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Background: Bloodstream infections (BSI) are common in sick foals and increase foal morbidity and mortality when they occur. Recognition of risk factors for BSI could be an important means to limit their occurrence, but studies on this topic are limited. Objectives: Historical as well as maternal and foal physical examination findings will predict risk of BSI in neonatal foals. Animals Foals <14 days of age admitted to a referral equine hospital for care. Methods: Retrospective case‐control study with univariate and multivariable logistic regression analysis. Results: Four hundred twenty‐nine (143 cases and 286 controls) foals <14 days of age were studied. Risk of a foal having a BSI was increased in foals with umbilical disease (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 11.01; P =.02), hypoglycemia (adjusted OR, 13.51; P =.03), and the combined presence of umbilical disease and low hematocrit (adjusted OR, >999.99; P =.04). Factors not found to be risk factors for development of BSI included prematurity, hypothermia, abdominal disease, diarrhea, failure of passive transfer, and maternal uterine infection. Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Several historical and physical examination findings increase the risk of foals being blood culture positive at presentation to the hospital. This knowledge may aid early identification of blood culture status, thus aiding in treatment decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is a rare congenital cardiac defect in foals causing left to right shunting from the aorta to pulmonary artery. In extremely rare conditions, complications with pulmonary hypertension can result in right to left shunting (Eisenmenger's physiology); however, reversed or right to left shunting has not yet been precisely described in PDA‐affected equids. This report describes a unique and unusual case of right to left PDA associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome in a 20‐day‐old male foal. A holosystolic murmur over the tricuspid valve area and adventitious pulmonary sounds respectively on cardiac and thoracic auscultations, caudodorsally interstitial and bronchointerstitial pulmonary opacities on thoracic radiography, right atrial and ventricular dilatations with paradoxical ventricular septal motion, increased ratio of pulmonary artery internal diameter to the aorta and tricuspid valve regurgitation on echocardiography were detected. Post‐mortem and histopathological examinations revealed consolidated, dark red and diffusely enlarged lungs with granular appearance, marked enlargement of the right atrium and ventricle, pulmonary artery thickening and enlargement, patency of the ductus arteriosus, hyaline membrane formation, type II pneumocyte proliferation, hypertrophy and thickening of the pulmonary arteries medial layers and right ventricular myocardial cells distortion and hypertrophy. The findings suggest a right to left shunting through the persistent patency of the ductus arteriosus, pulmonary hypertension and cor pulmonale. We proposed pulmonary hypertension associated with bronchointerstitial pneumonia as a cause of this unusual case of PDA with reversed shunt direction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Horses are frequently transported by road but little is known about the stress response of transported newborn foals. In this study, we have analyzed the stress response of postpartum Haflinger mares (n = 6 over two years) and their 5-day-old foals (n = 12) to a 20 km road transport in a trailer with the middle partition either removed or separating the mare and her foal. Noninvasive techniques were used to analyze the physiological stress variables such as salivary cortisol, heart rate, and heart rate variability (HRV). Mares and their foals responded to transport with an increase in cortisol concentration (P < 0.001). The increase was more pronounced and prolonged in foals compared to their mothers (P = 0.001). Heart rate increased in mares and foals during transport (P < 0.001) but this increase was less pronounced in foals compared to mares (P = 0.001). The HRV increased during transport (P < 0.05) in mares but remained constant in transported foals. The presence or absence of the partition was largely without effect on the physiological stress variables determined. In conclusion, 5-day-old foals respond to road transport with a clear adrenocortical activation which was more pronounced than in their dams. There were no changes of HRV in transported foals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In newborn foals the absorption of colostrum immunoglobulins in the small intestine is maximal up to 8 hours after birth and then progressively decreases to become null after 24 hours post‐partum. Thus, equine practitioners need a simple, quick, inexpensive and reliable field test to identify foals affected by failure of passive transfer rather than an accurate method yielding quantitative results within the whole range of immunoglobulin concentrations. Objective: As the validity of the immunocrit method to detect failure of passive transfer in foals had not been evaluated before, the objective of this study was to test the ability of this method to detect the concentration of immunoglobulins in a large number of foal serum samples. Study design: Assay validation using samples collected for clinical purposes. Methods: The immunocrit test, using a 40% ammonium sulphate solution, was used to measure the concentration of immunoglobulins in serum samples from 211 newborn Thoroughbred foals. The results were compared, by statistical analysis, with those of agarose gel electrophoresis, a reference quantitative method. Results: The values obtained by the immunocrit method were significantly correlated (R =.871; P <.001) with those measured by agarose gel electrophoresis. A cut‐off value of 8 g/L of serum immunoglobulins by agarose gel electrophoresis and its equivalent of 9.5% for the immunocrit test was indicative of failure of passive transfer. The sensitivity and specificity of the immunocrit method at this cut‐off point were 94% (95% CI, 90‐97.3) and 82% (95% CI, 72.13‐91.8) respectively. Main limitations: Variable times of sample extraction after colostrum suckling, over the study period. Conclusions: The immunocrit test provides a quantitative, quick, inexpensive, reliable and objective method to detect failure of passive transfer of maternal immunity in newborn foals, which is easy to perform directly in horse farms, with minimum laboratory equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: A 130 kg, 60‐day‐old Quarter Horse male foal presented with bilateral stifle effusion and severe left hindlimb lameness. Clinical examination and imaging including radiography, ultrasound and computed tomography revealed bilateral stifle trauma. Specifically, disruption of the left medial meniscus and deep bone injury to the left medial femoral condyle (MFC) were detected, and bilateral injury to the origin of the cranial cruciate ligaments was suspected. Treatment consisted of stall rest and joint injection with corticosteroids, however there was little improvement in lameness. Due to the poor prognosis for soundness, the foal was subject to euthanasia 10 weeks after initial presentation. Post‐mortem examination supported the left medial meniscus and MFC injuries and revealed avulsions of the origin of the cranial cruciate ligaments (complete on the left and partial on the right) from the lateral femoral condyle. Histopathology of the left stifle joint revealed varying depths of MFC osteochondral injury and severe left medial meniscus damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: To determine if an ELISA for measurement of IgA in equine serum could be used to measure concentrations of IgA in foal faeces and to determine correlations with concentrations in the milk of the dam. Methods: Faeces from 20 Welsh Cob and Welsh Pony foals and milk from their dams were collected within 12 hours (Day 0) and at 6 days after parturition (Day 6). On Day 6, faeces could not be collected from 2/20 foals, and milk samples could not be collected from 3/20 mares. An equine IgA ELISA validated for serum and plasma was used to measure concentrations of IgA in all samples in triplicate. The precision of the assay for each sample type was determined using modified CV. Results: IgA was not detectable in 7/20 Day 0 faecal samples and in 2/18 Day 6 faecal samples. For samples with detectable IgA, the mean modified CV was 10.5 (95% CI = 6.0–15.0)% for Day 0 faecal samples, and was 6.8 (95% CI = 4.3–9.4)% for Day 6 faecal samples. Median concentrations of IgA in faeces on Day 0 were lower than concentrations on Day 6 (0.7 mg/g vs. 37 mg/g dry matter; p = 0.003). Concentrations of IgA in milk and faeces on Day 6 were statistically correlated (r = 0.59; p = 0.006). Conclusions and clinical relevance: The IgA ELISA showed acceptable precision when used to estimate concentrations of IgA in foal faeces during the first week of life, but IgA could not be detected in 37% of meconium samples collected on Day 0. This assay may be useful for investigation of the role of maternal milk IgA in the gastrointestinal tract of neonatal foals, but further assessment of both accuracy and precision of the ELISA is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There is a lack of data on the efficacy of treatment of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in association with an optimised selection of foals. Objectives: To evaluate whether targeted treatment protocols resulting in decreased antimicrobial use impact foal mortality rates. Study design: Retrospective study. Methods: Three hundred and thirty foals with pneumonia per year were randomly selected from 2008 to 2016. All foals were examined once weekly from birth until weaning. A physical examination of the respiratory tract, body temperature, haematology and an ultrasonographic examination of the lungs was included. Sonography areas with visible consolidation were measured and added to calculate an 'abscess score' which represents the extent of pulmonary damage. All weekly medical data were analysed retrospectively. Results: In the period from 2008 to 2011, every foal with pulmonary abscesses was treated. The treatment protocol was changed in 2012 when only foals with larger lesions were treated. Between the two time periods 2008‐2011 and 2012‐2016, the abscess score at the beginning of treatment increased from a median of 4‐11.5 cm. From all foals that developed R equi pneumonia, 81.5% received antibiotic treatment in 2008‐2011 (n = 1215) compared with 50.9% in 2012‐2016 (n = 1541). The percentage of foals that died from pneumonia or R equi infections did not differ significantly between 2008‐2011 and 2012‐2016 (0.4% vs 0.6% respectively; P =.6). Main limitations: There was some lack of clarity in old data because this was a retrospective study; therefore, some foals had to be excluded from data analysis. Conclusions: Alteration of treatment criteria, to exclude antibiotic treatment of foals with smaller lesions, has significantly decreased the number of foals being treated without a significant increase in mortality from R equi pneumonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first heat in a mare, appearing after parturition is called a "foal heat" or "9-day heat". It usually occurs between 5 and 12 days after parturition. This paper describes the process of uterine involution, possible causes of its delay, diarrhea in foal during foal heat, biochemical indicators in blood and endometrial cytology during postparturient period in the mare. One of the main points of the review was to discuss the factors influencing the fertility of mares, as well as the procedure to increase fertility during foal heat. The aim was to summarize the available literature, including current research and compare it with our own experiences, in order to better understand the issue of foal heat and to create the best approach to mares. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foals are often presented to a clinic with diarrhoea with varying clinical signs from moderate to severe. This article outlines the common causes of diarrhoea in foals, separating into infectious and non-infectious categories. The treatment and nursing care of the patient is discussed in detail covering the topics of analegesia, nutrition, fluid therapy, medications, general nursing care and finally biosecurity and infection control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Epidural administration of morphine has been shown to be an effective analgesic strategy in horses; however, the possible occurrence of side effects limits its usage. In order to decrease their frequency, it is important to target the minimal effective plasma concentration and avoid overdosing. As to date species-specific pharmacokinetics data are not available for epidural morphine, the dosing regimen is usually established on the basis of clinical reports and personal experience. In certain physiological conditions, like gestation, the outcome of an empirical dosing scheme can be unpredictable. The aim of this case report is to describe the pharmacological profile of morphine and its metabolites after prolonged epidural administration in a pregnant mare and her foal. Case presentation: A 20 years old pregnant mare was presented to our hospital because of severe lameness, 2 months before delivery. Following an ineffective systemic pain treatment, an epidural catheter was inserted and morphine administered (initial dose 0.1 mg/kg every 8 h). Due to its efficacy in controlling pain, it was continued until end of gestation. Plasmatic concentration of morphine and its metabolites were assessed in the mare 6 weeks after starting the treatment, and in both the mare and foal during the first days after delivery. Plasmatic values similar to those previously reported in the literature following morphine short term administration through various routes and not accompanied by side effects were found in the mare, except during an excitatory period. Moreover, no evidence of dangerous drug accumulation or significant milk passage was noticed in the foal. Mild reduction of feces production with no signs of colic and two self-limiting episodes of excitement occurred during treatment in the mare. No side effects occurred during gestation and first phases of life in the foal. Conclusion: Prolonged epidural administration of morphine in a pregnant mare allowed good pain control in absence of clinically relevant side effects, in both the mare and her foal. Sudden increase in morphine plasmatic concentration can occur and side effects appear; careful treatment to the lowest effective dose and continuous monitoring of the clinical condition of the treated horse should be performed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arterial blood gas analysis is an important diagnostic tool in the management of sick equine neonates. Interpreting results and understanding their relevance is a useful skill for any nurse undertaking care of neonates. Relevant up to date research is scarce, meaning information often has to be extrapolated from small animal and human medical research and applied to equine patients. However, with a structured and methodical approach to interpretation, results can be effectively utilised to tailor care and improve outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rhodococcus equi (R. equi), a pneumonia-causing intracellular bacterium, results in significant morbidity and mortality in young foals, while healthy adult horses rarely develop disease. Survival and replication within alveolar macrophages (AMφ) are the hallmarks of R. equi 's pathogenicity. The vitamin D receptor (VDR) and its ligand, the active vitamin D metabolite 1,25(OH) 2 D, are important in immune responses to intracellular bacteria. The vitamin D/VDR pathway regulates the downstream production of cytokines in infected human AMφ. The immunomodulatory role of the vitamin D/VDR pathway in equine leukocytes is unknown. The objective of the current study was to determine the impact of R. equi infection and age on synthesis of 1,25(OH) 2 D, VDR expression, and cytokine production in an ex vivo model of R. equi infection in equine AMφ. AMφ were collected from ten healthy foals at 2-, 4- and 8-weeks old and from nine healthy adult horses once via bronchoalveolar lavage. AMφ were mock infected (CONTROL) or infected with a virulent laboratory strain of R. equi for 7 days (INFECTED). VDR expression was determined via RT-qPCR from cell lysates. 1,25(OH) 2 D and cytokines were measured in cell supernatant by immunoassays. VDR expression was impacted by age (P = 0.001) with higher expression in AMφ from 8-week-old foals than from 2-week-old foals and adults. There was no significant effect of infection in foal AMφ, but in adults, relative VDR expression was significantly lower in INFECTED AMφ compared to CONTROL AMφ (P = 0.002). There was no effect of age or infection on 1,25(OH) 2 D concentration (P > 0.37). Mean TNFα production was significantly higher from INFECTED compared to CONTROL AMφ from 4- and 8-week-old foals and adults (P < 0.005). Mean IFNγ production was significantly higher from AMφ from foals at 8-weeks-old compared to 2-weeks-old (P = 0.013) and higher from INFECTED AMφ than from CONTROL AMφ in foals at 4-weeks-old and in adults (P < 0.027). The proportion of samples producing IL-1β and IL-10 was also significantly higher from INFECTED compared to CONTROL AMφ isolated from 4-week-old foals (P < 0.008). Similarly, in adult samples, IL-17 was produced from a greater proportion of INFECTED compared to CONTROL samples (P = 0.031). These data document age-associated changes in VDR expression and cytokine production in equine AMφ in response to R. equi infection. This preliminary investigation supports the need for further research to fully elucidate if the vitamin D pathway has an immunomodulatory role in the horse. • VDR expression was downregulated in AMφ from adult horses in response to R. equi infection. • Age-related changes in VDR expression were found in AMφ from foals. • Cytokine production from AMφ in response to R. equi infection was impacted by age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a case of partial lack of the mesocolon in a 7-month-old colt. The foal was referred to the hospital with clinical signs of severe abdominal distension of a few hours duration. Because analgesics did not relieve pain, the foal remained uncomfortable, and distension of the abdomen increased; an exploratory laparotomy was performed under general anaesthesia in dorsal recumbency. The final diagnosis was confirmed intraoperatively. During exploration of the abdominal cavity, other problems like right dorsal displacement and torsion of the colon were recognized. Correction of all problems was completed, and the mesentery was sutured. Recovery from anaesthesia was uneventful. The foal was recovering well a few months after surgery, and the owner did not complain about the results of the treatment.

Hydramnios is an excessive accumulation of fluid within the amniotic compartment. It is a rare condition in mares, often associated with fetal anomalies. Hydrops of fetal membranes predisposes to the rupture of the prepubic tendon, and many authors suggest the induction of parturition to preserve mare’s reproductive career. This report presents the case of a 15-year-old multiparous Quarter Horse mare, referred at 268 days of gestation for suspected hydrops. Repeated ultrasonographic exams confirmed an increase in the depth of the amniotic fluid and reduced fetal viability. During the hospitalization, the mare developed a partial rupture of the prepubic tendon. In this case, a conservative approach was elected, and the mare was treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an abdominal support bandage. At 327 days of gestation, the mare gave birth to a foal with APGAR score 1. The resuscitation attempt was unsuccessful, and the foal died immediately. A post-mortem examination diagnosed a congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) with pleuroperitoneal diaphragmatic eventration.

Diarrhea in foals is a problem of significant clinical and economic consequence, and there are good reasons to believe microbiota manipulation can play an important role in its management. However, given the dynamic development of the foal microbiota and its importance in health and disease, any prophylactic or therapeutic efforts to alter its composition should be evidence based. The few clinical trials of probiotic preparations conducted in foals to date show underwhelming evidence of efficacy and a demonstrated potential to aggravate rather than mitigate diarrhea. Furthermore, recent studies have affirmed that variable but universally inadequate quality control of probiotics enables inadvertent administration of toxin-producing or otherwise pathogenic bacterial strains, as well as strains bearing transferrable antimicrobial resistance genes. Consequently, it seems advisable to approach probiotic therapy in particular with caution for the time being. While prebiotics show initial promise, an even greater scarcity of clinical trials makes it impossible to weigh the pros and cons of their use. Advancing technology will surely continue to enable more detailed and accurate mapping of the equine adult and juvenile microbiota and potentially elucidate the complexities of causation in dysbiosis and disease. In the meantime, fecal microbiota transplantation may be an attractive therapeutic shortcut, allowing practitioners to reconstruct a healthy microbiota even without fully understanding its constitution.

Oral contrast studies are not useful in intestinal atresia in the foal because ileus of the intestine proximal to the atretic segment limits the aboral passage of contrast media to the site of atresia in the large intestine. (2017) End-to-side anastomosis of the left ventral colon to the small colon in a neonatal foal with segmental agenesis of the large colon. Keywords: horse; foal; abdomen; colic; intestinal atresia; surgery EN horse foal abdomen colic intestinal atresia surgery 583 585 3 10/12/21 20211101 NES 211101 Intestinal atresia or agenesis is rare in foals, with a reported prevalence of 0.44-3.1% (Crowe and Swerczek 1985; Nappert I et al i . 1992). Colonoscopy can distinguish obstructions such as meconium impaction from atresia, however, often the atresia is too far proximal for colonoscopy to contribute to a definitive diagnosis prior to surgery. [Extracted from the article]

Six foals with interstitial pneumonia of undetermined etiology from Southern California were analyzed by viral metagenomics. Spleen, lung, and colon content samples obtained during necropsy from each animal were pooled, and nucleic acids from virus-like particles enriched for deep sequencing. The recently described equine copiparvovirus named eqcopivirus, as well as three previously uncharacterized viruses, were identified. The complete ORFs genomes of two closely related protoparvoviruses, and of a bocaparvovirus, plus the partial genome of a picornavirus were assembled. The parvoviruses were classified as members of new ungulate protoparvovirus and bocaparvovirus species in the Parvoviridae family. The picornavirus was classified as a new species in the Salivirus genus of the Picornaviridae family. Spleen, lung, and colon content samples from each foal were then tested for these viral genomes by nested PCR and RT-PCR. When present, parvoviruses were detected in both feces and spleen. The picornavirus, protoparvovirus, and eqcopivirus genomes were detected in the lungs of one animal each. Three foals were co-infected with the picornavirus and either a protoparvovirus, bocaparvovirus, or eqcopivirus. Two other foals were infected with a protoparvovirus only. No viral infection was detected in one animal. The complete ORFs of the first equine protoparvoviruses and bocaparvovirus, the partial ORF of the third equine picornavirus, and their detection in tissues of foals with interstitial pneumonia are described here. Testing the involvement of these viruses in fatal interstitial pneumonia or other equine diseases will require larger epidemiological and/or inoculation studies.

Equine rotavirus group A (ERVA) is one of the most common causes of foal diarrhea. Starting in February 2021, there was an increase in the frequency of severe watery to hemorrhagic diarrhea cases in neonatal foals in Central Kentucky. Diagnostic investigation of fecal samples failed to detect evidence of diarrhea-causing pathogens including ERVA. Based on Illumina-based metagenomic sequencing, we identified a novel equine rotavirus group B (ERVB) in fecal specimens from the affected foals in the absence of any other known enteric pathogens. Interestingly, the protein sequence of all 11 segments had greater than 96% identity with group B rotaviruses previously found in ruminants. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis demonstrated clustering of the ERVB with group B rotaviruses of caprine and bovine strains from the USA. Subsequent analysis of 33 foal diarrheic samples by RT-qPCR identified 23 rotavirus B-positive cases (69.69%). These observations suggest that the ERVB originated from ruminants and was associated with outbreaks of neonatal foal diarrhea in the 2021 foaling season in Kentucky. Emergence of the ruminant-like group B rotavirus in foals clearly warrants further investigation due to the significant impact of the disease in neonatal foals and its economic impact on the equine industry.

The umbilicus is a potential access-point for pathogens in equine foal, causing umbilical infections and potentially life-threating illness. Early diagnosis based on ultrasonographic appearance and measurement is crucial to avoid severe complications and promptly implement appropriate therapy. This study ultrasonographically evaluates the umbilical remnants of donkey foals, in the first week of life. Fifteen healthy donkey foals were included in the study. The umbilical vein, arteries and urachus ultrasounds were performed at 24 h, 3 and 7 days of life, using a portable ultrasound machine and a 5–7.5 MHz multifrequency linear probe. The Kruskal–Wallis test and Dunn’s multiple comparisons test were applied to verify differences in relation to time for all the umbilical remnants measured. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. No statistical differences were observed in relation to time regarding umbilical remnant measurements. A correlation was found between body weight and the left artery at T0. The regression of the umbilical remnant during the first week of life was slower compared with what was reported in equine foals but was comparable with the results on calves. Thus, the different regression timing needs be considered when evaluating donkey foals with umbilical remnant diseases within the first week of life.

Background: In the last decade, Parascaris spp. resistance to anthelmintics has been recorded in many countries. In Saudi Arabia, there are limited data available on Parascaris spp. resistance to anthelmintics. Objective: To determine the current status of ivermectin, abamectin and praziquantel combined, and fenbendazole resistance to Parascaris spp. in horses in Saudi Arabia. Methods: Three hundred and forty-one foals from eleven different farms were examined by faecal egg count (FEC). The foals were all Arab horses aged 17.2 ± 4.5 (SD) months. Ivermectin (n = 46 foals), abamectin and praziquantel combined (n = 46), and fenbendazole (n = 46) were administered on day 0 and faeces were collected on day 14. The study comprised 41 untreated foals as controls. Animals that have FEC of ≥100 eggs per gram (EPG) were used to measure anthelmintic efficacy. Parascaris spp. populations were considered susceptible when faecal egg count reduction (FECR) was ≥95% associated with a lower 95% confidence limit (LCL) >90%, suspected resistant when FECR ≤90% or LCL

Class II malocclusion is the most frequently occurring congenital malocclusion in horses. Radiographic cephalometric procedures adopted from human dentistry were used to study the development of overjet in a population of 650 Warmblood foals. Thirteen foals were diagnosed with measurable overjet at the beginning of the study. The malocclusion in nine foals resolved spontaneously and four foals without overjet at 2 weeks of age developed the condition during the first year of life. A cephalostat used in human orthodontics to immobilize the patient's head while being radiographed was replaced by a researcher-made head-holding device, whose size was based on the results of a pilot study. Laterolateral digital radiographs of each foal's head (cephalograms) were taken at five time points until the age of 12 months. Thirteen cephalometric points were identified and nine distances were measured on each radiograph. Additionally, the angle between the long axis of the upper and lower incisors was evaluated. Cephalometric measurements proved to be useful to identify foals that showed spontaneous regression of the malocclusion over the study time between 9 and 16 weeks of age.

A complex feedback of growth factors, secreted by a variety of cell types, is responsible for the mediation of skin healing. Despite the recent advances in wound healing management, this fails up to 50% and skin wounds can still be considered one of the main causes of morbidity, both in human and veterinary medicine. Regenerative medicine, involving mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), is nowadays a promising solution for skin wound healing. Indeed, MSCs are involved in the modulation of the inflammatory local response and cell replacing, by a paracrine mode of action. Local application of equine umbilical cord Wharton's jelly MSCs (WJMSCS) was carried out in a 6-months-old filly with a non-healing skin wound. Heterologous WJMSCs were applied four times using a carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) gel, produced dissolving CMC in autologous plasma. At first application the mean wound area was 7.28 ± 0.2 cm2. Four days after the last application of WJMSCs, the mean wound area was 1.90 ± 0.03 cm2, and the wound regression rate was +74%. No local or systemic side effects were registered after WJMSCs application and no evident exuberant scar was observed after wound healing. At discharge, the mean wound area was 0.38 ± 0.01 cm2 and the total regression rate was +80%. Five days later, the wound was completely healed. In the present clinical case report, the use of WJMSCs led to promising clinical results, paving the way for possible future applications in the treatment of chronic wounds in horses.

Objective: Design and evaluate immune responses of neonatal foals to a mRNA vaccine expressing the virulence-associated protein A (VapA) of Rhodococcus equi., Animals: Cultured primary equine respiratory tract cells; Serum, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from 30 healthy Quarter Horse foals., Methods: VapA expression was evaluated by western immunoblot in cultured equine bronchial cells transfected with 4 mRNA constructs encoding VapA. The mRNA construct with greatest expression was used to immunize foals at ages 2 and 21 days in 5 groups: (1) 300 μg nebulized mRNA (n = 6); (2) 600 μg nebulized mRNA (n = 4); (3) 300 μg mRNA administered intramuscularly (IM) (n = 5); (4) 300 μg VapA IM (positive controls; n = 6); or (5) nebulized water (negative controls; n = 6). Serum, BALF, and PBMCs were collected at ages 3, 22, and 35 days and tested for relative anti-VapA IgG1, IgG4/7, and IgA activities using ELISA and cell-mediated immunity by ELISpot., Results: As formulated, nebulized mRNA was not immunogenic. However, a significant increase in anti-VapA IgG4/7 activity (P < .05) was noted exclusively in foals immunized IM with VapA mRNA by age 35 days. The proportion of foals with anti-VapA IgG1 activity > 30% of positive control differed significantly (P = .0441) between negative controls (50%; 3/6), IM mRNA foals (100%; 5/5), and IM VapA (100%; 6/6) groups. Natural exposure to virulent R equi was immunogenic in some negative control foals., Clinical Relevance: Further evaluation of the immunogenicity and efficacy of IM mRNA encoding VapA in foals is warranted.

A full-randomized block design was used for the study of the FA composition and meat quality parameters, considering ageing time as a split-plot factor. Chemical and fatty acid composition of steaks (longissimus thoracis and lumborum muscle) from 15 month old semiextensively reared Hispano-Bretón horses were characterized (day 0), and the effect of vacuum ageing (0, 7, 14 and 21 days) on several meat quality parameters (pH, instrumental color and texture and cook loss) was determined. The average fat content of horse loin was 3.31%, and the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid content, although higher than in ruminant meats, suggested that the finishing on a high-grain diet limited muscle n-3 accumulation. Results revealed that ageing affected all meat quality measurements; color started to turn brownish at 14 days of ageing, with a decrease in redness but not in yellowness. Tenderness improved during the first two weeks, and the Warner-Bratzler shear force scores showed that meat aged for 7 days could be considered as ‘intermediate tender’. Under the present study conditions, an ageing period between 7 and 14 days is recommended for an optimum horse meat quality.

Stress at foaling has been demonstrated to delay birth. In this study, we followed the hypothesis that even a short delay of foaling increases catecholamine and cortisol release in foals, induces acidosis and impairs neonatal adaptation. Foaling was prolonged for 5 min by transferring mares to an unfamiliar environment at rupture of the allantochorion (group delay, n = 6) while control mares (n = 5) were left undisturbed. In their foals, times from birth to first standing and first suckling, heart rate, heart rate variability (HRV) and salivary cortisol concentration were analysed. Blood for analysis of epinephrine, norepinephrine, hematology and blood gases was collected directly and 30 min after birth. Statistical comparisons were made by repeated measures ANOVA. Times to first standing and suckling did not differ between groups. Fetal heart rate remained unchanged during birth and increased within 15 min postnatum (p < 0.001) while HRV decreased during the first hour of life in foals of both groups (p < 0.05). Immediately after birth, actual base excess was lower in foals with delayed birth than in control foals (p < 0.05). Epinephrine concentration immediately after birth was higher in group delay foals and increased from 0 to 30 min after birth in control foals (time p < 0.001, time x group p = 0.001). Cortisol concentration peaked at 1 h after birth in both groups (p < 0.001). Leukocyte and PMN count decreased from 0 to 30 min after birth (p < 0.001). In conclusion, a 5-min delay at foaling affected epinephrine release and acid base balance, but was without further effect on neonatal adaptation. • Already a 5-min delay of the expulsive phase of foaling alters neonatal adaptation. • Epinephrine concentration directly after birth was increased in foals after prolonged birth. • Base excess was decreased in foals after prolonged birth. • Prolonged birth did not change neonatal heart rate and cortisol release. • Prolonged birth thus enhances sympathadrenal function in newborn foals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: Limited information exists on the long‐term outcome of foals that survive following hospitalisation for disease as a neonate. Significant financial investment is required to raise foals to racing age, therefore improved understanding of factors that affect long‐term outcome and future athletic performance is important. Objectives: To analyse racing performance in Thoroughbred foals hospitalised as neonates, compared with their maternal siblings and to determine factors associated with failure to race and racing performance. Study design: Retrospective cohort study. Methods: Medical records of Thoroughbred foals admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit between 1982 and 2008 were reviewed. Surviving foals of registered mares were included. Data including the foal's primary and concurrent diseases were extracted from the medical record. Racing records for foals and maternal siblings were evaluated. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify disorders associated with failure to race and decreased racing performance. Results: Two‐hundred and sixty‐nine of 454 previously hospitalised foals (59%) raced. Sixty‐eight percent (269/394) of registered foals raced, compared with 79% (697/880) of registered siblings. Foals with prematurity/dysmaturity (P = 0.002) and those with orthopaedic disease (P = 0.007) were significantly less likely to race than their siblings. Premature/dysmature foals also had significantly fewer starts and wins and lower earnings than siblings. Foals with orthopaedic disorders had a lower percentage of wins, relative to their siblings. There was no significant association between racing performance and other disease categories. Main limitations: Small sample size in some disease categories and retrospective nature of study. Conclusions: Foals hospitalised due to prematurity/dysmaturity or orthopaedic disorders were less likely to race than their maternal siblings and those that did race had decreased performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Patellar luxation associated with traumatic injury is rare in the horse, and surgical correction has not been adequately described. This case report describes the clinical findings associated with traumatic lateral patellar luxation in a 2‐day‐old cob colt, and the technique used for successful surgical repair. A combination of computed tomography (CT), radiography and ultrasound was used to diagnose lateral luxation of the patella due to a complete tear of the vastus medialis muscle. All patellar ligaments were intact and no congenital abnormalities associated with the patellar luxation were present. Surgical correction of the patellar luxation was achieved using a lateral release of the patella performed by transection of the lateral femoropatellar ligament along with overlying fascia, and stabilisation of the patella by medial imbrication of the medial patellar ligament and parapatellar fascia to the distal tendon of the sartorius muscle. Radiographs at 18 weeks of age showed the patella in a normal position in a well‐developed trochlear groove. At 1 year of age the foal was walking and trotting sound, with normal range of motion of the affected stifle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rhodococcus equi (R. equi), a Gram-positive facultative intracellular pathogen is one of the most common causes of pneumonia in foals. The retrospective study compares the efficacy of rifampin/azithromycin versus rifampin/tulathromycin for the treatment of R. equi pneumonia in foals. Weekly medical data of foals born in the seasons 2012 to 2016 (i.e. five foaling seasons) that developed pneumonia were collected and analysed. Foals 21 days of age or older with a pulmonary consolidation of more than 1 cm (abscess score ≥ 1 cm) were enrolled for participation in the study. All foals meeting the criteria for inclusion were listed in a spreadsheet and 330 foals affected with pneumonia each year were randomly selected by an online research randomizer. Foals with incorrect or missing data and those that were included in previous treatment studies were excluded from the analysis, resulting in a total enrolment of 1544 foals with pneumonia. The farm established a screening program in 2003 in order to detect foals in the early course of pneumonia, so all foals were examined once weekly starting at the age of two weeks until four and a half months of age. A physical examination of the respiratory tract, body temperature, haematology and an ultrasonographic examination of the lungs were included. Sonography areas with visible consolidation were measured and added to calculate an "abscess score" which represents the extent of pulmonary damage. Weekly medical data were analysed retrospectively. The risk of therapy failure, which means either death or worsening of pneumonia requiring that the foal be switched to another therapy, showed in a univariate comparison of the two treatments, that there was a higher incidence of treatment failure in foals treated with RIF/AZM (32/353, 9.1 %) than in foals that were treated with RIF/TUL (19/406, 4.7 %; Pearson's χ2, P = 0.016). In a Kaplan-Meier analysis, there was also a significant difference between the two treatments with respect to their survival functions (Log-rank test, P = 0.045; Figure 1). The incidence of mortality due to R. equi pneumonia was higher in foals that were treated with RIF/AZM (8/353, 2.3 %) than in those that were treated with RIF/TUL (0/406, 0.0 %; Fisher's exact test, P = 0.002). After adjusting for year, age of foals at the beginning of treatment, and abscess score at the beginning of treatment, the risk of treatment failure was not significantly lower for foals that were treated with RIF/TUL compared to those that were treated with RIF/AZM [Hazard Ratio (95 % CI) = 0.75 (0.38, 1.5)]. Age of foals was negatively associated with treatment failure, with the risk of failure decreasing by 30 % for every one-month increase in age at the beginning of treatment [HR (95 % CI) = 0.70 (0.54, 0.91)]. Abscess score was positively associated with treatment failure, with the risk of failure increasing by 4 % for every one cm increase in score [HR (95 % CI) = 1.04 (1.01, 1.07)]. Year was also associated with the risk of treatment failure but it did not meet the proportional hazards assumption, so the model was adjusted for the effects of year by stratification. In conclusion Rifampin/tulathromycin is an effective therapy against mild to moderate R. equi pneumonia in foals as this treatment has similar survival rates compared to rifampin/azithromycin. In terms of costs and dosage form, the combination of tulathromycin with rifampin is an adequate therapeutic option for the treatment of foals with R. equi pneumonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 2-day-old filly was referred to the hospital with abdominal pain and constipation. The foal presented tachycardia, tachypnea, hypoxemia, hyperlactatemia, and abdominal distension. Meconium impaction was diagnosed, and the filly underwent abdominal surgery. Diazepam and butorphanol were administered for anesthesia premedication, but sedative effects were mild. Xylazine was used to enhance sedation and ketamine was subsequently administered for induction. The foal showed swallow reflex and head movement when intubation was attempted. Consequently, isoflurane on oxygen was provided via an anesthetic face mask. After intubation, the foal was connected to the anesthetic machine and monitored. The electrocardiogram revealed accelerated idioventricular rhythm, characterized by atrioventricular isorhythmic dissociation with monomorphic wide QRS complexes. Lidocaine was administered but the arrhythmia persisted during anesthesia and was spontaneously corrected once the isoflurane was discontinued at the end of the procedure. The foal recovered from anesthesia without complications and no further cardiac events were observed before the patient being discharged. Accelerated idioventricular rhythm likely resulted from administration of isoflurane to a foal presenting hypoxemia, a condition that exacerbates the risk of arrhythmia. Proper management of this abnormal rhythm is crucial as inappropriate treatments may worsen the arrhythmia. • Anesthetizing a sick neonate involves multiple challenges. • Arrhythmias during anesthesia constitute a major concern. • Accelerated idioventricular rhythm may impair cardiac output. • Prevention and treatment of accelerated idioventricular rhythm require understanding associated triggers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distinction between lower respiratory tract infections caused by Rhodococcus equi and those caused by other pathogens is difficult. The aim of this retrospective study was to describe cytological findings in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of foals with pneumonia caused by R. equi or other bacteria. Nineteen foals aged from 3 weeks to 6 months with evidence of respiratory disease between 2015 and 2016 were selected from the database of the Veterinary Teaching Hospital "Mario Modenato" of the University of Pisa. Eight foals of 19 (42.1%) had R. equi pneumonia, whereas 11 of 19 (57.9%) had another bacterial pneumonia. R. equi –positive foals had statistically significant higher total nucleated cell count (P =.02) and neutrophils percentage (P =.002) than R. equi –negative ones. Macrophages proportion (P =.01) was lower in R. equi –positive than in R. equi –negative foals. Bronchoalveolar lavage is a quite easy procedure that can be performed in the field with minimal equipment required. Here we reported significant differences in the cellular composition of BALF that can be used to differentiate foals with R. equi bronchopneumonia from those with other bacterial pneumonias, whereas waiting for culture results. • Differentiating between Rhodococcus equi and other bacterial pneumonia is difficult. • Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) culture for R. equi pneumonia is time-consuming. • Cytology of BALF can identify foals with R. equi from other bacterial pneumonias. • Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in foals with R. equi pneumonia can be used while waiting for culture result. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transfusing foals with Rhodococcus equi hyperimmune plasma (REHIP) is a standard practice at many horse-breeding farms to help prevent R. equi pneumonia. At many large breeding farms, pneumonia is most commonly recognized as subclinical based on thoracic ultrasonography findings. The efficacy of REHIP transfusion and the impact of the volume of plasma transfused for reducing the cumulative incidence of subclinical R. equi pneumonia are unknown. A retrospective cohort study was conducted among foals born and residing through weaning at a large breeding farm. Foals were transfused with either 0 L (n = 2 foals), 1 L (n = 85 foals), or 2 L (n = 62 foals) of REHIP within 36 hours of birth. Volume transfused was principally based on intended use of the foals. All foals at the ranch were routinely screened using thoracic ultrasonography at 5, 7, and 9 weeks of age to detect subclinical pneumonia attributed to R. equi based on farm history. The proportion of the foals receiving < 1 L REHIP that developed subclinical pneumonia (32%; 26/82) was significantly (P =.0068; chi-squared test) greater than that among foals transfused with 2 L of REHIP (12%; 8/68). Despite the important limitations of this observational study, it provides evidence supporting the need for well-designed clinical trials to evaluate the impact of the use and dose of REHIP for preventing subclinical pneumonia. Reducing the incidence of subclinical pneumonia is important because reducing antibiotic treatment of subclinical cases will decrease selection pressure for antimicrobial resistance in R. equi. • First evidence that transfusion of plasma hyperimmune against Rhodococcus equi can reduce the incidence of subclinical pneumonia. • Transfusion of 2 L is clinically more effective than 1 L or less for preventing subclinical R. equi pneumonia. • Foals can be safely transfused with 2 L of plasma hyperimmune against Rhodococcus equi. • Because of inherent biases of observational studies, well-designed clinical trials are needed to substantiate the evidence presented here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From 1996 to 2014, 14 foals from nine farms in Jeju were diagnosed with a Rhodococcus equi infection. Clinically, most foals showed characteristic respiratory signs, including hyperthermia and dyspnea. The seasonal occurrence of R. equi infection in foals was higher in summer, such as June (eight foals; 57.1%) and July (four foals; 28.6%), than in the other seasons. The major cases of R. equi infections were observed among two-month-old (eight foals; 57.1%) and three-month-old (three foals; 21.4%) foals. Histopathologically, bronchopneumonia, abscess, and granulomatous pneumonia were the most prevalent lesions in the lungs of foals. Colonic ulcers and submucosal abscesses were found in a foal. Some foals showed granulomatous lymphadenitis and abscesses in the mesenteric and other lymph nodes. According to the polymerase chain reaction using 10 tissue samples of foals and nine R. equi isolates, the vapA gene was detected in 11/11 (100%) foals. Immunohistochemical staining using the anti-VapA monoclonal antibody was applied to detect the R. equi VapA antigen in the organs of foals. R. equi VapA antigens were demonstrated in most lungs and some mesenteric and hilar lymph nodes of 13 foals. Isolated virulent R. equi VapA bacteria showed high sensitivity to gentamicin, quinolones, rifampin, and vancomycin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twenty six thoroughbred mares between six to fifteen years age were studied for placental and fetal examination after foaling. Foal weight at birth, weight of placenta and placental expulsion time was found to be 105.77± 2.81 lbs, 13.67±0.50 lbs and 24.38±1.81 min respectively. Placento-metric length parameters of total placental body, pregnant horn, non pregnant horn, anterior and posterior uterine body along with length of umbilical cord were observed to be 127.35±1.40, 61.46±1.84, 51.50±1.77, 94.42±1.70, 54.73±1.74 and 56.38±1.88 cms. respectively. Mean number of umbilical twists were 5.46±0.20 and feto-placental ratio and placental coefficient were also noted. All parameter were studied separately in colts and fillies but showed no significant stastical difference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: Neonatal foals with failure of transfer of passive immunity (FTPI) are at higher risk of morbidity and mortality. Successful treatment of FTPI is time‐dependent, thus rapid and accurate measurement of serum IgG concentration is important for the management and care of neonatal foals. Objectives: To validate the use of digital and optical refractometers for assessing FTPI in neonatal foals and compare the diagnostic performance and level of agreement of the two refractometers to the reference standard radial immunodiffusion (RID) assay. Study design: A retrospective validation study. Methods: Serum samples (n = 253) were collected from 230 foals admitted to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital and Ambulatory Equine Service between 2012 and 2017. The serum IgG concentrations were measured by the reference RID assay, digital Brix and optical refractometers. The correlation between results of two refractometers and RID assay was assessed. A receiver operating characteristic curve was created and used to identify the optimal cut‐offs for evaluating sensitivity and specificity of the two refractometers to detect foals with complete and partial FTPI. Results: The RID‐IgG concentrations were positively correlated with the Brix scores obtained from a digital refractometer (r = 0.73, P = 0.001) and serum total protein obtained from an optical refractometer (r = 0.72, P = 0.001). The sensitivity and specificity of the digital Brix refractometer at optimal cut‐off (≤7.8% Brix) were 88.1 (95% CI: 74.4–96.0) and 67.7% (95% CI: 60.6–74.3) to detect RID‐IgG<4 g/L and 79.0 (95% CI: 68.5–87.3) and 77.3% (95% CI: 69.8–83.8) to detect RID‐IgG≤8 g/L, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of the optical refractometer at optimal cut‐off (≤42 g/L) were 86.1 (95% CI: 72.1–94.7) and 70.9% (95% CI: 63.9–77.3) to detect RID‐IgG<4 g/L and at cut‐off (≤44 g/L) were 82.9 (95% CI: 73.0–90.3) and 72.7% (95% CI: 64.8–79.6) to detect RID‐IgG≤8 g/L, respectively. Main limitations: The number of diseased foals was small to investigate the validity of the selected cut‐off values for assessing FTPI in sick foals. Conclusions: The two refractometers exhibit utility as rapid, inexpensive screening tests and have a good sensitivity for assessing FTPI in neonatal foals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This study compared foals with enterococcal infections with foals with sepsis of another bacterial etiology. • Sites of origin, antimicrobial susceptibility, and survival outcome to discharge were evaluated. • Enterococcus was more frequently cultured from the lower urinary tract and umbilicus in foals than were other bacteria. • Almost half (48%) of Enterococcus isolates had a multiple antimicrobial resistance index ≥30%; 46% had a multidrug resistance index ≥30%. • Foals with enterococcal isolates were less likely to survive to discharge than were control foals. Enterococci have been increasing in prevalence in foal sepsis over the past three decades. There are no published studies in the peer-reviewed literature documenting common sites of infection, antimicrobial susceptibility, or outcome specifically associated with enterococcal infections in foals. Our objectives were to evaluate the sites of origin, antimicrobial susceptibility, and survival outcome to discharge in foals with enterococcal infections compared with foals with sepsis of another bacterial etiology. Seventy-five foals 0–30 days of age with cultures positive for Enterococcus and 170 control foals 0–30 days of age with cultures positive for other bacteria were included. Enterococcus was 2.67 times (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.49–4.80; P = 0.0012) more likely to be isolated from the lower urogenital tract of foals than were other bacteria. Enterococci were less likely to be isolated from blood cultures than other bacteria, with an odds ratio (OR) of 0.17 (95% CI 0.09−0.35; P < 0.0001). For Enterococcus isolates, 48% (n = 29/61) had a multiple antimicrobial resistance (MAR) index of ≥30% and 46% (n = 28/61) had a multiple drug resistance (MDR) index of ≥30%. Foals with enterococcal infections were less likely to survive to discharge (49.9% vs. 63.5%; P = 0.03). Enterococcus is commonly isolated from the lower urogenital tract of foals, is often multidrug resistant, and foals with enterococcal infections were less likely to survive. Multidrug resistance is common among enterococcal isolates, and therefore antimicrobial susceptibility testing of cultured isolates is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To evaluate effects of anesthesia induced with alfaxalone and maintained with alfaxalone, dexmedetomidine and remifentanil infusions in foals. Prospective, experimental study. A group of six healthy foals [median (range) 11 (8–33) days] undergoing abdominal surgery. Intravenous (IV) dexmedetomidine (3–7 μg kg−1) provided sedation for insertion of a pulmonary artery catheter. IV anesthesia was induced with alfaxalone (2 mg kg−1) and maintained with alfaxalone (6 mg kg−1 hour−1), dexmedetomidine (1 μg kg−1 hour−1) and remifentanil (3 μg kg−1 hour−1). Foals were endotracheally intubated and lungs were mechanically ventilated with oxygen. Cardiac output (thermodilution), heart rate and systemic arterial pressure were measured. Arterial and mixed venous blood was analyzed for PO 2 and PCO 2 , and glucose, lactate and electrolyte concentrations. Anesthetic depth was subjectively assessed. Systemic vascular resistance (SVR), oxygen utilization and intrapulmonary shunt were calculated. Preinduction (PB) or 10 minutes postinduction (+10B) data were used as baselines with one-way analysis of variance for repeated measures. Data are mean ± standard deviation; significance was p ≤ 0.05. Duration of anesthesia was 129 ± 22 minutes. One foal was administered additional alfaxalone (0.5 mg kg−1) following induction. Cardiac index decreased to 107 ± 31 and 87 ± 21 mL kg−1 minute−1 at 60 and 80 minutes, respectively, compared with PB (157 ± 33 mL kg−1 minute−1). SVR increased to 1223 ± 166 dynes second−1 cm−5 at 80 minutes compared with +10B (704 ± 247 dynes second−1 cm−5). Mean arterial pressures were 63–128 mmHg. Time from stopping infusions to standing was 46–106 minutes. All foals were hypothermic (<36 °C) and three foals were administered atipamezole (0.05 mg kg−1) intramuscularly during recovery. and clinical relevance Combined alfaxalone–dexmedetomidine–remifentanil provided suitable anesthesia to permit laparotomy in foals. At the doses evaluated, prolonged recovery may occur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: Umbilical remnant infection and patent urachus are an important cause of morbidity for the equine neonate. Left untreated, fatal complications can develop. Identifying risk factors for post‐operative complications after surgery are important for estimating prognosis. Objectives: To identify risk factors associated with post‐operative complications in foals undergoing umbilical remnant resection due to patent and/or infected umbilical remnants. Study design: Retrospective case series. Methods: Foals undergoing umbilical remnant resection due to patent urachus or infected remnants at the Marion duPont Scott Equine Medical Center from 2004 to 2016 were included in the study. Data were obtained from medical records and associations between outcomes and post‐operative complications, and pre or intraoperative clinical variables were assessed using bivariable and multivariable analyses. Results: Eighty‐two foals underwent umbilical remnant resection of which 73 (89.0%) survived to discharge. The urachus was the most commonly affected structure being patent and/or infected in 84.1% of cases. Concurrent diseases were present in 60.6% of foals prior to surgery, with diarrhoea and septic arthritis being most common. The presence of preoperative septic arthritis and/or physitis were significantly associated with nonsurvival (OR 33; 95% confidence interval 1.1–985.2; P = 0.04). Longer anaesthesia time (OR 1.4; 95% confidence interval 1.1–1.7; P = 0.02) and failure of passive transfer of immunoglobulins (OR 5.9; 95% confidence interval 1.2–29.04; P = 0.03) were associated with increased odds for post‐operative complications. Main limitations: It is not known if medical treatment alone would have been successful in foals that did not receive preoperative medical treatment. Conclusions: Overall survival is high after surgical excision of umbilical remnants. The presence of preoperative septic arthritis and/or physitis was associated with decreased survival and failure of passive transfer of immunoglobulins and longer anaesthesia times were associated with increased odds for post‐operative complications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Neonatal foals are uniquely susceptible to certain infections early in life. Dendritic cells (DC) are vital in the transition between the innate and adaptive immune response to infection, but DC biology in foals is not fully characterized. Monocyte-derived DC represent a suitable in vitro model similar to DC that differentiate from monocytes recruited from circulation. We hypothesized that foal monocyte-derived DC (MoDC) would exhibit age-dependent phenotypic and functional differences compared to adult horse MoDC. MoDC generated from 9 horses (collected once) and from 8 foals (collected at 1, 7, and 30 days-of-age) were exposed to killed whole cell Escherichia coli or Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. MoDC expression of MHC class II (MHC class-II), CD86, and CD14 were measured by flow cytometry, and supernatant cytokine concentrations of IL-4, IL-17, IFN-γ, and IL-10 were quantified with a validated immunoassay. The percentage of MoDC expressing MHC class-II and CD86 was lower and CD14 was higher for cells generated from 1-day-old foals compared to cells generated from adult horses (P < 0.0001). Bacterial exposure increased the percentage of cells expressing CD86 at all ages (P < 0.0001). Bacteria-exposed MoDC from 1-day-old foals produced significantly less IL-4, IL-17, and IFN-γ than adult MoDC produced in response to bacterial exposure (P ≤ 0.04). Following bacterial exposure, foal MoDC phenotype and cytokine secretion were different than those of mature horses. These differences could reduce the ability of foals to generate a protective immune response against bacterial infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Supplementation with EPA or DHA decreased mare plasma LA and increased EPA and DHA. • Mare milk EPA and DHA increased following EPA and DHA supplementation. • Maternal EPA and DHA supplementation increased foal plasma EPA and DHA. • Supplementation with EPA and DHA delayed the first postpartum ovulation in the mare. • Postpartum PGFM during diestrus was not effected by EPA and DHA supplementation. Abstract The effects of dietary marine-derived n-3 fatty acids (FA) on mare milk and mare and foal plasma FA, postpartum ovarian follicular growth and prostaglandin concentrations were evaluated. Sixty days prior to expected foaling dates, mares were assigned to one of three diets: corn oil (CORN, n = 6), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) diet (D; 12.64 g/d, n = 7), or eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA (ED; 8.84 g EPA, 10.43 g DHA/d, n = 7). Milk and plasma were collected for FA analysis. Follicular data were recorded through the first postpartum ovulation. Post-ovulation serial blood samples were evaluated for prostaglandin F 2α metabolite (PGFM). Supplementation with DHA, or DHA plus EPA resulted in lower linoleic acid and greater EPA and DHA in mare plasma (P < 0.05), greater arachidonic acid and DHA, or EPA and DHA in milk (P < 0.05), and greater DHA, or EPA and DHA in foal plasma (P < 0.05). Days to the first postpartum ovulation was greater (P < 0.01) in ED (22.5 ± 2.1) compared to CORN (12.5 ± 2.3) and D (13.3 ± 2.3) groups. Follicular retention (≥35 mm) prior to ovulation was longer (P < 0.05) for ED (12.7 ± 1.9 d) compared to CORN (6.3 ± 2.0 d) or D (6.0 ± 2.0 d) groups. Treatment did not affect PGFM concentrations. Maternal EPA and DHA supplementation beginning in late gestation altered the FA profile of milk and mare and foal plasma, and may result in delayed ovulation in the early postpartum period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Serum glucose and insulin concentrations and glucose/insulin (G/I) ratios were evaluated in neonatal foals and their dams. • Serum insulin and glucose concentrations varied widely in healthy neonatal foals but hypoglycemia did not occur. • Glucose and insulin concentrations and G/I ratios did not differ with age or over time in healthy neonatal foals >24 h. • Postpartum mares had lower glucose, higher insulin, and lower glucose/insulin ratios than foals >24 h old. • Mares demonstrate transient insulin resistance immediately postpartum. Abstract Maintaining serum glucose concentrations is critical in neonatal foals and is often dysregulated in illness; however, few studies have assessed the effects of age, or variation of glucose and insulin, in neonates and their postpartum dams. This study aimed to serially evaluate serum glucose and insulin concentrations and glucose/insulin (G/I) ratios in seven healthy foals and their dams immediately postpartum and at 1–2 and 10–12 days of age. The hypotheses were that: (1) there would be wide temporal variation in hourly glucose and insulin measurements among foals; and (2) measured parameters in foals would differ from those of postpartum mares. Pre-suckle glucose concentrations were lower than post-suckle (5.15 ± 1.61 mmol/L and 7.16 ± 3.13 mmol/L, respectively, P = 0.0377). Glucose remained >5 mmol/L but varied hourly by up to 4.22 mmol/L and 2.93 mmol/L for individual foals 1–2 and 10–12 days old, respectively. There were no significant changes in insulin over time (median 8.50 [4.32–18.4] μU/mL, 1–2 days old) in foals. The maximum hourly variation of insulin for an individual foal was 7.53 μU/mL and 14.78 μU/mL (1–2 days and 10–12 days old, respectively). Glucose/insulin ratios increased from pre- and post-suckle to the 1–2 days old period, with no significant changes thereafter. Mares had highest glucose and insulin concentrations and lowest G/I ratios immediately postpartum compared to later time points and to foals (median 7.37 [range, 4.34–8.78] mmol/L, median 30.94 [range, 20.35–49.20] μU/mL, 4.3 [2.43–7.04], respectively). In conclusion, neonatal foals exhibited wide variation in serum glucose and insulin concentrations but were not hypoglycemic. Mares developed transient insulin resistance in the immediate post-partum period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of Lippia citriodora extract on selected blood parameters and on plasma oxidative markers in Avelignese horses was evaluated. Twenty‐four horses were divided into three groups, consisting of eight animals each. Results of two experimental groups, 0.5 mg of verbascoside per kg of metabolic body weight (bw0.75) in the low‐dose group (LVB) and 1.0 mg of verbascoside per kg of metabolic body weight (bw0.75) in the high‐dose group (HVB), were compared to the control group (CON). Groups fed L. citriodora extract (HVB and LVB) showed a significant decrease in triglycerides, total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol (p < .01), bilirubin, and transaminases (p < .05), and an increase in HDL cholesterol (p < .01) compared to the CON group. Oxidative status was improved due to significant decrease in plasma concentration of ROMs and TBARS (p < .01) and increase in levels of vitamin A and vitamin E (p < .01). Based on obtained results, it is assumed that dietary supplementation with L. citriodora extract might find a useful application in horse feeding, with positive impact observed in blood parameters and plasma oxidative markers, with beneficial effects on the physiological welfare of livestock animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the dysfunction of facial nerve in horses after birth. Topics mention including the unilateral facial nerve paralysis in a foal, composition of cranial nerves which arises from the cerebrum and brainstem and impaired parasympathetic function as the effect of complete facial nerve paralysis.

Abstract Umbilical cord arterial and venous blood gas analysis is a commonly performed procedure in human neonatal medicine to help ascertain a newborn infant's oxygenation and acid-base status before birth. Defined protocols for performing the procedure have been described in the medical literature. The aim of this report was to describe in detail the procedure for collecting paired blood samples from the umbilical artery and vein in newborn foals so that stall-side blood gas analysis could be carried out. Thirty-five Thoroughbred foals >320 days' gestation from mares at one stud farm were sampled. Paired umbilical arterial and venous whole-blood samples were obtained in n = 30 foals, umbilical artery samples alone obtained in n = 3, and umbilical vein samples alone obtained in n = 2 foals. There were no adverse events or clinical outcomes associated with the sampling protocol described. The authors found that umbilical cord blood collection for blood gas analysis was a practical clinical technique that potentially could be used as a stall-side method for assessing the in utero oxygenation and acid-base status of newborn foals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schistosomus reflexus (SR) is a rare monstrosity. This fatal congenital anomaly is characterized by defect fusion that result in abdominal and sometimes thoracic viscera exposure (schistosomus), ventral curvature of the spine and curved chest walls as lateral (reflexus). The present study describes schistosomus (Fissura abdominalis) without reflexus in a Turkoman foal. The foal exhibited rupture of abdominal wall and the internal organs were exposed and outside the body. Arthrogryposis and atresia ani were other anomalies associated with SR. To the authors' knowledge, it seems the first report of SR with atresia ani and arthrogryposis in a foal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Buprenorphine is absorbed following sublingual administration, which would be a low‐stress delivery route in foals. However, the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics are not described in foals. Six healthy foals <21 days of age participated in a blinded, randomized, 3‐period, 5‐sequence, 3‐treatment crossover prospective study. Foals received 0.01–0.02 mg/kg buprenorphine administered SL or IV with an equivalent volume of saline administered by the opposite route. Blood was collected from the cephalic vein for pharmacokinetic analysis. Physiologic parameters (HR, RR, body temperature, GI sounds), locomotion (pedometer), and behavioral data (activity level, nursing time, response to humans) were recorded. Plasma concentration of buprenorphine exceeded a presumed analgesic level (0.6 ng/ml) in five foals in the IV group and one in the SL group but only for a very brief time. Pharmacokinetic analysis following IV administration demonstrated a short elimination half‐life (t1/2β 1.95 ± 0.7 hr), large volume of distribution (6.46 ± 1.54 L/kg), and a high total clearance (55.83 ± 23.75 ml/kg/min), which differs from adult horses. Following SL administration, maximum concentrations reached were 0.61 ± 0.11 ng/ml and bioavailability was 25.1% ± 10.9%. In both groups, there were minor statistical differences in HR, RR, body temperature, locomotion, and time spent nursing. However, these differences were clinically insignificant in this single dose study, and excitement, sedation, or colic did not occur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A four-months-old equine Holstein colt was presented with acute signs of respiratory disease. Following diagnostic evaluation, an initial diagnosis of pneumonia was made and treatment with broad-spectrum antimicrobials, intravenous fluid therapy, polymyxin B, clenbuterol, and dembrexine was initiated. The colt's condition deteriorated under therapy and repeat ultrasonographic evaluation revealed an accumulation of free fluid in the abdomen. On abdominoscentesis urine was obtained. Urethral endoscopy revealed hyperemic urethral mucosa and a hard, irregular, greyish structure 35 cm into the urethra. Surgery under general anesthesia was attempted and an area of necrotic tissue was found on the ventral aspect of the bladder. A spiculated oval stone was exteriorized but the defect could not be repaired as it was not accessible. The colt was euthanized. Urolith analysis revealed a composition of 90 % tripelphosphate (struvite) and 8.2 % apatite (rich in calcium). This case emphasizes the potential of obstructing urinary disease in very young animals. Knowledge of the potential presence of significant uroliths in suckling foals may help guide diagnostic evaluation and treatment and potentially allow for early intervention to prevent a fatal outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The occurrence of Rhodococcus equi at farms varies, with disease occurring endemically at some farms, but only sporadically, or not at all at other farms. Only some foals residing on endemic farms develop clinical signs of disease. Limited evidence is available regarding foal-level risk factors for the development of R. equi pneumonia. The purpose of this study was to identify foal-level risk factors associated with the development of R. equi pneumonia among foals at a large breeding farm in Texas with a recurrent problem of R. equi pneumonia. A retrospective cohort study was conducted using data from foals born at the farm from January 2009 through December 2011 that met the criteria for inclusion. Dam-level, foal-level, and health-related data were collected from all foals. Independent variables were analyzed with logistic regression, controlling for the effect of year. Data from 787 foals born at the farm were included, of which 209 (27%) developed R. equi pneumonia. The cumulative incidence of disease at the farm varied significantly by year. Foals that were diagnosed with a prior morbidity besides R. equi were less likely to develop R. equi pneumonia. Highlights • Our understanding of foal-level risk factors for development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia is limited. • The objective of this study was to identify foal-level risk factors associated with the development of R. equi pneumonia. • The cumulative incidence of disease at the farm varied significantly by year. • Foals that were diagnosed with a prior morbidity besides R. equi were less likely to develop R. equi pneumonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Early experiences are known to influence the later behavior of young mammals. Training is an important part of the young thoroughbred racehorse's environment and is likely to be challenging. As with older horses, it is important to apply training methods that take into account the individual's natural behaviour (ethology) and cognition (mental actions and abilities) and to apply them in a consistent manner as possible. Foal NZ are an organization that have successfully implemented the initial training of over 3000 thoroughbred foals to date using the International Society for Equitation Science Training Principles. There are 10 independent principles that focus largely on the principles of animal learning that have been known and used successfully in a range of mammals and birds for decades. This paper emphasizes the importance of commencing training at an early age and describes the application of each training principle with young thoroughbred foals (i.e., those aged less than 8 weeks) in the context of practical training. Foals that have received consistent, evidence-based, initial training are argued to experience better welfare both during training and when they progress to preparation for their future careers. The potential positive outcomes of the application of the International Society for Equitation Science Training Principles are also highlighted for nonracing disciplines and those working in the allied industries such as veterinarians and farriers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]