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A new species of sparassocynid marsupial, Sparassocynus maimarai n. sp. from the late Miocene of Maimará Formation (Jujuy Province, Argentina) is described from a left mandibular fragment with a complete p2–m4 series. It differs from the remaining species of the genus S. bahiai (Montehermosan—late Miocene/early Pliocene—of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina) and S. derivatus (Chapadmalalan and Marplatan–Pliocene of Buenos Aires Province) by its smaller size, the relatively longer m1 with respect to the m4, the presence of a lingual cingulum extended between para- and metaconid on the m1–3, and its more robust entoconids. As part of this study the taxonomic status of Sparassocynus heterotopicus (Montehermosan, Umala, Bolivia; Pliocene) was reviewed concluding that this taxon should be referred to as ‘Sparassocynus’ heterotopicus and considered a Didelphoidea of uncertain affinities. Sparassocynus maimarai n. sp. is the oldest records of the genus, adding new information to evaluate the origins and early diversification of sparassocynids. Sparassocynus maimarai n. sp. was recovered with precise stratigraphic control, highlighting its potential biostratigraphic significance to the temporal correlations between Maimará Formation and other Mio–Pliocene stratigraphic units from the northwestern Argentina. Fil: Abello, María Alejandra. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. Laboratorio de Sistemática y Biología Evolutiva; Argentina Fil: de Los Reyes, Leonardo Martín. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. División Paleontología Vertebrados; Argentina Fil: Candela, Adriana Magdalena. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. División Paleontología Vertebrados; Argentina Fil: Pujos, François Roger Francis. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales. Provincia de Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales; Argentina Fil: Voglino, Damián. Museo de Ciencias Naturales "Rvdo. P. Antonio Scasso"; Argentina Fil: Mamani Quispe, Bernardino. Museo Nacional de Historia Natural; Bolivia

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a severe mosquito-borne disease affecting humans and domestic ruminants. RVF virus has been reported in most African countries, as well as in the Arabic Peninsula. This paper reviews the different types of socio-economic impact induced by RVF disease and the attempts to evaluate them. Of the 52 papers selected for this review, 13 types of socio-economic impact were identified according to the sector impacted, the level and temporal scale of the impact. RVF has a dramatic impact on producers and livestock industries, affecting public and animal health, food security and the livelihood of the pastoralist communities. RVF also has an impact on international trade and other agro-industries. The risk of introducing RVF into disease-free countries via the importation of an infected animal or mosquito is real, and the consequent restriction of access to export markets may induce dramatic economic consequences for national and local economies. Despite the important threat of RVF, few studies have been conducted to assess the socio-economic impact of the disease. The 17 studies identified for quantitative analysis in this review relied only on partial cost analysis, with limited reference to mid- and long-term impact, public health or risk mitigation measures. However, the estimated impacts were high (ranging from $5 to $470 million USD losses). To reduce the impact of RVF, early detection and rapid response should be implemented. Comprehensive disease impact studies are required to provide decision-makers with science-based information on the best intervention measure to implement ensuring efficient resource allocation. Through the analysis of RVF socio-economic impact, this scoping study proposes insights into the mechanisms underpinning its often-underestimated importance. This study highlights the need for comparative socio-economic studies to help decision-makers with their choices related to RVF disease management.

L’apparition de l’influenza aviaire hautement pathogène (IAHP) H5N1 en 2003 a accentué la nécessité de disposer de systèmes de surveillance en santé animale efficaces pour éviter une pandémie grippale. Dans certains pays des mesures ad hoc ont été mises en place, soutenues par des bailleurs mais sans véritable ancrage sur le terrain ou auprès des institutions publiques chargées d’assurer une veille sanitaire. D’autres dispositifs, au contraire, ont permis de renforcer les structures déjà en place. L’objectif de cette étude a été de faire un état des lieux des dispositifs de surveillance de l’IAHP chez les volailles au Vietnam afin d’éva­luer la complémentarité des dispositifs nationaux (financés par le gouvernement vietnamien) et des programmes mis en place par les bailleurs internationaux. Les différents types de dispositifs de surveillance, d’études épidémiologique et de projets recherche sur l’IAHP au Vietnam ont été évalués dans l’ensemble complé­mentaires, assurant une couverture homogène du pays. Cependant les nouvelles politiques gouvernementales ont pour la plupart été décidées sans évaluation des actions antérieures en raison d’une insuffisance de données d’évaluation ou d’impact des projets mis en œuvre. Un dysfonctionnement du système de sur­veillance passive, avec un retour limité des résultats et des recommandations aux agents de terrain, a également été constaté. La mise en place de dispositifs de surveillance active efficients en complément de la surveillance passive s’avère donc essentielle dans la gestion du risque de l’IAHP au Vietnam.

Prioritisation of diseases is an essential tool for policy-makers in charge of allocating resources for surveillance and control programmes or for research projects, to target diseases that need to be addressed ahead of others. Nevertheless, methods for prioritisation need to be transparent, standardised and repeatable to be effective and objective in setting priorities. To date, various models have been developed, experimenting different approaches, but it remains some room for improvement in the design of such tools. The definition of the criteria – indicators used to assess diseases regarding the objective of the prioritisation exercise – is one of the cornerstones of the efficiency of the methodology. In previous developed methods, this step was usually poorly addressed and up to now, no standardised method has been developed and described to select relevant and accurate criteria. Through the use of an electronic-based questionnaire to collect data about criteria from a large population of respondents, this study, based on the analysis of zoonoses and their impact in Southeast Asia, aimed at investigating an innovative approach to identify criteria that ensure a good differentiation between the diseases. The findings of this study highlighted that refining an initial list of criteria using multivariate analysis was a reliable approach to select clear, accurate and relevant criteria that allow a differentiation between diseases for a further prioritisation exercise. Furthermore, this study indicated that using an electronic-based questionnaire, carefully designed, might be an interesting alternative of expert opinion elicitation, for the collection of data. Finally, the results of this study opened to other new perspectives to develop and improve methods for the prioritisation of infectious diseases.

This study analysed the available data of seroprevalence to human influenza viruses in pigs in Cambodia using generalized linear mixed models in order to improve understanding of factors underlying the spread of human influenza viruses in Cambodian pigs. The associations between seroprevalence against seasonal H1N1 influenza virus in pigs and the population density of humans and pigs were not significant. However, a positive association between anti-H3 antibodies in pigs and the human population density was identified. In contrast, there was a negative association between seroprevalence of H3N2 in pigs and the pig population density. Our study has highlighted the difficulty in identifying epidemiological risk factors when a limited data set is used for analyses. We therefore provide recommendations on data collection for future epidemiological analyses that could be improved by collecting metadata related to the animals sampled. In addition, serosurveillance for influenza A viruses in pigs in high-risk areas or at slaughterhouses is recommended in resource-limited countries.

International audience; Farmers may organize themselves to collectively manage risks such as animal diseases. Our study shows some evidence of such organization among fighting cock owners in Thailand. Fighting cocks were specifically targeted by HPAI (Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza) H5N1 surveillance and control measures in Thailand because they were thought to pose a high risk of spreading diseases. In this work, we used a social-anthropological approach to gain an inside view of the issues associated with HPAI H5N1 surveillance in the cockfighting community in Thailand. Based on a qualitative analysis of data collected through in-depth interviews and observation of cockfighters’ practices, we found that fighting cock owners share a sense of belonging to the same community based on a common culture, values, interests, practices, and internal rules, including rules to manage poultry diseases. During the HPAI H5N1 outbreaks, these rules may have contributed to mitigating the potential risk associated with the intense movements of fighting cocks inside the country. Nevertheless, this community, despite the high awareness and know-how of its members regarding poultry diseases, has shown a strong reluctance to comply with HPAI surveillance programs. We suggest that this reluctance is due to important gaps between the logic and rationales underlying surveillance and those associated with cockfighting activities. Our study highlights the need for multi and trans-disciplinary research involving the social sciences to analyze interactions between stakeholders and the collective actions implemented by communities to face risks.

Transboundary animal diseases pose a serious risk to the world animal agriculture and food security and jeopardize international trade. The world has been facing devastating economic losses from major outbreaks of transboundary animal diseases (TADs) such as foot-and-mouth disease, classical swine fever, rinderpest, peste des petits ruminants (PPR), and Rift Valley fever. Lately the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) due to H5N1 virus, has become an international crisis as all regions around the world can be considered at risk. In the past decades, public health authorities within industrialized countries have been faced with an increasing number of food safety issues. The situation is equally serious in developing countries. The globalization of food (and feed) trade, facilitated by the liberalization of world trade, while offering many benefits and opportunities, also represents new risks. The GF-TADs Global Secretariat has carried out several regional consultations for the identification of priority diseases and best ways for their administration, prevention and control. In the questionnaires carried out and through the consultative process, it was noted that globally, FMD was ranked as the first and foremost priority. Rift Valley fever, and today highly pathogenic avian influenza, are defined as major animal diseases which also affect human health. PPR and CBPP, a disease which is particularly serious in Africa and finally, African swine fever (ASF) and classical swine fever (CSF) are also regionally recognised as top priorities on which the Framework is determined to work. The FAO philosophy--shared by the OIE--embraces the need to prevent and control TADs and emerging diseases at their source, which is most of the time in developing countries. Regional and international approaches have to be followed, and the FAO and OIE GF-TADs initiative provides the appropriate concepts and objectives as well as an organizational framework to link international and regional organizations at the service of their countries to better prevent and control the risks on animal and human health and the economic impact of TADs and emerging animal diseases.

A rapid and specific test was developed for the diagnosis of peste des petits ruminants disease. This assay is based on the rapid purification of RNA on glass beads followed by the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). To that effect, a set of primers (NP3/NP4) was used to amplify specifically a fragment of about 350 bp in the 3' end of the RNA messenger that encodes the nucleocapsid protein of the peste des petits ruminants virus. The PCR-product was detected by UV illumination after electrophoresis on agarose gel or by hybridisation with a digoxigenin-11-dUTP labelled oligonucleotide probe after a blot transfer. In comparison with the conventional titration technique on Vero cells, this RT-PCR assay was 1000-fold more sensitive. Compared with the popular Chomczynski and Sacchi's method [Anal. Biochem. 162 (1987) 156], the purification of the RNA on the glass beads offers the advantage of being more rapid and also avoiding the use of solvents.

Pig production and pork consumption are very important to the People's Republic of China for both economic and cultural reasons. The incursion and spread of a disease such as African swine fever (ASF), which emerged in Eastern Europe in 2007, could have devastating socioeconomic consequences for both the Chinese and the global pig industry. The Chinese government consequently attributes a very high priority to ASF and is actively seeking to improve its preparedness. This paper discusses different drivers and pathways of potential emergence of ASF in China in light of the country's specificities, including international movements of people, pigs and pig products, swill feeding practices and wild boar populations. It suggests that effective ASF risk management in China will require a comprehensive and integrated approach linking science and policy and will need to involve all relevant stakeholders to develop realistic policies.

The safety, immunogenicity and efficacy of three commercially available vaccines against lumpy skin disease (LSD) in cattle have been evaluated using a combination of vaccine challenge experiments and the monitoring of immune responses in vaccinated animals in the field. The three vaccines evaluated in the study included two locally produced (Ethiopian) vaccines (lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) Neethling and Kenyan sheep and goat pox (KSGP) O-180 strain vaccines) and a Gorgan goat pox (GTP) vaccine manufactured by Jordan Bio-Industries Centre (JOVAC). The latter vaccine was evaluated for the first time in cattle against LSDV. The Ethiopian Neethling and KSGPO-180 vaccines failed to provide protection in cattle against LSDV, whereas the Gorgan GTP vaccine protected all the vaccinated calves from clinical signs of LSD. There was no significant difference in protective efficacy detected between two dosage levels (P = 0.2, P = 0.25, and P = 0.1 for KSGP, Neethling and Gorgan vaccines, respectively). Additionally, the Gorgan GTP vaccinated cattle showed stronger levels of cellular immune responses measured using Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions at the vaccination site indicating higher levels of immunogenicity produced by the GTPV vaccine in cattle, as opposed to the other two vaccines. This study indicated, for the first time, that the Gorgan GTP vaccine can effectively protect cattle against LSDV and that the Neethling and KSGP O-180 vaccine were not protective. The results emphasise the need for molecular characterization of the Neethling and KSGP O-180 vaccine seed viruses used for vaccine production in Ethiopia. In addition, the potency and efficacy testing process of the Ethiopian LSD Neethling and KSGP O-180 vaccines should be re-evaluated.

Surveillance of animal diseases in developing countries faces many constraints. Innovative tools and methods to enhance surveillance in remote and neglected areas should be defined, assessed and applied in close connection with local farmers, national stakeholders and international agencies. The authors performed a narrative synthesis of their own publications about surveillance in Madagascar and Cambodia. They analysed the data in light of their fieldwork experiences in the two countries' very challenging environments. The burden of animal and zoonotic diseases (e.g. avian influenza, African swine fever, Newcastle disease, Rift Valley fever) is huge in both countries which are among the poorest in the world. Being poor countries implies a lack of human and financial means to ensure effective surveillance of emerging and endemic diseases. Several recent projects have shown that new approaches can be proposed and tested in the field. Several advanced participatory approaches are promising and could be part of an innovative method for improving the dialogue among different actors in a surveillance system. Thus, participatory modelling, developed for natural resources management involving local stakeholders, could be applied to health management, including surveillance. Data transmission could benefit from the large mobile-phone coverage in these countries. Ecological studies and advances in the field of livestock surveillance should guide methods for enhancing wildlife monitoring and surveillance. Under the umbrella of the One Health paradigm, and in the framework of a risk-based surveillance concept, a combination of participatory methods and modern technologies could help to overcome the constraints present in low-income countries. These unconventional approaches should be merged in order to optimise surveillance of emerging and endemic diseases in challenging environments.

A serological survey to determine the prevalence of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) in Mali was carried out by using the competitive enzyme linked-immunosorbent test (c-ELISA) on 8007 serum samples systematically collected from 199 cattle herds collected throughout the whole country. Results showed a national prevalence of 18.11 % at the individual level and 85.93 % at the herd level. Significant variations in the individual prevalence were observed between regions of the country and ranged from 4.63 % in Tombouctou to 54.88 % in Kidal. At the herd level, although there were variations between regions, a high prevalence was constantly observed ranging from 60 to 100 %, hence confirming the endemic nature of the disease across the country. The CBPP risk varied also between regions and was very low in Tombouctou (odds ratio (OR) = 0.4) but very high in Kidal (OR = 9.8). Similarly, the risk seemed higher in the animals of the over 3-year age group (OR = 1.6) compared to the other age groups. It was also observed that there was a slightly higher risk (OR = 1.3) in the females than in the males. This study confirms the presence of CBPP across the country and should help to elaborate strategies for the effective control of the disease.

Le potamochère, Potamochoerus larva- tus, est un réservoir sauvage potentiel de maladies enzootiques à Madagascar. Parmi celles-ci, la peste porcine africaine (Ppa) est une des plus inquiétantes. Diag- nostiquée dans ce pays depuis 1998, cette maladie virale majeure d’un point de vue socio-économique est inféodée aux suidés et y est encore aujourd’hui très répandue. La caractérisation des voies de transmission du virus entre pota- mochères et porcs domestiques est une étape préliminaire indispensable à la mise en œuvre d’une prophylaxie sani- taire contre la Ppa. Cette étude a pour objectif de préciser le risque de transmis- sion de la maladie entre potamochères et porcs domestiques dans les savanes périphériques du Parc national de l’Anka- rafantsika, dans le Nord-Ouest de Mada- gascar, où sont présents de nombreux élevages porcins. La méthode des Indices kilométriques d’abondance a permis de mettre en évidence une augmentation significative de l’abondance de ces sui- dés sauvages hors de la forêt durant la période de fructification de Strychnos spi- nosa. Le risque de transmission de la Ppa durant cette période apparaît donc plus élevé dans les sites où sont présents ces arbustes. Sur le plan épidémiologique, la maturité et l’occupation spatiale de S. spinosa peuvent servir d’indicateurs de présence du potamochère dans l’ouest de Madagascar. Son utilisation pour adapter les pratiques d’élevage dans une optique de réduction des contacts pourrait limiter le risque de contamination potentielle par le virus de la Ppa ou d’autres agents pathogènes transmis par les suidés sauvages.

African swine fever (ASF) has recently made its appearance in Madagascar. Ticks of the Ornithodoros moubata group, considered to be O. porcinus Walton, 1962 were formerly known to occur in western Madagascar, but seem to have disappeared from that region. However, three new sites where they occur were found in the humid and cool central highlands of Anatananarivo province. These ticks are known to be efficient reservoirs and vectors of ASF and constitute a considerable complication to the control of the disease. The authors also discuss another potentially complicating factor, the presence of a species of African bushpig, Potamochoerus larvatus.

A study to determine and compare the sensitivities and specificities of the comparative cervical tuberculin (CCT) and gamma-interferon (IFN-gamma) tests for the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis was conducted on 30 zebu oxen. The results of the tests were compared with the presence of acid-fast bacilli found by bacteriological culturing and histopathological examinations. The sensitivity and specificity of CCT test were found to be 90.9% and 100%, respectively. Those of the commercial IFN-gamma test were determined to be 95.5% and 87.7%, respectively. No significant differences were found between the sensitivities (Yates' corrected chi 2 = 0.32; p = 0.57) or the specificities (Yates' corrected chi 2 = 2.54; p = 0.11) of the two tests. Furthermore, a positive correlation (r = 0.76) was recorded between the increase in skin thickness following injection of bovine purified protein derivative (PPD) and the optical density in the gamma-interferon assay with bovine PPD. On the other hand, the correlation (r = 0.47) between the change in skin thickness following injection of avian PPD and the optical density in the gamma-interferon assay with avian PPD was relatively weak. On the basis of this preliminary investigation, it was concluded that the choice between the two tests depends on their cost and simplicity and on livestock management and time factors rather than on their respective diagnostic value.

Rift valley fever (RVF) is an arboviral disease produced by a bunyavirus belonging to the genus Phlebovirus. Several species of Aedes and Culex are the vectors of this virus that affects sheep, goats, buffalos, cattle, camels and human beings. The human disease is well known, especially during periods of intense epizootic activity. The initial description of the disease dates back to 1930, when animals and human outbreaks appeared on a farm in Lake Naivasha, in the Great Rift Valley of Kenya. Until 2000, this disease was only described in Africa, and then outbreaks were also declared in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (2000-2001 and 2004) and in Yemen (2000-2001). Animal and human cases were recorded. This work presents a retrospective summary of the data collected on animal RVF cases during this epidemic in Yemen. Results from several RVF surveys were gathered from the Yemeni vet services and FAO experts. Geographical data (topographic maps and data freely available on internet) were used for the location of outbreaks. After cleaning and standardization of location names, all the data were introduced into a GIS database. The spatial distribution of outbreaks was then studied at two scales: at the national level and at a local scale in the particular area of Wadi Mawr in the Tihama plain, Western coast of Yemen.

Today, only three odontocete (toothed whales) genera are restricted to freshwater habitats: the Amazon River dolphin (Inia geoffrensis), the possibly extinct Yangtze River dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer) (Turvey et al., 2007), and the Ganges and Indus river dolphins (Platanista gangetica). Even if their phylogenetic relationships are still debated, Inia, Lipotes, and Platanista are now recognized as belonging to different families (Iniidae, Lipotidae, and Platanistidae, respectively) on the basis of morphological and molecular characters (Muizon, 1988; Cassens et al., 2000; Hamilton et al., 2001; Nikaido et al., 2001; McGowen et al., 2009; Geisler et al., 2011, 2012). Considering their geographic distribution and the discovery of some fossil relatives in marine deposits, for example, the iniid Meherrinia, the lipotid Parapontoporia, and the platanistids Prepomatodelphis, Pomatodelphis, and Zarachis, the current habitat of freshwater dolphins must be explained by independent episodes of colonization of freshwater environments (Cassens et al., 2000; Geisler et al., 2011, 2012). Several fragmentary fossil specimens, isolated teeth or jaw fragments, have been tentatively attributed in the past to unknown species that are thought to be closely related to extant river dolphin genera (e.g., Zhou et al., 1984; review in Muizon, 1988), but until now there were no diagnostic fossil remains that could provide clues about the early steps of these colonization episodes. More specifically, the fossil record of Platanistinae, the subfamily including the extant Platanista, is scarce, with only one tentative record from early Miocene, coastal deposits of Oregon, north Pacific. This specimen consists of an isolated mandibular symphyseal region that is transversely compressed (Barnes, 2006). Even if we consider this attribution as valid, a long ghost lineage characterizes most of the history of the Platanistinae, the latter having diverged from the extinct subfamily Pomatodelphininae since at least the latest early Miocene (Barnes, 2002, 2006). We present here a new fossil platanistine specimen: a periotic from the middle Miocene of Peruvian Amazonia. This highly diagnostic ear bone partly fills the ghost lineage mentioned above and provides insights on the shifts to freshwater environments by various odontocete clades, a phenomenon probably underestimated due to the lack of fossils from the freshwater sedimentary record, and probably not just limited to extant clades of freshwater odontocetes (Fordyce, 1983). Fil: Bianucci, Giovanni. Universita di Pisa. Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra; Italia Fil: Lambert, Oliver. Institut royal des sciences naturelles de Belgique. Departement de paleontologie; Bélgica Fil: Salas Gismondi, Rodolfo. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Museo de historia natural. Paleontología de Vertebrados; Perú Fil: Tejada, Julia. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Museo de historia natural. Paleontología de Vertebrados; Perú. Institut Français d’etudes Andines; Perú Fil: Pujos, François Roger Francis. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Científico Tecnológico Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales; Argentina. Institut Français d’etudes Andines; Perú Fil: Urbina, Mario. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Museo de historia natural. Paleontología de Vertebrados; Perú Fil: Antoine, Pierre Olivier. Universite Montpellier Ii; Francia

Systems for animal disease mitigation involve both surveillance activities and interventions to control the disease. They are complex organizations that are described by partial or imprecise data, making it difficult to evaluate them or make decisions to improve them. A mathematical method, called loop analysis, can be used to model qualitatively the structure and the behavior of dynamic systems; it relies on the study of the sign of the interactions between the components of the system. This method, currently widely used by ecologists, has to our knowledge never been applied in the context of animal disease mitigation systems. The objective of the study was to assess whether loop analysis could be applied to this new context. We first developed a generic model that restricted the applicability of the method to event-based surveillance systems of endemic diseases, excluding the emergence and eradication phases. Then we chose the mitigation system of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in Cambodia as an example of such system to study the application of loop analysis to a real disease mitigation system., Breaking down the generic model, we constructed a 6-variables model to represent the HPAI H5N1 mitigation system in Cambodia. This construction work improved our understanding of this system, highlighting the link between surveillance and control which is unclear in traditional representations of this system. Then we analyzed the effect of the perturbations to this HPAI H5N1 mitigation system that we interpreted in terms of investment in a given compartment. This study suggested that increasing intervention at a local level can optimize the system's efficiency. Indeed, this perturbation both decreases surveillance and intervention costs and reduces the disease's occurrence., Loop analysis can be applied to disease mitigation systems. Its main strength is that it is easy to design, focusing on the signs of the interactions. It is a simple and flexible tool that could be used as a precursor to large-scale quantitative studies, to support reflection about disease mitigation systems structure and functioning.

SUMMARYNewcastle disease (ND) is one of the most important and widespread avian pests. In Africa, backyard poultry production systems are an important source of protein and cash for poor rural livelihoods. ND mortality in these production systems is important and seriously disrupts benefits derived from it. This study undertook an African continental approach of ND epidemiology in backyard poultry. After a systematic literature review of studies published from 1980 to 2009, a meta-analysis of spatio-temporal patterns of serological prevalence and outbreak occurrence was performed. Average ND serological prevalence was estimated at 0·67 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0·58–0·75] in regions characterized by humid ecosystems, high human and poultry densities and low altitudes; 0·36 (95% CI 0·30–0·41) in dry ecosystems at intermediate altitude where human and poultry densities are low and 0·27 (95% CI 0·19–0·38) in mountain ecosystems where human and poultry densities are intermediate. In terms of seasonality, ND outbreaks occur mostly during the dry seasons in Africa, when environmental conditions are likely to be harshest for backyard poultry. In addition, a phylogeographical analysis revealed the regionalization of ND virus strains, their potential to evolve towards a higher pathogenicity from the local viral pool and suggests a risk for vaccine strains to provide new wild strains. These results present for the first time a continent-wide approach to ND epidemiology in Africa. More emphasis is needed for ND management and control in rural African poultry production systems.

Xenarthra constitutes one of the most peculiar clades of the South American mammalian fauna and includes sloths (Tardigrada), anteaters (Vermilingua), and armored xenarthrans (Cingulata). Its phylogenetic affinities among placental mammals and their origins remain doubtful (Asher and Helgen, 2010). Xenarthrans first appear in the Itaboraian age (late Paleocene?early Eocene; Oliveira and Goin, 2011) represented by the Dasypodidae in the locality of Itaboraí, Brazil. Sloths are first recorded from the early Oligocene (Tinguirirican age) of Chile and became abundant during the late Oligocene (Deseadan age), mainly in Argentina and Bolivia with representation of Mylodontidae and Megalonychidae (Pujos et al., 2012). Fil: Pujos, François Roger Francis. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales. Provincia de Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales; Argentina Fil: Candela, Adriana Magdalena. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. División Paleontología Vertebrados; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata; Argentina Fil: Galli, Claudia Inés. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Salta; Argentina Fil: Coira, Beatriz Lidia Luisa. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina Fil: Reguero, Marcelo Alfredo. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. División Paleontología Vertebrados; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata; Argentina Fil: De los Reyes, Martín. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo; Argentina Fil: Abello, María Alejandra. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. Laboratorio de Sistemática y Biología Evolutiva; Argentina

SUMMARYThe domestic poultry population in Vietnam has been vaccinated against highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 since 2005. Since then, outbreaks have continued to occur without a clear understanding of the mechanisms involved. The general objective of this study was to understand the epidemiology of the disease in the context of vaccination and to draw some conclusions about vaccination efficacy in the domestic poultry population of the Red River Delta area. Five cross-sectional surveys to measure the serological and virological prevalence in vaccinated and unvaccinated poultry were performed from the end of 2008 to June 2010. The global seroprevalence was 24% (95% confidence interval 19·9–28·2). Determinants of vaccine immunogenicity were identified separately in chickens and ducks as well as determinants of the seroconversion in unvaccinated birds. The results highlight the difficulties in maintaining good flock immunity in poultry populations using inactivated vaccine in the field with two vaccination rounds per year, and in preventing circulation of virus in co-existing unvaccinated poultry.

A cross-sectional study with repeated sampling was conducted to investigate potential risk factors for Newcastle disease (ND) seropositivity and for incidence of ND virus (NDV) exposure in household flocks of backyard chickens in Eastern Shewa zone, Ethiopia. Data were collected from 260 randomly selected households in 52 villages in Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha and Ada'a woredas (districts) using a structured questionnaire, and serum samples from chickens were tested for NDV antibodies using a blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Sampling took place during September 2009 and the same households were again sampled in May 2010. Household-level seroprevalence and incidence of NDV exposure were estimated in various ways using serological results from the two samplings, flock dynamics, and farmers' reports of ND in their flocks. The risk factors were assessed using multivariable mixed-effects logistic regression models. Household-level seroprevalence at the two sampling times was 17.4% and 27.4%, respectively, and the estimated incidence of household-level NDV exposure during the intervening period ranged between 19.7% and 25.5%. At the first sampling, reduced frequency of cleaning of poultry waste was associated with increased odds of seropositivity (OR = 4.78; 95% CI: 1.42, 16.11; P = 0.01) while hatching at home vs. other sources (buying in replacement birds, receiving as gift or buying fertile eggs) was associated with lower odds of seropositivity, both at the first sampling (OR = 0.30; 95% CI: 0.11, 0.82; P = 0.02) and the second sampling (OR = 0.23; 95% CI: 0.10, 0.52; P < 0.001). The risk of NDV exposure was shown to be higher with larger flock size at the beginning of the observation period (OR = 3.6; 95% CI: 1.25, 10.39; P = 0.02). Using an open water source (pond or river) for poultry compared to closed sources (tap or borehole) was associated with increased risk of NDV exposure (OR = 3.14; 95% CI: 1.12, 8.8; P = 0.03). The use of a grain supplement (OR = 0.14; 95% CI: 0.03, 0.69; P = 0.03) and hatching at home for flock replacement (OR = 0.23; 95% CI: 0.10, 0.52; P = 0.005) were associated with a lower risk of NDV exposure. Newcastle disease seroprevalence and incidence of NDV exposure were more heterogeneous between villages than between kebeles (aggregations of villages) and woredas in the study area. Further investigation of village-level risk factors would likely improve our understanding of ND epidemiology in backyard chickens.

Proximity and affiliation to the local market appear to be two of the most relevant factors to explain farmer's choices to select a particular trading point. Physical barriers may limit the options , especially in developing countries. A network of villages linked by traders/farmer-traders sharing livestock markets was built with field data collected in 75 villages from 8 kebelles in the Wassona Werna wereda of the Ethiopian Highlands. Two exponential random graph models were fitted with various geographical and demographic attributes of the nodes (dyadic independent model) and three internal network structures (dyadic dependent model). Several diagnostic methods were applied to assess the goodness of fit of the models. The odds of an edge where the distance to the main market Debre Behran and the difference in altitude between two connected villages are both large increases significantly so that villages far away from the main market and at different altitude are more likely to be linked in the network than randomly. The odds of forming an edge between two villages in Abamote or Gudoberet kebelles are approximately 75% lower than an edge between villages in any other kebelles (p,0.05). The conditional log-odds of two villages forming a tie that is not included in a triangle, a 2-star or a 3-star is extremely low, increasing the odds significantly (p,0.05) each time a node is in a 2-star structure and decreasing it when a node is in a 3- star (p,0.05) or in a triangle formation (p,0.05)), conditional on the rest of the network. Two major constraining factors, namely distance and altitude, are not deterrent for the potential contact of susceptible small ruminant populations in the Highlands of Ethiopia.

1st International Conference on Animal Health Surveillance (ICAHS); International audience; For infectious diseases such as highly pathogenic avian influenza caused by the H5N1 virus (A/H5N1 HP), early warning system is essential. Evaluating the sensitivity of surveillance is a necessary step in ensuring an efficient and sustainable system. Stochastic scenario tree modeling was used here to assess the sensitivity of the A/H5N1 HP surveillance system in backyard and free-grazing duck farms in Thailand. The whole surveillance system for disease detection was modeled with all components and the sensitivity of each component and of the overall system was estimated. Scenarios were tested according to selection of high-risk areas, inclusion of components and sampling procedure, were tested. Nationwide passive surveillance (SSC1) and risk-based clinical X-ray (SSC2) showed a similar sensitivity level, with a median sensitivity ratio of 0.96 (95% CI 0.40–15.00). They both provide higher sensitivity than the X-ray laboratory component (SSC3). With the current surveillance design, the sensitivity of detection of the overall surveillance system when the three components are implemented, was equal to 100% for a farm level prevalence of 0.05% and 82% (95% CI 71–89%) for a level of infection of 3 farms. Findings from this study illustrate the usefulness of scenario-tree modeling to document freedom from diseases in developing countries.

International audience; A cross-sectional study was conducted to estimate the seroprevalence of lumpy skin disease (LSD) in the different agro-climatic zones prevailing in Ethiopia. A total of 2368 serum samples were collected from 42 kebeles located in 15 districts and tested using indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and virus neutralization test (VNT). The herd and animal true LSD serological prevalence were estimated in each agro-climate zone using a Bayesian model. The intra-cluster correlation coefficient (ICC) was evaluated using a random-effect model. According to the serological prevalence estimations, LSD affected differently the three agro-climatic zones considered. Herd level seroprevalence was higher in the midland agro-climate zone 64% (95% CI: 53-74) as compared to the highland 26% (95% CI: 17-36) and the lowland 50% (95% CI: 40-60) agro-climates. Animal level seroprevalence in infected herds was also higher in the midland agro-climate zone 31% (95% CI: 24-40) than in the highland and lowland zones (24% (95% CI: 18-31) and 23% (95% CI: 18-29), respectively). Higher ICC value in the highland agro-climate zone implies that increased sample sizes should be particularly required for this zone in future studies to estimate LSD prevalence or incidence with a desired precision level. This seroprevalence study also suggests that the prevalence of LSD infection in Ethiopia is higher than what has been previously reported. In the light of these updated estimations, we discuss options to trigger appropriate control measures in the future. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The economic and social impacts of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) for livestock owners of developed countries have been extensively documented over the past few years. In developing countries such as Cambodia, this evaluation is often lacking due to the scarcity of accurate data. In the present study, we used a range of participatory tools to infer farmers' knowledge and perception, and the relative incidence of FMD from January 2009 to June 2010 in fifty-one villages of Svay Rieng province, Cambodia. In addition, the detection of non-structural protein at village level was used to cross-validate the results from the participatory epidemiology (PE) study. A quantitative assessment using Bayesian modeling was carried out to assess the ability of PE to retrospectively determine the FMD-infected status of a village in Cambodia. Our study shows that even if FMD is ranked second in the list of priority diseases, livestock owners did not see any benefit in reporting it since the disease entailed low direct losses. The average clinical incidence rates at individual level for cattle-buffaloes and pigs in infected villages were assessed by proportional piling at 18% and 11%, respectively for the year 2009. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) of PE study were estimated at 87%, 30%, 51% and 74%, respectively. This approach seems to largely overestimate the presence of the disease but proves useful in evaluating the impact of FMD at household level and in understanding the reasons for not reporting it. This information may be important in establishing well-adapted disease prevention and control strategies in Cambodia.

East and Southeast Asia are important pig- and poultry-producing areas, where the majority of production takes place on small-scale farms with low biosecurity levels. This systematic review synthesizes data on swine influenza virology, serology and epidemiology in East and Southeast Asia. A total of 77 research articles, literature reviews and conference papers were selected and analyzed from 510 references retrieved from PubMed and ISI Web of KnowledgeSM. The number of published articles increased in the last 3 years, which may be attributed to improvement in monitoring and/or a better promotion of surveillance data. Nevertheless, large inequalities in surveillance and research among countries are underlined. Virological results represent the largest part of published data, while the serological and epidemiological features of swine influenza in East and Southeast Asia remain poorly described. The literature shows that there have been several emergences of swine influenza in the region, and also considerable evidence of multiple introductions of North American and avian-like European strains. Furthermore, several avian-origin strains are isolated from pigs, including H5 and H9 subtypes. However, their low seroprevalence in swine also shows that pigs remain poorly infected by these subtypes. We conclude that sero-epidemioligical investigations have been neglected, and that they may help to improve virological surveillance. Inter- and intra-continental surveillance of gene flows will benefit the region. Greater investment is needed in swine influenza surveillance, to improve our knowledge of circulating strains as well as the epidemiology and disease burden in the region.

International audience; Since 2003, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus has spread, causing a pandemic with serious economic consequences and public health implications. Quantitative estimates of the spread of HPAI H5N1 are needed to adapt control measures. This study aimed to estimate the variations of the reproduction number R in space and time for the HPAI H5N1 epidemic in Thailand. Transmission between sub-districts was analyzed using three different and complementary methods. Transmission of HPAI H5N1 was intense (R(t) > 1) before October 2004, at which point the epidemic started to progressively fade out (R(t) < 1). The spread was mainly local, with 75% of the putative distances of transmission less than 32 km. The map of the mean standardized ratio of transmitting the infection (sr) showed sub-districts with a high risk of transmitting infection. Findings from this study can contribute to discussions regarding the efficacy of control measures and help target surveillance programs. (c) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a major vector-borne zoonosis first identified on the African continent in the early 1900s. In 2000, RVF was reported for the first time in Yemen. In this study, we provide a descriptive analysis of the period 1999-2007 in Yemen, taking into account the environmental and socioeconomic factors likely to have been involved in the emergence of RVF in the country. We characterize each year in the study period by the environmental conditions (linked to vegetation indexes), the festival calendar, and economic data. We then use a principal component analysis to synthesize the different variables, assess whether the year 2000 was atypical compared with other years in the study period, and, if that was the case, in what respect. Our results show that 2000 presented above-normal vegetation index values, which reflect important precipitation, for both the two rainy seasons (the first between March and May; the second between July and October). These environmental conditions, ones favorable to mosquito vector populations, coincided that year with a late (March) starting date of the Eid al-Kabeer festival, which corresponds to a period with high host (cattle, sheep, goats) densities. According to these criteria, 2000 was an atypical year. These conclusions suggest that it is important to consider social variables in addition to environmental ones when assessing the risk of RVF emergence.

Records of 231Pa/230Th from Atlantic sediments have been interpreted to reflect changes in ocean circulation during the geologic past. Such interpretations should be tested with due regard to the limited spatial coverage of 231Pa/230Th data and the uncertainties in our current understanding of the behavior of both nuclides in the ocean. Here an inverse method is used to evaluate the information contained in 231Pa/230Th compilations for the Holocene, Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), and Heinrich Event 1 (H1). An estimate of the abyssal circulation in the modern Atlantic Ocean is obtained by combining hydrographic observations and dynamical constraints. Then sediment 231Pa/230Th data for each time interval are combined with an advection-scavenging model in order to determine their (in)consistency with the modern circulation estimate. We find that the majority of sediment 231Pa/230Th data for the Holocene, LGM, or H1 can be brought into consistency with the modern circulation if plausible assumptions are made about the large-scale distribution of 231Pa and about model uncertainties. Moreover, the adjustments in the data needed to reach compatibility with a hypothetical state of no flow (no advection) are positively biased for each time interval, suggesting that the 231Pa/230Th data (including that for H1) are more consistent with a persistence of some circulation than with no circulation. Our study does not imply that earlier claims of a circulation change during the LGM or H1 are inaccurate, but that these claims cannot be given a rigorous basis given the current uncertainties involved in the analysis of the 231Pa/230Th data.

Prevalence ranged from 7.8% to 22.1%, depending on region., In Senegal, during 2002–2007, 11 outbreaks of African swine fever (ASF) were reported to the World Organisation for Animal Health. Despite this, little was known of the epidemiology of ASF in the country. To determine the prevalence of ASF in Senegal in 2006, we tested serum specimens collected from a sample of pigs in the 3 main pig-farming regions for antibodies to ASF virus using an ELISA. Of 747 serum samples examined, 126 were positive for ASF, suggesting a prevalence of 16.9%. The estimated prevalences within each of the regions (Fatick, Kolda, and Ziguinchor) were 13.3%, 7.8%, and 22.1%, respectively, with statistical evidence to suggest that the prevalence in Ziguinchor was higher than in Fatick or Kolda. This regional difference is considered in relation to different farming systems and illegal trade with neighboring countries where the infection is endemic.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a mosquito-borne viral zoonosis of increasing global importance. Occurring since 1930 across Africa, it was detected for the first time in Saudi Arabia and Yemen in September 2000, leading to human deaths and major losses in livestock populations. Assuming the virus has not survived in Yemen or has been circulating at a low level, authors qualitatively assessed the likelihood of "re-introduction" of RVF into Yemen through the legal importation of small ruminants from the Horn of Africa. The overall probability of introduction was assessed very low to medium, increasing during festival periods and higher when considering a direct transmission exposure as compared to a vectorial transmission exposure. The uncertainty was considered to be medium underlining important gaps in information that need to be fulfilled in the region. Options to reduce the risk are proposed and discussed, including possible improvements of the current Yemeni quarantine system.

Landscape ecology is seldom used in epidemiology. The aim of this study is to assess the possible improvements that can be derived from the use of landscape approaches on several scales when exploring local differences in disease distribution, using bluetongue (BT) in Corsica as an example. The environment of BT-free and BT-infected sheep farms is described on a fine scale, using high resolution satellite images and a digital elevation model. Land-coverage is characterised by classifying the satellite image. Landscape metrics are calculated to quantify the number, diversity, length of edge and connectance of vegetation patches. The environment is described for three sizes of buffers around the farms. The models are tested with and without landscape metrics to see if such metrics improve the models. Internal and external validation of the models is performed and the relative impact of scale versus variables on the discriminatory ability of the models is explored. Results show that for all scales and irrespective of the number of parameters included, models with landscape metrics perform better than those without. The 1-km buffer model combines both the best scale of application and the best set of variables. It has a good discriminating ability and good sensitivity and specificity.

Summary Barry A.M., Roger F., Diallo M.B., Geerts S. Evaluation of Cattle Trypanosomosis Seroprevalence in GuineaAn evaluation of trypanosomosis prevalence was carried out in Guinea on sera originating from the serum bank of the vet-erinary laboratory of the National Livestock Services. Nine hundred and twenty-eight sera sampled on N’dama cattle were randomly selected and analyzed for antibody and anti-gen detection of Trypanosoma spp. Results obtained in the first test revealed Trypanosoma spp. antibodies in 67% of the cat-tle, with rates of 72% in the High Guinea area, 68% in Lower Guinea, 63% in Forest Guinea, and 62% in Middle Guinea. Among the animals, 69% of the females were infected or had been in contact with the infectious agent, against 62% of the males. The animals were infected regardless of their age. Infec-tion rates were 71, 43, 61, 63, 59, and 74% in cattle under one year of age, 1-2 years old, 2-3 years old, 3-4 years old, 4-5 years old, over 5 years old, respectively. The second test showed the presence of antigens against

Beginning in 2003, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus spread across Southeast Asia, causing unprecedented epidemics. Thailand was massively infected in 2004 and 2005 and continues today to experience sporadic outbreaks. While research findings suggest that the spread of HPAI H5N1 is influenced primarily by trade patterns, identifying the anthropogenic risk factors involved remains a challenge. In this study, we investigated which anthropogenic factors played a role in the risk of HPAI in Thailand using outbreak data from the "second wave" of the epidemic (3 July 2004 to 5 May 2005) in the country. We first performed a spatial analysis of the relative risk of HPAI H5N1 at the subdistrict level based on a hierarchical Bayesian model. We observed a strong spatial heterogeneity of the relative risk. We then tested a set of potential risk factors in a multivariable linear model. The results confirmed the role of free-grazing ducks and rice-cropping intensity but showed a weak association with fighting cock density. The results also revealed a set of anthropogenic factors significantly linked with the risk of HPAI. High risk was associated strongly with densely populated areas, short distances to a highway junction, and short distances to large cities. These findings highlight a new explanatory pattern for the risk of HPAI and indicate that, in addition to agro-environmental factors, anthropogenic factors play an important role in the spread of H5N1. To limit the spread of future outbreaks, efforts to control the movement of poultry products must be sustained., Journal Article, Research Support, N.I.H. Extramural, Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

SUMMARYA cross-sectional study based on a questionnaire survey was conducted to determine the distribution of lumpy skin disease (LSD) and associated risk factors in three main agro-climatic zones of Ethiopia. A total of 330 questionnaire surveys were collected from 44 peasant associations (PA) distributed in 15 districts. Across agro-climate zones, herd-level LSD prevalence in the midland agro-climate was significantly higher 55·2% [95% confidence interval (CI) 47·5–62·6] than in highland and lowland agro-climate zones. Overall observed LSD prevalence at animal-level was 8·1% (95% CI 7·3–8·9) and observed mortality was 2·12% (95% CI 1·73–2·6). The odds ratio (OR) of LSD occurrence in midland vs. highland and lowland vs. highland zones was 3·86 (95% CI 2·61–5·11) and 4·85 (95% CI 2·59–7·1), respectively. Significantly high risk of LSD occurrence was associated with communal grazing and watering management (OR 4·1, 95% CI 2·02–6·18) and introduction of new cattle (OR 8·5, 95% CI 6·0–11·0). Our findings describe the distribution of LSD in different agro-climates in Ethiopia along with associated risk factors, and can help shed light on the epidemiology of LSD in other African countries suffering from the disease.

African swine fever (ASF) is a devastating haemorrhagic fever of pigs with mortality rates approaching 100 per cent. It causes major economic losses, threatens food security and limits pig production in affected countries. ASF is caused by a large DNA virus, African swine fever virus (ASFV). There is no vaccine against ASFV and this limits the options for disease control. ASF has been confined mainly to sub-Saharan Africa, where it is maintained in a sylvatic cycle and/or among domestic pigs. Wildlife hosts include wild suids and arthropod vectors. The relatively small numbers of incursions to other continents have proven to be very difficult to eradicate. Thus, ASF remained endemic in the Iberian peninsula until the mid-1990s following its introductions in 1957 and 1960 and the disease has remained endemic in Sardinia since its introduction in 1982. ASF has continued to spread within Africa to previously uninfected countries, including recently the Indian Ocean islands of Madagascar and Mauritius. Given the continued occurrence of ASF in sub-Saharan Africa and increasing global movements of people and products, it is not surprising that further transcontinental transmission has occurred. The introduction of ASF to Georgia in the Caucasus in 2007 and dissemination to neighbouring countries emphasizes the global threat posed by ASF and further increases the risks to other countries. We review the mechanisms by which ASFV is maintained within wildlife and domestic pig populations and how it can be transmitted. We then consider the risks for global spread of ASFV and discuss possibilities of how disease can be prevented.

Vaccination of domestic poultry against avian influenza (AI) has been used on a large-scale in South East Asia since 2003 and in Egypt since 2006 to fight H5N1 highly-pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) epidemics. The decision to use mass vaccination against HPAI in Egypt was taken as an emergency measure based on positive impact of such control measures in Vietnam and the People's Republic of China. However, three years on, the impact on disease control of AI vaccination in Egypt has been very limited. Despite the continuous vaccination of poultry against HPAI, poultry outbreaks and human cases are reported regularly. A recent assessment study highlighted substantial weaknesses in the current immunisation programme and its lack of positive impact on the spread of infection or the maintenance of public health safety. The shortcomings of the vaccination strategy may be attributed in part to a lack of sufficient support in terms of funding and communication, the absence of an efficient monitoring system, and inadequate training of field technicians. The difficulties of blanket vaccinations in semi-commercial farms and household poultry sectors are well known, however, improvements in the industrial sector should be possible though better government controls and greater collaboration with the private sector. AI vaccination should be regarded as just one control tool within a broader disease control program integrating surveillance, outbreak investigation, disease management systems, and the rigorous implementation of bio-security measures. If incorrectly implemented, AI vaccination has a limited impact as a disease control measure. Moreover, without strict bio-security precautions undertaken during its application, farm visits to vaccinate poultry could facilitate the spread of the virus and therefore become a risk factor with important implications on the maintenance of the virus and potential risk for human exposure.

Late in 2007, veterinary, medical and anthropological professionals from Europe and Africa met in a 2-day workshop in Pretoria, South Africa, to evaluate the burden, surveillance and control of zoonotic tuberculosis and brucellosis in sub-Saharan Africa. Keynote presentations reviewed the burden of these diseases on human and livestock health, the existing diagnostic tools, and the available control methods. These presentations were followed by group discussions and the formulation of recommendations. The presence of Mycobacterium bovis and Brucella spp. in livestock was considered to be a serious threat to public health, since livestock and animal products are the only source of such infections in human beings. The impact of these pathogens on human health appears to be relatively marginal, however, when compared with Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections and drug resistance, HIV and malaria. Appropriate diagnostic tools are needed to improve the detection of M. bovis and Brucella spp. in humans. In livestock, the 'test-and-slaughter' approach and the pasteurization of milk, which have been used successfully in industrialized countries, might not be the optimal control tools in Africa. Control strategies should fit the needs and perceptions of local communities. Improved intersectoral and international collaboration in surveillance, diagnosis and control, and in the education of medical and veterinary personnel, are advocated.

SUMMARYVaccination can be a useful tool for the control of avian influenza (AI) outbreaks, but its use is prohibited in most of the countries worldwide because of its interference with AI surveillance tests and its negative impact on poultry trade. AI vaccines currently in use in the field increase host resistance to the disease but have a limited impact on the virus transmission. To control or eradicate the disease, a carefully conceived vaccination strategy must be accompanied by strict biosecurity measures. Some countries have authorized vaccination under special circumstances with contradictory results, from control and disease eradication (Italy) to endemicity and antigenic drift of the viral strain (Mexico). Extensive vaccination programmes are ongoing in South East Asia to control the H5N1 epidemic. This review provides practical information on the available AI vaccines and associated diagnostic tests, the vaccination strategies applied in Asia and their impact on the disease epidemiology.

African swine fever is a highly contagious disease of pigs in Africa. Although its persistence in Senegal may be caused by asymptomatic carriers involved in the domestic transmission cycle, we demonstrated that the soft tick Ornithodoros sonrai can be naturally infected with the causative agent.

Background Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a contagious viral disease of small ruminants in Africa and Asia. In 1999, probably the largest survey on PPR ever conducted in Africa was initiated in Ethiopia where 13 651 serum samples from 7 out of the 11 regions were collected and analyzed by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). The objective of this paper is to present the results of this survey and discuss their practical implications for PPR-endemic regions. Methods We explored the spatial distribution of PPR in Ethiopia and we investigated risk factors for positive serological status. Intracluster correlation coefficients (ρ), were calculated for 43 wereda (administrative units). Results Seroprevalence was very heterogeneous across regions and even more across wereda, with prevalence estimates ranging from 0% to 52.5%. Two groups of weredas could be distinguished on the basis of the estimated ρ: a group with very low ρ (ρ < 0.12) and a group with very high ρ (ρ > 0.37). Conclusion The results indicate that PPRV circulation has been very heterogeneous, the values for the ρ may reflect the endemic or epidemic presence of the virus or the various degrees of mixing of animals in the different areas and production systems. Age appears as a risk factor for seropositive status, the linear effect seeming to confirm in the field that PPRV is highly immunogenic. Our estimates of intracluster correlation may prove useful in the design of serosurveys in other countries where PPR is of importance.

International audience; Since 1999, several serotypes of bluetongue virus (BTV) have been isolated in the western part of the Mediterranean basin, and since 2000, Corsica has been exposed to three different serotypes: BTv serotype 2 in 2000, BTv serotype 4 (BTV-4) in 2003 and BTv serotype 16 in 2004. In 2000 there were no surveillance systems for bluetongue, but in 2003, active surveillance of the circulation of BTv and its vector Culicoides species, aided by a raised level of awareness in farmers and veterinarians, made it possible to study the introduction Of BTV-4. The monitoring and analysis of the seroconversions of sentinel herds of goats, clinical signs and meteorological variables showed that the serotype had been present in the island since May that year, but clinical signs were first observed only in October. Moreover, the weather conditions and wind patterns were suitable for the transport of Culicoides species from Sardinia in May. These observations suggest that BTv had been transported on air currents from a southern infected area, and that it could have spread without causing clinical signs of disease for a few months.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a hyperacute or acute disease of domestic ruminants caused by a virus belonging to the Phlebovirus genus (Bunyaviridae family) and characterized by necrotic hepatitis and a hemorrhagic stale. The disease is more severe in sheep, cattle, and goats, producing high mortality rates in newborn animals and abortion in pregnant animals. It is a zoonotic disease, and humans become infected through contact with tissues of infected animals or by mosquito bites. Infection in humans is usually associated with mild to moderately severe influenzalike illness, but severe complications, such as ocular sequelae, encephalitis, or hemorrhagic disease, occur in a small proportion of patients and with a significant fatality rate. The first part of this chapter is devoted to an updated presentation of the clinical features and the epidemiology of the disease. RVF is a rather complex disease that may emerge and be maintained in different types of ecosystems. In the second part of the chapter, persistence of the virus in affected areas and scenarios for disease emergence are described. Increasing environmental changes induced by human activities, including climatic changes, have been proved to facilitate the spread of some arthropod-borne diseases. Furthermore, unprecedented increases in the international trade and worldwide movements of humans, animals, and animal products may favor the introduction of the pathogen and/or its vector in new remote regions. The third part of the chapter reviews the potential further dissemination of the virus and possible changes in outbreak occurrence in the future. Lastly, we provide proposais to improve our knowledge of the ecology of the disease and to strengthen the prediction and early warning tools that can be used to adapt existing surveillance and control measures in new global economic, ecological, and climatic contexts. (Resume d'auteur)