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Classical spin Hamiltonians are a powerful tool to model complex systems, characterized by a local structure given by the local Hamiltonians. One of the best understood local structures is the grammar of formal languages, which are central in computer science and linguistics, and have a natural complexity measure given by the Chomsky hierarchy. If we see classical spin Hamiltonians as languages, what grammar do the local Hamiltonians correspond to? Here, we cast classical spin Hamiltonians as formal languages, and classify them in the Chomsky hierarchy. We prove that the language of (effectively) zero-dimensional spin Hamiltonians is regular, one-dimensional spin Hamiltonians is deterministic context-free, and higher-dimensional and all-to-all spin Hamiltonians is context-sensitive. This provides a new complexity measure for classical spin Hamiltonians, which captures the hardness of recognizing spin configurations and their energies. We compare it with the computational complexity of the ground state energy problem, and find a different easy-to-hard threshold for the Ising model. We also investigate the dependence on the language of the spin Hamiltonian. Finally, we define the language of the time evolution of a spin Hamiltonian and classify it in the Chomsky hierarchy. Our work suggests that universal spin models are weaker than universal Turing machines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We take Carnap's problem to be to what extent standard consequence relations in various formal languages fix the meaning of their logical vocabulary, alone or together with additional constraints on the form of the semantics. This paper studies Carnap's problem for basic modal logic. Setting the stage, we show that neighborhood semantics is the most general form of compositional possible worlds semantics, and proceed to ask which standard modal logics (if any) constrain the box operator to be interpreted as in relational Kripke semantics. Except when restricted to finite domains, no modal logic characterizes exactly the Kripkean interpretations of $\Box $. Moreover, we show that, in contrast with the case of first-order logic, the obvious requirement of permutation invariance is not adequate in the modal case. After pointing out some known facts about modal logics that nevertheless force the Kripkean interpretation, we focus on another feature often taken to embody the gist of modal logic: locality. We show that invariance under point-generated subframes (properly defined) does single out the Kripkean interpretations, but only among topological interpretations, not in general. Finally, we define a notion of bisimulation invariance—another aspect of locality—that, together with a reasonable closure condition, gives the desired general result. Along the way, we propose a new perspective on normal neighborhood frames as filter frames, consisting of a set of worlds equipped with an accessibility relation, and a free filter at every world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One-dimensional (string) formal languages and their learning have been studied in considerable depth. However, the knowledge of their two-dimensional (picture) counterpart, which retains similar importance, is lacking. We investigate the problem of learning formal two-dimensional picture languages by applying learning methods for one-dimensional (string) languages. We formalize the transcription process from a two-dimensional input picture into a string and propose a few adaptations to it. These proposals are then tested in a series of experiments, and their outcomes are compared. Finally, these methods are applied to a practical problem and an automaton for recognizing a part of the MNIST dataset is learned. The obtained results show improvements in the topic and the potential to use the learning of automata in fitting problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We denote by cf- CD-RTG ⊣ (n) the class of tree languages generated by chain-free distributed regular tree grammars of n components cooperating with terminal strategy. Dányi and Fülöp [2] showed that the hierarchy cf- CD-RTG ⊣ (n) , n ≥ 1 contains an infinite proper hierarchy. We improve their result showing that for each n ≥ 2 , cf- CD-RTG ⊣ (n − 1) ⊂ cf- CD-RTG ⊣ (n + 1). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, Sentiment analysis has attracted significant researcher attention. Despite a huge number of studies in this field, Sentiment analysis of authors' books (classical Arabic) with extracting the embedding features has not yet been done. The recent feature extraction of Arabic text depends on the frequency of the words within the corpus without extracting the relation between these words. This paper aims to create a new classical Arabic dataset CASAD from many art books by collecting sentences from several stories with human-expert labeling. Additionally, the feature extraction of those datasets is created by word embedding techniques equivalent to Word2vec that are able to extract the deep relation which means features of the formal Arabic language. These features are evaluated by several types of machine learning for classical Arabic, for example, support vector machines (SVM), Logistic Regression (LR), Naive Bayes (NB) K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) and Classification And Regression Trees (CART). Moreover, statistical methods such as validation and reliability are applied to evaluate this dataset's label. Finally, our experiments evaluated the classification rate of the feature-extraction matrices in two and three classes using six machine-learning algorithms for tenfold cross-validation that showed that the Logistic Regression with Word2Vec approach is the most accurate in predicting topic-polarity occurrence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expressiveness of architectural language in terms of the formal and aesthetic approach is a feature that should not be secondary in contemporary buildings. The surface, texture, form, representation, and expression should prevail over aesthetic purposes in architecture. This research aims to highlight how the plastic and expressive value of the traditional buildings in the Najd region of Saudi Arabia, rich in cultural heritage and building form, can be translated into contemporary ones, creating the continuity of the local cultural identity in a rapidly growing context. This research used a qualitative methodology based on selecting seven modern and contemporary case studies in Riyadh. The selected case studies were analyzed using four criteria: composition aspects, plastic figuration, expressive value, and context connection. The comparison of the case studies underlined the plasticity and malleability of the wall surfaces, the formal character, and the aesthetic approach, showing continuity with the cultural heritage of the Najd architecture. These examples demonstrate how architecture that is attentive to place and history, incorporating local materials and its cultural heritage, can represent an opportunity to rethink the constructive and aesthetic approach to provide guiding criteria for contemporary architects designing in the rapidly expanding city. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The application of innovative technologies that foster smart production resources' interconnectivity alongside the virtual space that facilities to support process simulation makes the technology factor become the center of Industry 4.0. The production process modeling and simulation can be used to facilitate flexibility and automation of a shop floor. In our previous research, we have created a Domain-Specific Modeling Language (DSML) named MultiProLan, aiming to create production process models suitable for the automatic generation of executable code that enables the automatic execution of production processes. As the next step, we have proposed research on a DSML language aimed at Industry 4.0 human worker modeling. Industry 4.0 still considers workers as a cost, while favoring technological aspects over the workers' wellbeing. Industry 5.0 complements Industry 4.0, focusing on a human-centric approach that puts core human needs and interests at the top of production processes. Based on our research proposal, here we present a blueprint of the HResModLan DSML prototype aimed at the formal specification of a human worker within Industry 5.0. Presented abstract and concrete syntaxes of the language are tested on a case study of a furniture factory to demonstrate whether they are a good base for the further development of the HResModLan language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we provide an extensive analysis of Hohfeld's theory of normative relations, focusing in particular on diagrammatic structures. Our contribution is threefold. First, we specify an extensional formal language to represent the main notions in the two families of normative relations identified by Hohfeld (i.e. the deontic and the potestative family). Our primary focus is on the part of the theory concerning potestative relations. In this regard, we assign a key role to the concept of ability, which is treated as a primitive notion and used to formulate three fine-grained definitions of power (outcome-centered, change-centered and force-centered). Second, on the basis of these definitions we build Aristotelian diagrams of opposition for deontic and potestative relations, improving, extending and systematizing previous proposals formulated in the literature. Third, we present a model-theoretic interpretation and a logic programming (ASP) implementation of the proposed framework, elaborating on the procedural dimension of normative reasoning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A similar development is seen in the disjunctive I or any other thing i > I or anything (like that) i , the long form not being attested till the early 1900s, and from I and moche other stuffe i to I and stuff like that i . Specific GEs ( I and so on i , I and so forth i , I etc. i ) continue unchanged into present-day English and are associated with more formal written registers. The authors argue that some GEs such as I and that i function as punctors or end-markers (rather than being set-markers), a tendency seen with other pragmatic markers such as I you know i and other GEs like I and stuff i . They argue very convincingly that the GEs I and/or things i undergo grammaticalization as they are decategorialized - their conjunction ( I and/or i ) no longer has a logical coordination function. [Extracted from the article]

This paper presents a technique, named STLCG, to compute the quantitative semantics of Signal Temporal Logic (STL) formulas using computation graphs. STLCG provides a platform which enables the incorporation of logical specifications into robotics problems that benefit from gradient-based solutions. Specifically, STL is a powerful and expressive formal language that can specify spatial and temporal properties of signals generated by both continuous and hybrid systems. The quantitative semantics of STL provide a robustness metric, that is, how much a signal satisfies or violates an STL specification. In this work, we devise a systematic methodology for translating STL robustness formulas into computation graphs. With this representation, and by leveraging off-the-shelf automatic differentiation tools, we are able to efficiently backpropagate through STL robustness formulas and hence enable a natural and easy-to-use integration of STL specifications with many gradient-based approaches used in robotics. Through a number of examples stemming from various robotics applications, we demonstrate that STLCG is versatile, computationally efficient, and capable of incorporating human-domain knowledge into the problem formulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The field of linguistics witnessed a clear renaissance in the 13th century, as scholars from Basra and Kufa competed in the areas of grammar and language. They authored books that aimed to avoid mixing formal language with colloquial speech, and they exposed its dangers. They also warned against distortions in pronunciation, grammatical structures, sentence composition, syntactic analysis, and word meanings. This can be clearly observed through the examples they addressed in their books. Ibn Qutaybah is considered one of the prominent linguists of that period, as he authored comprehensive linguistic works that covered various aspects of literature, poetry, and more. He employed his extensive linguistic knowledge in the composition of several works that served as extensions of linguistic sciences, such as "Tawil Mushkil al-Quran" (Interpretation of Quranic Difficulties), "Gharib al-Hadith" (The Strange Expressions in Hadith), and "Tawil Mukhtalif al-Hadith" (Interpretation of Diverse Hadiths). His aim was to defend the Holy Quran and the noble traditions of the Prophet. This research aims to highlight the features of Ibn Qutaybah's employment of his linguistic expertise, supported by examples and evidence. The researcher followed the comparative descriptive and analytical approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the concept of copredication, which is the use of multiple predicates to describe a single subject. It argues that copredication poses a challenge for traditional truth-conditional semantics and suggests that it should be seen as an illusion, where the linguistic content may be coherent but not linguistically determined. The text explores the relationship between copredication and polysemy, and discusses different models of lexical items and their role in determining truth conditions. The author proposes that copredication should be understood as a form of illusion, requiring a nuanced approach to semantics. [Extracted from the article]

In order to realize a general-purpose automatic formal verification platform based on WebAssembly technology as a web service (FVPS), which aims to provide an automated report of vulnerability detections, this work builds a Hyperledger Fabric blockchain runtime model. It proposes an optimized methodology of the functional equivalent translation from source program languages to formal languages. This methodology utilizes an external application programming interface (API) table to replace the source codes in compilation, thereby pruning the part of housekeeping codes to ease code inflation. Code inflation is a significant metric in formal language translation. Namely, minor code inflation enhances verification scale and performance efficiency. It determines the efficiency of formal verification, involving launching, running, and memory usage. For instance, path explosion increases exponentially, resulting in out-of-memory. The experimental results conclude that program languages like golang severely impact code inflation. FVPS reduces the wasm code size by over 90%, achieving two orders of optimization magnitude, from 2000 kilobyte (KB) to 90 KB. That means we can cope with golang applications up to 20 times larger than the original in scale. This work eliminates the gap between Hyperledger Fabric smart contracts and WebAssembly. Our approach is pragmatic, adaptable, extendable, and flexible. Nowadays, FVPS is successfully applied in a Railway-Port-Aviation blockchain transportation system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the publication of Robert Lowell's "Life Studies" written for the "Nation" in 1959 the history of poetic outlets took a swerve and marked as an intense breakthrough (as Plath stated in an interview) against the established, academic, classical channel of poetic tradition of Pound and Eliot and shifted "towards the personal mode; from the impersonal mode there came a shift towards the personal mode; from the outer wasteland to the wasteland within" in post war America. It was M.L.Rosenthal who first used the term "confessional" while reviewing Lowell's "Life Studies" entitled "Poetry as Confession" labelling this autobiographical body of writing as direct, therapeutic and unflinchingly truthful making a sharp departure from the earlier classical stance of complex symbolism and formal language which later came into surface for dealing sensitive and taboo topics such as personal trauma, domestic violence, strained marital relationships coupled with pregnancy and abortion. With an intense probing into the inner self of the highly sensitive persona that found its concretization in the words of Robert Lowell, Theodore Roethke, Anne Sexton, W.D.Snodgrass and Sylvia Plath, this confessional poetry emerged as a breakthrough from the shackles of earlier tradition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using collocation is a key part of second language ability (Granger, Sylviane. 2018. Formulaic sequences in learner corpora: Collocations and lexical bundles. In Anna Siyanova-Chanturia & Ana Pellicer-Sanchez (eds.),Understanding formulaic language: A second language acquisition perspective, 228–247. New York: Routledge; Nattinger, James R. & Jeamette S. DeCarrico. 1992. Lexical phrases and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press; Nesselhauf, Nadja. 2004. Collocations in a learner corpus. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: J. Benjamins Pub. Co.; Pawley, Andrew & Frances H. Syder. 1983. Two puzzles for linguistics: Nativelike selection and nativelike fluency. In Jack Richards & Richard W. Schmidt (eds.), Language and communication, 191–228. London: Longman). Researchers often hypothesize that the influence of the first language is an important factor in the production and understanding of unconventional collocations (Huang, Li-Shi. 2001. Knowledge of English collocations: An analysis of Taiwanese EFL learners.Paper presented at the Texas Foreign Languguage Education Conference, Texas; Laufer, Bhatia & Tina Waldman. 2011. Verb-noun collocations in second language writing: A corpus analysis of learners' English. Language Learning 61(2). 647–672. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00621.x; Phoocharoensil, Supakorn. 2013. Cross-linguistic influence: Its impact on L2 English collocation production. English Language Teaching 6(1). 1–10) but we are only now starting to understand this. The present study provides a robust investigation of cross-linguistic influences by exploring how Vietnamese influenced Vietnamese learners' use of English language verb-noun and adjective noun collocations in 104 350-word argumentative essays, using a framework derived from Jarvis, Scott. 2012. The detection-based approach: An overview. In S. Jarvis & S. A. Crossley (eds.), Approaching language transfer through text classification: Explorations in the detection-based approach, 1st ed., Vol. 64, 1–33. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, drawing on homogeneity among speakers of Vietnamese; heterogeneity between users of Vietnamese and other language; and formal and conceptual congruity between collocations learners produce in English and equivalent terms in Vietnamese. The study found that less than 10% of the collocations learners produced were unconventional and of these, 40% of collocations were influenced by the first language (L1); errors associated with incorrect use of prepositions in verb-noun collocations (e.g. the addition, omission or misuse of prepositions) are strongly L1-motivated. Learners make errors with not only incongruent collocations (collocations with no direct L1 equivalents) but also with congruent collocations (collocations with direct L1 translation). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building on Christopher Peacocke's account of analog perceptual content and my own account of analog perceptual vehicles, I defend three claims: that the perception of magnitudes often has analog contents; that the perception of magnitudes often has analog vehicles; and that the first claim is true in virtue of the second--that is, the analog vehicles help to ground the analog contents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Bohemistyka is the property of Instytut Filologii Slowianskiej Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The aim of this article is to present the results of a survey conducted in the academic year 2021/2022 among students of French Philology Studies at the University of Wroclaw. The subject of interest was the role they attribute to out-of-class language learning (including French) in the process of acquiring communicative competence. The question asked was formulated in such a way as to make students reflect on informal learning situations. Qualitative analysis of the answers indicates a relatively broad spectrum of situations of informal learning, which, due to their complexity, require deeper reflection in order to increase the awareness of not only the effects, but also of the process of lifelong learning and the breadth of learning itself. We postulate that language classes in a formal context have as one of their main purposes the stimulation of such reflection and should invite students to undertake various informal learning activities. This in turn increase the effectiveness of formal teaching/learning, and encourages further reflection on the overall foreign language learning process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Belgian architect Victor Horta (1861-1947) spent most of the First World War in the United States. Over the course of three years, from December 1915 to January 1919, he explored how the American skyscrapers, standardized dwellings and ingenious urban planning might serve as a model for a modern, post-war Belgium. Yet Horta's memoirs had very little to say about his discussion of American architecture or any influence his travels might have had on his post-war work. This article consequently breaks new ground in examining the various talks on the subject that Horta gave in the 1920s. Horta's lectures actually provide a good picture of how he started to see American architecture as a model for the future. In American architectural practice, serial production, standardization and economies of scale facilitated a simplification of the design -- a solution Horta also proposed for war-torn Belgium. By way of illustration, the article describes the affinity between Horta's more classical formal language of the 1920s, as in his 1925 pavilion for the Exposition internationale des Arts décoratifs et industriels modernes, and the architecture of the United States. It also shows that Horta was an important proponent of American architecture in Belgium, and also played a pioneering role in the introduction of some of its defining features, such as high-rise construction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines Michael Pinchbeck and Ollie Smith's theatrical adaptation of A Seventh Man, the 1975 book by John Berger and photographer Jean Mohr studying the experience of migrant workers in Europe. Pinchbeck and Smith's 2020 adaptation uses immersive performance strategies in dialogue with a multi-voiced, cross-disciplinary publication that itself aims to produce an immersive or 'animated' reader engagement. In this article, Babbage and Pinchbeck present source text and performance as examples of practice-as-research, referencing Nelson's paradigm that establishes different modes of knowledge and points of connection- and dissension-between them. They discuss the book's cross-disciplinarity and the attempt to reflect this in a new creative context that is spatiotemporal, embodied, social, visual, verbal and aural. The article's theoretical context draws on writing by Barthes, Berger, Said and Sontag, applying Barthes' notion of the studium and the punctum to reflect on the dramaturgical rendering of the source text's 'interruptive shocks'. Babbage and Pinchbeck argue that, in book and performance, the juxtaposition of different formal languages elicits an encounter with the material that is productively 'unsettling'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper describes an alternative algorithm for the removal of erasing rules from E0S grammars. As opposed to the standard way of eliminating erasing rules in most E0S-like grammars, such as context-free grammars, this method requires no predetermination of symbols that derive the empty string. The proposed algorithm is formally verified. In the conclusion of the paper, the applicability of the algorithm to E0S grammars that work in a semi-parallel way is demonstrated. Furthermore, two open problems are formulated.

One-dimensional (string) formal languages and their learning have been studied in considerable depth. However, the knowledge of their two-dimensional (picture) counterpart, which retains similar importance, is lacking. We investigate the problem of learning formal two-dimensional picture languages by applying learning methods for one-dimensional (string) languages. We formalize the transcription process from a two-dimensional input picture into a string and propose a few adaptations to it. These proposals are then tested in a series of experiments, and their outcomes are compared. Finally, these methods are applied to a practical problem and an automaton for recognizing a part of the MNIST dataset is learned. The obtained results show improvements in the topic and the potential to use the learning of automata in fitting problems.

Copyright of English Teaching & Learning is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This work presents the second stage of a larger study which conducted the elaboration of a shape grammar based on the analysis of the remaining fishing villages in the Santa Catarina State, Southern Brazil. The architectural and formal structure of the villages provide a perspective of the constructive methods and features embedded in the spatial arrangements and represent a local cultural heritage site. The aim of the present work relies on unraveling its spatial resources using a shape grammar approach, in order to contribute to the preservation of a distinct culture, and is intended to be used to safeguard its formal language planning. Also, through the analytical grammar, it would be possible to contribute in framing design guidelines regarding the remaining villages, to keep it steady on the traditional context, safeguarding its peculiar character. As such, the method in this body of work considered the analysis resulting from the first stage, in order to develop an analytical shape grammar using Garopaba village as a case of study. This stage involved the establishment of a formal language for the analytical grammar, consisting of initial form, vocabulary, families, and spatial relations, and thus, a series of rules emerged, decoding the composition arrangements. The results involved the verification of the considered parameters, confirming the existence of spatial patterns. Thus, it was possible to conclude that the grammar contributes to identifying the occupation process occupation and the spatial patterns which underlies an artisanal fishing village. Also, the grammar allowed the creation of urban compositions similar to the structure of traditional fishing communities in Santa Catarina, generating different discussions regarding the analytical approach towards fishing villages arrangements, compared to the examples studied, specifically, in Garopaba city. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article looks at the contradictory essence of the Renaissance garden, which is reflected in the dialogue of the garden's form and content, and which is in constant change. While the garden of the Quattrocento with its formal language of rigid geometric rules stimulates free thought and the emotional world, remaining a modest background itself, the garden of the Cinquecento dictates the direction of thought and produces concrete frames for it. The thought of the Early Renaissance, boundlessly freewheeling in the world of fantasy, is increasingly tied to the garden's form. The gentle emotion of the inner world is suffocated by the intruders from the outer world and the garden that carried the free thought of Early Renaissance becomes an area of restraint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the changes occurring in the traditional model of Polish politeness. The changes were discussed based on three issues concerned with linguistic politeness of enterprises having their business profiles in social media: politeness relationships with their customers, spelling of forms of address, their formal language forms. The descriptive approach was applied to that end. It boils down to indicating changes in linguistic politeness behaviours observed in the analysed media compared to traditional patterns. The material basis comprises 1,290 posts published in the period 2014-2022 on Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. The reasonability of such research is attested to by the noticeably growing impact exerted by social media on Polish language users, which will result in a transformation of the Polish politeness model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, computer-assisted writing techniques for linear expressions of the structure of polycyclic molecules, branched molecules and clusters, based on formal languages, are tested. The techniques used only require the ability to process written texts, even just using a text editor, and one of the many available molecular drawing/optimization programs that accept input in the form of a SMILES string. A few specific syntactic operators acting on strings are characterized in terms of their effect on the corresponding structure, and although they are simply examples, they are already capable of producing non-trivial structures. The aim of this work is to encourage experiments that may lead to potentially interesting molecular schemata, in view of their symmetry and stereochemistry, as revealed by optimization, and to develop insight into the connection between formal expressions and structures. Given the simplicity and availability of the required tools, it can also be useful for education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless communication and mobile application put forward higher requirement for mobile RFID authentication. Aiming at the security and efficiency problem of the existing authentication protocol, this paper proposed a new mobile RFID high-efficiency authentication protocol. The protocol protected the security of information transmission by using arithmetic operation, bit-wise operations, permutation and combination of bits data. It defended the illegal attack by adversary through the progressive verification of random number by database and mobile reader, as well as bundled verification by the tag. For one thing, as the communication entity performed light-weight operations, the amount of calculation was greatly reduced. For another, as the communication entity initially verified the authenticity and legitimacy of random data in time, it reduced time of the invalid authentication. These two points showed that the protocol can improve the authentication efficiency. This paper proved the correctness of the protocol using GNY logic formal language. Analysis results show that the protocol can resist different types of attacks. Simulation results show that the protocol has high authentication efficiency as compared with similar mobile RFID authentication protocols. The protocol has better application value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present in this paper a new method in detecting anomalies in datasets representing systems behaviour, which is based on comparing a dataset to the data blueprint of the system representing its normal behaviour. This method removes some of the need for applying complex machine learning algorithms that aim at detecting abnormalities in such datasets and gives a more assured outcome of the presence of abnormalities. Our method first models a system using the formal language of the π -calculus, and then applies an abstract interpretation that ultimately generates an abstract multiset representing the messages exchanged in the system model. We term this multiset as the data blueprint of the system, and it represents the normal behaviour expected. We apply this method to the case of a recent study in literature, which attempts to analyse normal and abnormal behaviour in datasets representing runs of the MQTT protocol, both under attack and no attack conditions. We show that our method is able to detect these conditions in an easier and more straightforward manner than the original case study attempts to. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural Language Processing (NLP), is more specifically the branch of "artificial intelligence" (AI) concerned with providing computers the ability to comprehend spoken and written language in a manner similar to that of humans. It is used for practical purposes to help which connects us with everyday activities such as texting, emailing, and cross-language communication. The requirement for intelligent systems that can read text and listen to voice memos and can converse with people in a natural language like English has substantially increased in recent years. In this paper, the random clausal sentence generator which are simple, compound and complex sentences is described. This random sentence generation is beneficial for students studying on online platform to learn clauses as they will get variety of exercised to practice on. Initially simple sentences get generated and subsequently moved on to compound sentence and complex sentence generation. In this method, roughly hundred verbs are used to get varied randomness along with 3-4 conjunctions and objects which nearly fits with the verbs and gives a syntactically and semantically meaningful sentence as outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most modern regular expression matching libraries (one of the rare exceptions being Google's RE2) allow backreferences, operations which bind a substring to a variable, allowing it to be matched again verbatim. However, both real-world implementations and definitions in the literature use different syntactic restrictions and have differences in the semantics of the matching of backreferences. Our aim is to compare these various flavors by considering the classes of formal languages that each can describe, establishing, as a result, a hierarchy of language classes. Beyond the hierarchy itself, some complexity results are given, and as part of the effort on comparing language classes new pumping lemmas are established, old classes are extended to new ones, and several incidental results on the nature of these language classes are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study a sound verification method for parametric component-based systems. The method uses a resource logic, a new formal specification language for distributed systems consisting of a finite yet unbounded number of components. The logic allows the description of architecture configurations coordinating instances of a finite number of types of components, by means of inductive definitions similar to the ones used to describe algebraic data types or recursive data structures. For parametric systems specified in this logic, we show that decision problems such as reaching deadlock or violating critical section are undecidable, in general. Despite this negative result, we provide for these decision problems practical semi-algorithms relying on the automatic synthesis of structural invariants allowing the proof of general safety properties. The invariants are defined using the WS κ S fragment of the monadic second order logic, known to be decidable by a classical automata-logic connection, thus reducing a verification problem to checking satisfiability of a WS κ S formula. • We introduce a logic-based language for describing sets of configurations of parameterized distributed systems. • The language uses predicate symbols to hierarchically decompose the system architecture into specific patterns. • We address a parametric safety problem i.e., checking that reachable configurations stay clear of error configurations. • We show that deadlock freedom and critical section violation problems are undecidable, even for simple architectures. • We develop a verification method that synthesizes parametric invariants described using a decidable fragment of MSO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although many international schools sincerely seek student well-being, many school leaders and owners fail to grasp how language is a crucial factor contributing to student well-being. While many international schools seek outside endorsement to reflect their efforts toward student well-being, endorsement often fails to ensure the realization of intentions expressed in school policy, including a school language policy. Developing and implementing a formal written language policy can provide transparency and allow schools to formulate, implement, review, and revise a planned approach for language use throughout the school community, including instruction, assessment, and academic and social discourse. This cross-sectional study reports findings on language policy transparency and policy cycle completion in 1,633 English-medium international schools in 2020 and 1,892 in 2023 within countries in East and Southeast Asia. These findings reveal that while schools authorized, affiliated, or accredited by the Council of International Schools, International Baccalaureate Organization, and Western Association of Schools and Colleges were statistically more likely to have language policies compared to non-affiliated schools, only about four percent of the schools in 2020 and six percent in 2023 displayed a formal written language policy on their website. Further, only about two percent of the schools in 2020 and 2023 displayed a formal written language policy showing the review date within three years, possibly reflecting the completion of a policy cycle. Considering most students attending Englishmedium international schools are non-native English speakers, these findings should sound an alarm concerning student well-being in English-medium international schools worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing a suggestion of Wittgenstein, I provide an account of truth tables as formulas of a formal language. I define the syntax and semantics of TPL (the language of Tabular Propositional Logic) and develop its proof theory. Single formulas of TPL, and finite groups of formulas with the same top row and TF matrix (depiction of possible valuations), are able to serve as their own proofs with respect to metalogical properties of interest. The situation is different, however, for groups of formulas whose top rows differ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper sets out to analyse the linguistic resources used by Valera in his letters with the specific purpose of persuading the recipient of the usefulness of his advice or promoting his ideas on ethical or moral issues. The study focuses on three important aspects from a pragmati++++c perspective: the features of formal language variety, which project an image of Valera as a cultivated courtier; the internal coherence of the discourse (adaptation to the epistolary genre moulds and use of discursive connection resources); and, finally, the linguistic mitigation strategies, aimed at protecting his own image and that of the recipient. In a political landscape as complex as that of the 15th century, Valera's skills in managing these resources enhance his image as a skilled advisor and reinforces the persuasive message of his letters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the question of asymmetry/symmetry regarding the use of language in partisan media outlets in the US. Some research has suggested that conservatives and conservative media are unique in how they present information to their audience, positing that conservatives use simpler, more uncivil language. Others have noted that some of these matters, such as use of uncivil language, applies to both conservative and liberal outlets. The current study adds to this literature by examining whether the ideological leanings of news sources correlate with reading ease, level of negativity (sentiment), and level of formality (tone). Specifically, we examine whether only conservative outlets use simpler, negative, and less formal language or if these trends appear for media outlets across the ideological spectrum. Our findings find support for the symmetry hypothesis. Indeed, our findings suggest that ideological extremity and partisanship strength correlate with use of easier-to-read language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interest in instructed second-language acquisition (ISLA) (i.e., the learning of an additional language in a formal setting), has been with us since the inception of the field of second-language acquisition (e.g., Corder, 1967). How the learning outcome can be effectively and efficiently improved through external intervention has been a perennial yet fascinating question for scholars and practitioners alike. Collectively, extant studies are illuminating, but many are palpably one-off attempts, atomistic and reductionist in their conceptualisation, implementation and interpretation. As such, they are prone to weak internal and external validity. In this article, I call attention to two issues - narrowness and staticity - in this body of work, advancing a case for the necessity to adopt a systemic and dynamic approach to investigating instructed learning. I close by proffering thoughts on how to enact such an approach in experimental and natural settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

dition of standardizing word meanings in Estonian language planning. The tradition of the Estonian language planning to standardize the meanings of general language through the formal Dictionary of Standard Estonian (DSE) has long influenced society’s understanding of how (Estonian) language works. Since the 1980s, instead of standardizing the meanings, the language planning has been more “lenient”, considering certain meanings inappropriate for the standard language and making recommendations on them (e.g. in the DSE 1999–2018). In this article, we will give an overview of the history of the standardization of word meanings in the Estonian language planning since the second half of the 19th century, analyzing the most important publications related to it. We draw generalizations and conclusions about the standardization of meanings based on our earlier research on word meanings: with the deepening of usagebased linguistics and corpus linguistics in Estonian linguistics, the understanding has been reached in language planning that meanings do not remain fixed in the dictionary: the (new) meaning’s survival in use depends on internal and external factors, not on the formal DSE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research on formal languages and their algebraic relationships were among the topics that brought visibility to Romania in the field of computer science in the 1970's. Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iaşi was known by its researchers and teachers in these topics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present article is to describe, both quantitatively and qualitatively, how features of (in)formal language style characterizing the dialogues of English films were handled in dubbing and subtitling translation into Italian. Three English films, together with their dubbing and subtitling translations into Italian, where analysed: Enola Holmes (2020), Little Women (2019) and The Age of Innocence (1993). Availing itself of corpus-bases quantitative and qualitative contrastive analyses of the three sub-corpora (English, dubbing and subtitling), the study revealed that dubbing and subtitling translators' approaches were quite dissimilar. If subtitlers, on the one hand, remained faithful to the source dialogues, thus preserving in the target text the same degree of (in)formality of the source test, dubbing translators showed a tendency towards maximization of formality in the Italian dialogues. The adoption of two different strategies, which points to the translators' minimum intervention in the case of subtitling, and to greater manipulation in the case of dubbing, was hypothesized to be due to the different features characterizing dubbing and subtitling translation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objectives of this study were to explore linguistic strategies used in the folktales of Northeastern Thailand and to explore the ways in which society and culture are reflected through folktales in Ekarattana Udomporn's written work and the value of the tales. The conceptual framework of this study consists of (1) use of strategies of language for communication namely, expression, diction and level of language and (2) reflections of society and culture, namely, beliefs, the ways of life of people in society, and the value of the language and the knowledge of the tales. A qualitative method was employed, and the data included 41 stories of provincial folktales collected by Ekarattana Udomporn. The findings revealed that there were uses of different kinds of expressions. There was use of explanative diction, exemplificative diction and descriptive diction, and among these, explanative diction was found to be foremost in the folktales because of the explanative purpose of folktales. Formal language, semi-formal language and colloquial language was found in the folktales, and among these, semi-formal and colloquial language was used primarily in order to facilitate understanding. Folktales of this region reflected not only the beliefs in society, namely, Buddhism, spirits, death, seniority, but also the way of life, namely, clothes, food, castes and relations of people in society that accorded with belief of people in society. Furthermore, the values of language, of society and culture, and of knowledge as well as other values, were also found in the folktales of Northeastern Thailand in Ekarattana Udomporn's written work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In this paper I discuss Kant's philosophy of grammar in order to argue that: (a) the formal analysis of language implies that there is a structural correspondence between logical and grammatical form; (b) there is a distinction between the sense in which logic is formal and the sense in which grammar is formal; (c) universal grammar descends from the system of categorial functions that are investigated in the transcendental analytic; (d) transcendental grammar implies that the universal form of human language has its ground in the universal structure of thought; (e) the concept of a grammatical norm is clarified once we combine the theory of universal grammar with how linguistic experience takes place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interaction undoubtedly is key to learning in higher education. It is particularly relevant in an English medium instruction (EMI) setting when students use a foreign language for learning as it provides important opportunities for the negotiation of meaning. In this article, we present and critically discuss EMI teacher training interventions in Switzerland designed to encourage dialogic interaction in the EMI classroom. EMI teacher training interventions, in the case of this study, rely on the EMI teaching competence reference framework outlined in Studer (2018). Through observations, (self-)assessments and surveys, teachers are assessed against four levels of attention to language in their classes, ranging from a focus on mutual comprehension to dialogue and the formal integration of language into the content of their classes. The paper shows that many EMI teachers tend to be more concerned with basic language and monologic competence, while sidelining dialogic competence. The paper will also show that the mental switch required to move the focus from 'stage performance' and self-awareness to authentic dialogue represents a significant challenge for our training programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]