates used stronger discourses such as that hunting would be impossible without carrying out predator control, which suggests that their tolerance for predators was lower than that of managers whose main motivation was not economic. Most managers considered that predator control was effective to reduce the number of predators, but only in the short term. Therefore, they highlighted the need of maintaining predator control every year. Our results highlight the important role that both social and economic factors (even stronger than ecological factors) play driving predator control, and therefore the need of incorporating these factors when making decisions to mitigate the human-predator conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human harvesting has a large impact on natural populations and may cause undesirable life-history changes. In wild ungulate populations, unrestricted trophy hunting may cause strong selection pressures resulting in evolutionary change towards smaller trophies. It has rarely been tested how harvesting selection varies in space and time, and whether directional hunter selection is sufficiently strong to induce long-term decreases in trophy size in century-scale data., We analysed two unique data sets of harvesting records spanning decade (1973-2008) and century scales (1881-2008) to identify changes in trophy size and how harvesting selection varies in space and time in red deer Cervus elaphus. We contrasted predictions from the trophy-hunting depletion, the restricted trophy hunting and the hunting pressure hypotheses., Foreign hunters selected older and larger males than local hunters, but selection patterns for age-specific trophy size between counties and over time were dynamic. Patterns of red deer trophy size development from exhibitions (representing the 'upper tail' of antler sizes) were remarkably similar across Hungary from 1881 to 2008. A weak decline in trophy size between 1881 and 1958 was followed by a strong increase in trophy size between 1958 and 1974, culminating in a period of stable antler tine numbers and a weak decline in beam length until 2008., We rejected the trophy hunting depletion hypothesis due to the increase in trophy size after a period of decline; patterns were most consistent with the hunting pressure hypothesis. Large increases in trophy size during 1958-1974 were likely due to a relief in hunting pressure due to implementation of strict management regulations allowing stags to grow old after the massive overharvesting during World War II, but we cannot exclude impacts from environmental factors, and that data from trophy exhibitions may underestimate trends., Synthesis and applications. Trophy hunting does not necessarily lead to a non-reversible decline in trophy size, even over century-long time-scales. To ensure sustainable trophy hunting management, we need to consider factors such as spatial and temporal refuges, compensatory culling, saving stags until prime-age culmination and higher prices for larger trophies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective wildlife management requires knowledge about the areas th at are most important within the distribution range or specific management unit of the focal species. Using the spatial conservation planning tool, Zonation, and spatial data on Finnish forests, we present a fast and relatively simple way to objectively prioritise large areas for our focal species, the capercaillie Tetrao urogallus. We constructed the capercaillie lekking landscape prioritisation using published knowledge on the species' habitat and connectivity requirements, and validated the results via comparison to capercaillie lekking-site data. The results show that connectivity considerations both at the home range and the population scale are essential in prioritisation of areas suitable for capercaillie lekking sites. In addition, inclusion of negative connectivity to agri-urban areas further enhances the congruence between the known lekking sites and the areas of high priority (48.7% of known leks falling into the best 20% priority category). We conclude that our approach can be used in several stages of spatial wildlife conservation planning: as a preliminary analysis to find areas subjected to more detailed inventories and modelling, in combination with other analytical tools, or as the main instrument enabling informative use of readily available data in operational large-scale land-use planning. The advantages of our approach include: 1) the ability to execute relatively simple and objective analyses covering wide spatial extents at a high resolution, 2) the possibility to incorporate several ecologically realistic species-specific connectivity components into the analyses, and 3) the potential to help managers target wildlife surveys or conservation and management operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This short communication deals with the hunting value of all game in Sweden, specifically changes over time in value and value components, and differences between the northern and southern parts of the country. The investigation was based on two mail surveys, one conducted in 1987 and the other in 2006. The results suggested that the gross hunting value and the hunting cost share of this value increased over the two decades. The consumer surplus (net value) share decreased correspondingly, while the recreation share and the meat share of the hunting value were more stable over time. It appeared that in 1987 as well as in 2006 the southern Swedish hunters tended to value their hunting higher than the hunters in northern Sweden, especially when it came to the recreation. The results should be relevant in the context of game management, adaptive game management in particular. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Hedgerows are an integral part of the farmed landscape and are important habitats for many birds and other wildlife. Game managers recognize the importance of hedgerows for gamebirds, both in the nesting season for wild birds and as dispersal routes from woodland release pens for reared pheasants in late summer. Conservationists are interested in the potential impacts of pheasant releasing on wildlife and habitats. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of gamebird management on hedgerow structure and the density and connectedness of hedgerows at the landscape level by comparing sites with and without gamebird releasing. We surveyed 150 sites in southern and eastern England: 97 were on pheasant shoots while the others were on farms where there had been no pheasant releasing for at least 25 years. Using a combination of field survey, satellite imagery and GIS software, we determined hedgerow abundance and their structural characteristics. We also measured the extent of hedgerow connectedness. We found that the hedgerow structure was similar on farms with and without game shoots. However, hedgebanks were between 17% and 36% wider on game estates. Game estates also had between 10% and 65% more hedgerow per square kilometre than farms with no game shoot. We found no strong evidence that game management influenced bird numbers associated with individual hedgerows. We conclude that structural characteristics of hedgerows on sites with pheasant releasing do not differ from hedgerows on farms where there is no pheasant releasing undertaken. The tendency for wider hedgebanks and greater hedgerow abundance on game estates is likely due to the recognition of game estate managers of the value of hedgerows as habitats for gamebirds. The results of this study need to be considered within the context of other studies which have highlighted the potential negative effects of large pheasant releases on hedgerow vegetation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The negative impact of anthropogenic disturbance and land-use changes on large mammals is generally recognized within conservation biology. In southeastern Norway, both moose ( Alces alces) and roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus) occur throughout human-modified landscapes, facilitating an interesting comparative study of their habitat use. By using pellet group counts, we looked at the importance of forest structure, vegetation characteristics and human disturbance (e.g., distance to the nearest house, nearest paved road, and nearest edge between field and forest) in shaping the winter distribution of both species at multiple spatial scales, in non-agricultural habitats. Moose occurred more often in areas with higher densities of heather and Vaccinium sp. in the ground layer, and used areas with more open forest structure. The proportion of built-up areas, within a 1,000-m buffer, negatively influenced moose occurrence. Roe deer occurred more often in areas with deciduous trees and patches with juniper and Vaccinium sp. in the ground layer, used areas near roads less, but were significantly associated with areas near the field-forest ecotone. The proportion of built-up areas positively influenced roe deer distribution within a 2,500-m buffer. Roe deer seem to be able to persist in more human-dominated landscapes, possibly due to the availability of field-forest edges providing both high-quality fodder and cover in close proximity. Moose, on the contrary, did not show any preference for areas associated with human disturbance, and their distribution was only associated with patches providing food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) populations have suffered a dramatic reduction over the last 30 years in Spain. Rabbit decline has been recurrently associated with several epizootics and habitat changes. The role of interspecific competition has been usually neglected. This study analyzes the effects of habitat suitability and wild boar (Sus scrofa) occurrence, a hypothetical predator and competitor species, on a small and isolated population of rabbits. To test this effect we used a GLM with the abundance of rabbits as response variable and wild boar occurrence as predictor. To avoid habitat confounding effects we included vegetation structure variables and elevation summarized in PCA factors. Rabbits showed a very restricted and aggregated distribution and a very low abundance across the study area. In contrast, wild boar was present in all sampled plots but one and showed moderatehigh abundance. The three best models included both wild boar occurrence and principal component factor 2. Rabbits were located in opened Mediterranean areas where trees were small and scarce, rock cover was low and wild boar occurrence was also low. Nowadays wild boar populations are not directly controlled in private lands and its hunting is forbidden in National Parks in Spain. Waiting for further research to evaluate the threshold of rabbit densities below which competitors and/or predators may prevent the recovery of rabbit populations, control of wild boars may be useful as a short-term strategy to recover small rabbit populations whenever it is linked to habitat improvements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to determine whether male and female soccer (football) referees would execute the Laws of the Game despite players' verbal abuse. Law 12 (Fouls and misconduct) instructs the referees as to how they should react when a player, substitute or substituted player expresses a swear word. The player should be issued a red card. Referees (n = 113) were presented with 28 swear words and asked how they would respond if this situation occurred in a real game (red card, yellow/ blue card [blue cards are used in juvenile games, player leaves field of game for 10 minutes], admonition, no reaction). The selected words were divided into categories (such as pertaining to intelligence or sexual abuse) indicating different degrees of insult. Approximately half of the referees would have responded to players saying swear words in a game by issuing a red card (55.7% red card, 25.2% yellow/blue card, 12.1% admonition, and 7.0% no reaction). The response was independent of the referees' qualification and experience. It was found that the insulting content of a swear word determines the referee's decision. Referees would apply Law 12 only in one half of the cases, depending on the insulting content. The findings are discussed in the context of game management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Factors affecting horn size in wild Caprinae are of biological and socio-economic interest because several species are selectively harvested on the basis of this heritable character. We analysed temporal trends in horn size in two mountain ungulates from south-eastern Spain, the Iberian wild goat Capra pyrenaica and the aoudad Ammotragus lervia. Trophy harvest is the main way in which these two species are exploited, although 'poor-quality' aoudads are also selectively removed. In recent years, both populations have suffered drastic decreases in number due to outbreaks of sarcoptic mange that led to the suspension of hunting for several years. Horn length in harvested male wild goats and aoudads declined during our study period. Over an 18-year period, the mean age of male goats shot as trophies rose by four years, while the age of trophy-harvested aoudads decreased by around six months over a 9-year period. Age and environmental conditions during the first few years of life explained 20% of variance in horn size in Iberian wild goat and 53% in aoudad. Population density early in life explained much of the reduction in goat horn size over time. Nevertheless, the major fall in population densities after the sarcoptic mange outbreaks did not lead to a recovery in horn size in either species. We suggest that the selective removal of large-horned animals may contribute to a decline in horn size. Other factors that may also explain the observed pattern include changes in interspecific competition, longlasting maternal effects and reduced carrying capacity due to overgrazing during high density periods. Unfortunately, our data sets did not allow us to account for the possible effects of these factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Browsing by free-living ungulates is a serious threat to forest regeneration. Although predictors of browsing and potential consequences are well researched, less information is available in the scientific literature about possible solutions to the problem. We investigated whether a large-scale game management system in a traditional sport hunting culture has the potential to effectively reduce browsing damage. Our analysis was based on browsing survey data from 2006 and 2009 covering more than 25,000km2 in Bavaria, Germany. After an initial assessment of browsing damage throughout Bavaria in 2006, game management plans were altered, and the effect of this intervention was assessed in 2009. Browsing damage clearly declined in 2009 in areas where the suggested deer harvests were increased in 2006 game management plans. This is the first report of a successful implementation of a large-scale game management system aiming at reducing browsing damage to facilitate unfenced forest regeneration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The capercaillie has been negatively affected by the loss of mature forests. However, forestry creates young plantations offering a superabundant food supply for moose. Using two spatial scales, we tested whether the landscape-level environmental requirements of the capercaillie and moose differ. We compared the spatial association between the abundances of the two species in 50- × 50-km grids and, using a set of regression models, analyzed how it was affected by various land use variables in five regions of Finland. Both species were generally most abundant in the same grid cells. Moreover, the association between abundance and several landscape variables was very similar for both species. Forest cover had a positive impact on both species in Eastern and South-Western Finland. Only in Western Finland was the capercaillie more positively associated with older forest than the moose. Human impact variables were negatively related to both capercaillie and moose abundance in Eastern and South-Western Finland, the effect being stronger for capercaillie. In Northern Finland, human impact turned positive. Our results highlight that, on broad landscape and regional scales, we might not need to make trade-offs in management decisions concerning capercaillie and moose. While considering regional land use planning, the primary goal for both species seems to be to secure large areas of forest, preferably at a distance from human settlement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge of intrinsic and extrinsic factors associated with survival rates and the underlying causes of mortality is essential to understand both population dynamics and the causes of population declines. We studied the influence of habitat variables and body condition on survival of 151 radio-tracked Red-legged Partridges Alectoris rufa in four areas of Spain, representing a gradient from natural unmanaged areas to highly managed areas. We examined the effects of differences in game management practices, and seasonal and geographical variations in survival and causes of mortality over 4 years, from 1999 to 2002. Monthly survival rate was consistently over 90% for both sexes in the natural area. However, in two areas managed intensively for both hunting and agriculture, survival was low during the hunting period (72% for females and 79% for males), high during the breeding period for males (99%), and intermediate for females (89%) due mainly to diseases. Hunting was the main cause of Red-legged Partridge mortality in both hunting areas where driven partridge shooting was performed, affecting 50% of radio-tagged individuals, and was the main cause of mortality over all areas during both breeding and hunting periods. Disease was the next most common cause of mortality in managed areas, affecting mostly females during the breeding period, whereas predation was the main cause of mortality in unmanaged populations. Finally, we compared the habitat associations and body condition of living and dead individuals with varying causes of mortality. In general, high survival rates were associated with diverse vegetation, habitat edges and a good body condition index. Habitat diversity and a high edge index were also negatively associated with mortality due to predation and diseases. On the other hand, hunting mortality decreased with the proportion of scrubland and increased with the proportion of agricultural land. These results suggest that preventing declines of wild Red-legged Partridge populations might best be achieved by increasing landscape complexity and connectivity, and promoting game management practices to limit both partridge bags and long-term densities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which investigated the combined effects of drought and population density on the development of male Iberian red deer Cervus elaphus hispanicus. Researchers examined the red deer populations of different densities on several hunting estates in southern Spain during two years with contrasting precipitation levels. They found that drought has negative effect on body and antler size and such effects were more severe in populations of high density. They recommend the reduction of the current densities of red deer in the country in order to maintain the economic and environmental sustainability of hunting exploitation in the context of global climate change.

Anthropogenic hybridization in wildlife has been identified as one of the main causes of genetic homogenization, highlighting the need for identification and evaluation of populations at risk. Relocation of wildlife for game management purposes is a widespread practice that may promote the admixing of genetically different populations, subspecies or species. We undertook a large-scale study on the Iberian Peninsula to assess the extent of hybridization in red-legged partridge Alectoris rufa populations, which have been subject to extensive restocking of farm-reared individuals. Using a polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism technique to assess the prevalence of individuals with mtDNA from other species, we examined samples of A. rufa from museum specimens (229), extant wild populations (955) and game farms (530). We found widespread occurrence of chukar partridge Alectoris chukar mtDNA lineages in samples obtained from game farm partridges (63% of game farms) and from wild partridges (45% of populations), but no allochthonous mtDNA lineages were found in museum partridges. We also found that the probability of occurrence and the number of partridges with allochthonous lineages was higher in localities where recent restocking had occurred. In addition, investigation of trends in bag records and the numbers of game farms over the past 30 years suggests that the general decline of wild populations has been accompanied by an increase in game farm facilities. These results suggest that supplemental stocking practices are threatening the integrity of the wild population gene pool. We recommend that rural development policies and associated wildlife management programs focused on maintaining high stock densities for hunting also need to consider the impact of game management on the genetic integrity of game populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyses in some detail the scientific developments relating to extensive game ranching for meat production in South Africa from the 1960s onwards. Initially it recalls how game was utilised in South Africa in the nineteenth century and then reflects on the rise of the modern livestock industry and its detrimental effect on the herds of game that survived in the region into the twentieth century. The roles of scientists from different regions -- Britain, the United States and South Africa -- are identified and their respective scientific contributions to the wildlife industry evaluated. The narrative is situated within the context of a rise in environmental consciousness in the mid-twentieth century and the recent challenges that have faced the formal agricultural and pastoral sector in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: To understand the factors contributing to the spatial behaviour of the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa), a radio-tracking study of free living partridges was carried out in Spain. During 2000–2002, 275 individuals were captured in four areas with different environmental and management characteristics. Sixty-nine adults and 23 juveniles were used to study space use distributions, including home range size, core area size and habitat selection. According to a generalized linear mixed model, 63% of the variability in home range size was explained by three landscape variables: edge index, average patch size and agricultural disturbance. Habitat selection was not influenced by age or sex because parents and juveniles remained together for most of the year, except during mating. The decline of the red-legged partridge in Spain was preceded by agricultural transformations related to land holding concentration and an increase in cultivated surface per property, which increased patch sizes and decreased edge and marginal areas across Spain. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The influence of predators on the distribution, density and dynamics of their prey species has long been of interest to ecologists and wildlife managers. Where the prey population is also utilized by humans, conflicts may arise through competition for a limited resource. Because gamebird shooting in the UK provides employment, recreation and income, the impact of birds of prey on gamebird populations has been the subject of intense debate for many years. Various approaches have been used to assess the impacts that raptors have on gamebird populations. Here we review the applicability and limitations of the methods used and assess the scientific evidence for population-level and economic impacts of raptors on gamebird populations in the UK. Raptors may, in some situations, take large numbers of gamebirds and may be an important proximate cause of mortality, although few studies have addressed the impacts of raptors on either breeding or pre-shooting densities. Two exceptions are studies of Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus, Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus predation on Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus on moorland in Scotland and Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus predation on Grey Partridge Perdix perdix on farmland in England. Both these studies suggested that raptors could have population-level impacts when their gamebird prey was already at low density. Studies on predation of captively bred gamebirds suggest that numbers taken by raptors at release pens vary considerably and in a few cases raptors have been documented killing relatively large numbers. On the whole, however, it appears that raptors account for a relatively small proportion of mortality among released birds and the impact on subsequent shooting bags is unknown. We summarize important gaps in current knowledge and recommend specific areas for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]