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This study examines the relationship between school discipline and student classroom behavior. A traditional deterrence framework predicts that more severe discipline will reduce misbehavior. In contrast, normative perspectives suggest that compliance depends upon commitment to rules and authority, including perceptions of fairness and legitimacy. Using school and individual-level data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 and multilevel regression modeling, the author finds support for the normative perspective. Students who perceive school authority as legitimate and teacher–student relations as positive are rated as less disruptive. While perceptions of fairness also predict lower disruptions, the effects are mediated by positive teacher–student relations. Contrary to the deterrence framework, more school rules and higher perceived strictness predicts more, not less, disruptive behavior. In addition, a significant interaction effect suggests that attending schools with more severe punishments may have the unintended consequence of generating defiance among certain youth.

The origin of bacteriology in Chile is intimately bound to the life of the physicians Vicente Izquierdo Sanfuentes and Francisco Puelma Tupper. Both were awarded in 1874 with a government fellowship to study in the most prestigious universities of Europe. Dr. Izquierdo studied Histology and Dr. Puelma Tupper Pathology. After their return to Chile in 1879, both founded in the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Chile, the first experimental laboratories in their respective disciplines. It was in those laboratories that the new science of microbiology started to be developed slowly. This discipline was just consolidating itself in Europe, led by the famous scientists Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.

This paper uses archival sources and autobiographies to give a fuller account of the lives of three Russian women psychologists, each of whom voluntarily emigrated several years before the Third Reich. As such, their stories contribute to gender history, emigration history, and ethnic history. The characteristics of second-generation women in psychology seem to apply to this sample; they accepted applied or secondary positions in psychology or allied fields and came late to tenure-track positions. Some first-generation characteristics fit them also: choosing career over marriage, accepting the "family claim," and living "fractured lives." Emigrée history reveals that these women found careers in the United States that could not have happened in the smaller, more restricted higher education networks of Europe. Female friendships and family ties to the Old World sustained them. All struggled with professional networking and had varying success, depending heavily upon the patronage of sympathetic male psychologists. Ethnic history shows that none identified strongly with Judaism, yet all benefited from Jewish mentors and networks of patronage. Evidence of gendered or racial discrimination in hiring practices is sparse, though it surely existed.

Outside formal university chemistry classes in Scotland, which existed mainly to fulfil the requirements of medical courses, chemistry teaching was available from extramural lecturers. This form of teaching was often aimed at medical students, who could fulfil their graduation requirements if the lecturer had approved status. However, most of those attending would not have been seeking any formal qualification: there was a wave of enthusiasm among people from many walks of life about gaining chemical knowledge. Audiences included fashionable gentlefolk, manufacturers and industrialists, apprentice surgeons, mechanics, and artisans. Much of the teaching was at a highly proficient level, chemists of the stature of Thomas Thomson, Andrew Ure, Andrew Fyfe, Edward Turner, William Gregory, Thomas Graham, David Boswell Reid and George Wilson all offering classes. For several such teachers, it was the first step in a career that would later lead to significant academic or governmental appointments. In an Appendix, the article lists forty-eight chemists who have been identified as having taught extramurally between the later eighteenth and mid-nineteenth centuries.

This paper examines the influence of the Berlin model on psychoanalytic education in New York through the person of Sandor Rado, who was recruited from Berlin to become the first Education Director at the New York Psychoanalytic Institute in 1931, and later went on to found the Columbia University Center for Psychoanalytic Training and Research. While the basic elements of the so-called tripartite model of psychoanalytic education were adopted in principle in New York prior to Rado's arrival, he had an enormous impact on the development and implementation of that curriculum, while attempting to modify it both theoretically and clinically, and became one of the focal points of the controversies that led to the break-up of that institute. He also sought to expand ties to American medicine and psychiatry and to research in general.

The Faculty of Pharmacy of Santiago de Compostela was founded in 1857, but research activities did not start until the beginning of the 20th century. The new Spanish regulations promoting the experimentation at universities and the stages of professors and recently graduated students outside Spain contributed to generate a remarkable research group in a provincial university. The excessive university centralism at that time in Spain and the characteristics of the headquarters of the faculty -- a 16th century Renaissance palace -- hindered, in general, the research development. However, the scientific spirit of professors and students, and their work were imposed and they achieved an estimable status in pharmacy research in Galicia. The facilities were the staff's highest priority and it raised more than a protest. A remarkable investment in apparatuses and laboratory materials was carried out and researchers started to publish original research papers in local journals, such as the "Revista de farmacia," published by their own University. In the previous years to the Spanish Civil War (1936) the research status in drug development and the background of the staff and students were important, allowing them to join the military laboratory that Franco's army created at the faculty of pharmacy. The research work continued in a small scale and was specially focused on the production of "copy drugs" coping European specific drugs which were scarce at that time. The first third of the 20th century was the germ of the great research prestige that the Faculty of Pharmacy of Santiago de Compostela enjoys at present.

Variations in the dosage of social interventions and the effects of dosage on program outcomes remain understudied. This study examines the dosage effects of the Chicago School Readiness Project, a randomized, multifaceted classroom-based intervention conducted in Head Start settings. Using a principal score matching method to address the issue of selection bias, the study finds that high-dosage levels of teacher training and mental health consultant class visits have larger effects on children's school readiness than the effects estimated through intention-to-treat (ITT) analyses. Low-dosage levels of treatment are found to have effects that are smaller than those estimated in ITT analyses or to have no statistically significant program effects. Moreover, individual mental health consultation services provided to high-risk children are found to have statistically significant effects on their school readiness. The study discusses the implications of these findings for research and policy.

The absorption of the "Real Tribunal del Protoalbeitarato" by the Veterinary Science School of Madrid shows several singularities in relation to the equivalent process in medicine and pharmacy. The conflict and the hegemony of the "Real Tribunal" during almost sixty years from the creation of the Veterinary Science School (1792), has been studied by the traditional historiography with a view fundamentally focused on veterinary aspects. In this article, the process of absorption is investigated in full detail. Also, the relevance of political motivations and their predominance over technical, sanitary or professional motivations are shown. So, the game of institutions and agents which are external to the veterinary science are analysed; specially, the outstanding role performed by the XV Marquis of Cerralbo.

The article read over the intellectual connection between two physiologists, the Catalan exiled Augusto Pi Suñer in 1939 and the Venezuelan Francisco De Venanzi beyond their common research subject like as: the academic insertion of the biological sciences and the related debate with the natural sciences; the scientific development and the necessity to attract the human resources for it; the publication of the project results by owner institutional reviews; the legal establishment at the highest govern level to development the scientific research. All of these subjects were developed when the scientific community in Venezuela are confirming her institutional organization.

Charles Wesley Hargitt was born near Lawrenceburg, Indiana, USA, and died at Syracuse, New York. After a brief career as a Methodist Episcopal Minister, he carried out graduate studies in biology at Illinois Wesleyan University and Ohio University. He served briefly on the faculty at Moores Hill College and later at Miami University of Ohio before receiving an appointment at Syracuse University. Hargitt spent 36 years at Syracuse, and for 21 years was a trustee of the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts. His research encompassed animal behaviour, cell biology, development, ecology, natural history, and taxonomy, as well as education, eugenics, and theology, and he wrote or contributed to more than 100 publications in science. Approximately half of these were on Cnidaria, with 41 of them on Hydrozoa. His most important works in hydrozoan taxonomy were on species of the Woods Hole region, the Philippines, and south China. Hargitt was author of three genera and 48 species and subspecies ascribed to Hydrozoa, seven species of Anthozoa, and one species of Cubozoa. Four species of hydroids are named in his honour.

The American Psychological Foundation (APF) Charles L. Brewer Distinguished Teaching of Psychology Award recognizes an outstanding career contribution to the teaching of psychology. The 2009 recipient of the Distinguished Teaching Award is William Buskist. Dorothy W. Cantor, president of the APF, will present the APF Teaching Award at the 117th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association on August 7, 2009, at 4:00 p.m. Members of the 2009 APF Board of Trustees are Dorothy W. Cantor, president; William Howell, vice president/secretary; Archie L. Turner, treasurer; Elisabeth R. Straus, executive vice president/executive director; Norman Anderson; David H. Barlow; Camilla Benbow; Sharon Stephens Brehm; Charles L. Brewer; Anthony Jackson; Steven E. James; Ronald F. Levant; Gerald Koocher; Sandra Shullman; and Rosie Phillips Bingham, APA Board of Directors liaison.

Wacław Kuśnierczyk was born in 1908 in Sniatyń. He received the degree in medicine at Jan Kazimierz University in Lwów in 1932. He did his PhD degree under Professor Zaleski supervision in 1938 at Jan Kazimierz University. At that time he concentrated his scientific activity on research on tuberculosis. In 1953 he obtained the title of second degree specialist in ear, nose and throat diseases. He became a chief of Otolaryngology at Urban Hospital No 4 in Katowice in 1960. Since then this eminent physician was working on tumours located in upper respiratory tract and the possibility of its endoscopic diagnosis at Silesian Academy of Medicine in Katowice. As one of the first he pointed out the negative influence of smoking cigarettes on cancer of larynx. It was Wacław Kuśnierczyk who implemented new priorities for integrated programs in patient care, research, education and cancer prevention. He has published widely in peer reviewed journals and has edited or contributed to many books. He has given many major lectures and is the recipient of numerous prestigious awards for his scientific accomplishments. The achievement of Professor Kuśnierczyk were the valuable source of information for the physicians. In 1997, on the 31st of January he died in Katowice.

Marie Charlotte Carmichael Jones was a truly remarkable woman. In the face of enormous opposition and difficulties, she pioneered safe and effective birth control for women. She wrote the first popular book on this subject, which first appeared 90 years ago and which became an instant best seller. Marie was born in Edinburgh in 1880. Her father was a wealthy architect who also had a deep knowledge of palaeobotany--the study of fossilised plants. Her mother, Charlotte Carmichael, was a fervent feminist; a keen promoter of education for women, when this subject was held in scorn by most of the (male!) population. Marie inherited the interests and support of both her parents.

The article is an attempt of a new outlook first of all upon scientific output of many years' (the years 1878 - 1909) lecturer on Russian State Law in the Imperial University of Warsaw--Aleksandr Lwowicz Błok. Historians of literature, researchers of life and output of the scientist's son, an eminent poet-symbolist Aleksandr A. Błok, to a high degree were able to reconstruct lot of life and vicissitudes of the Warsaw professor. Thanks to the preserved university archival materials it was possible to add many details to Błok's biography, especially concerning his professional problems. They were connected with dramatic events in personal life of the professor. According to relations of the part of his university co-workers and students, the circumstances even brought about the symptoms of the mental illness. Prematurely elderly he was a man deeply miserable, lonely and deprived of understanding by associates. Up till now his scientific output has not been described precisely enough. Not numerous memories of his contemporaries (Szymon Askenazy, Nikołaj Dubrowskij) and even inconspicuous modern researches of the Polish (Janusz Woliński) brought about, in the author's opinion, too simplified and schematic character-sketch of Błok as a Russificator and nationalist, mediocre scholar and much worse lecturer. A scientific output of Błok is, indeed, inostensible--he published 2 books only--Master's thesis entitled: Władza państwowa w społeczeństwie europejskim. Poglad na polityczna teorie Lorenza Steina i na francuska rzeczywistość polityczna (1880) [State Authority in European Society. Outlook upon Political Theory of Lorenz Stein and French Political Facts (1880)] and Literatura polityczna w Rosj i o Rosji (1884) [Political Literature in Russia and on Russia (1884)] as an introduction to his course in State Law. Two thirds, so over 20 years of work, he gave to the not accomplished conception of creating a new classification of sciences that together with its assumptions was included in work of Blok's disciple--Jewgienij Spektorski. An attempt of objective, free of emotions look at Błok's output to some extent makes us verify one-sidedly its critical estimate. In Błok's writings one can observe several earlier unnoticed values--author's wide mind horizons, his erudition, interesting but not accomplished research conceptions, competence for analysing difficult issues fringing upon social, political and philosophical thought.

Scientific networks are often credited with bringing about institutional change and professional advancement, but less attention has been paid to their instability and occasional failures. In the 1970s optimism among academic women was high as changing US policies on sex discrimination in the workplace, including higher education, seemed to promise equity. Encouraged by colleagues, Shyamala Rajender charged the University of Minnesota with sex discrimination when if failed to consider her for a tenure-track position. The widely cited case of this chemist was not, however, settled easily and involved nearly a decade of university grievance procedures and litigation that grew to a class action lawsuit. As the case gained national attention and internal resistance stiffened, the clusters of women who had been encouraging flickered, faded and sometimes regrouped. A negotiated settlement (consent decree) ended Rajender's case, and it opened the door for hundreds of other to present their grievances regarding gender discrimination. Networks and support groups proved important but also unstable for individuals who sought equity before and during the implementation of the decree. The Rajender case thus exposes the painful, balky and inevitably contentious process of fighting discrimination. It also demonstrates the power and limits of institutions and litigation, as well as the possibilities and disappointments of informal and formal women's networks.

This article for the first time provides an edition and commentary of the letters of Friedrich Ratzel to his older colleague, teacher and mentor, Ernst Haeckel, which are kept in the archive of the Ernst-Haeckel-House (memorial museum) in Jena. Altogether fifteen letters and one postcard are presented. Haeckel's letters to Ratzel are considered to be lost. The edition is prefaced with a detailed description of Ratzel's life, career and work, as a part of the edition.

Turkish modernization relied on the western social sciences and humanities not only as an abstract and distant model, but also in the form of close encounters and interactions with western refugee scholars. This article examines the activities of western intellectuals and experts who visited Turkey in the early republican era (1923-50), especially focusing on a group of èmigrè scholars who were employed in Turkey after the university reform of 1933. While European and North American social scientists were drawn to meticulous comparisons of "east" and "west" in this period, elites in the former component of this comparative dichotomy were seeking creative ways to turn this taxonomy to their advantage. In the Turkish case, the project of adopting modernity contained universalistic aspects intended to function for particular local needs. A body of racial, historical and linguistic theories attempted to create and sustain a nationally homogeneous society while, at the same time, emphasizing the contributions of Turkishness to western and modern history. Republican scholars tried to establish the Turkish origins of western civilization with the help of western social sciences in general and of western èmigrè scholars in particular. In the process of facilitating the local efforts to import western modernity into the specificity of Turkishness, refugee scholars encountered contradictory demands and employed different strategies to respond to these demands.

On the basis of her personal reminiscences the author provides a picture of Harry Harlow's personality. Harlow emerges as an unassuming and witty person.

Dr William Allen Miller developed an early interest in science and astronomy at secondary school. Although qualifying in medicine, he pursued a career in Chemistry at King's College, London. A particular interest in spectrum analysis led to a collaboration with Dr Huggins in examining the spectra of stars. For this work they each received the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. His subsequent work at King's College, the Royal Society, the Courts of Law and for various Government enterprises earned him an outstanding scientific and advisory reputation.

William Gregory was descended from a long line of academics. Although he graduated in medicine, he had earlier determined on a career in Chemistry but more particularly to succeed Professor Thomas Charles Hope in the Edinburgh Chair in that discipline. At various times during the 1830s and 1840s he studied Chemistry at Giessen in Germany under Professor Justus Liebig and was closely associated with him over the succeeding years, translating and editing in all seven of his books. Gregory taught initially in London, at the Edinburgh Extra-mural School, in Dublin, at the Andersonian University, Glasgow and as Mediciner and Professor of Chemistry in Aberdeen. In 1844 he was appointed to the Chair of Chemistry in Edinburgh and remained in this post until his death in 1858. Shortly after he graduated he joined the Edinburgh Phrenological Society (he was initially its Secretary and later President) and took a particularly active role in the meetings of this Society and in the Aberdeen Phrenological Society. He was also interested in the phenomena of Mesmerism and Mesmero-Phrenology, despite the agitation and scorn of many of his academic colleagues both in Aberdeen and in Edinburgh.

An investigation of the career of one of the "founding mothers" of the social sciences in Rio de Janeiro, Marina de Vasconcellos, successor of Arthur Ramos, is one way of understanding how anthropology was established in Rio de Janeiro. Conflicts and alliances, continuities and discontinuities, lie behind the pioneering Brazilian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology and the Institute of Social Sciences, both at Faculdade Nacional de Filosofia. Marina de Vasconcellos' professional life bore the marks of the clash between different schools of thought regarding anthropology at a time when university courses were being introduced. As a professor, she was committed to educating new professionals, and in 1968, she was steadfast in the struggle for university autonomy. The study leads to a reflection upon the criteria for success in academia, countering the view that this depends entirely on the publication of books and articles.

As a consequence of the groundbreaking work of E. Scarborough and L. Furumoto (1987), the contributions of the pioneering first generation of American women psychologists are now well recognized within the history of psychology; however, the generation that followed the pioneers is less well known. The lack of recognition that most women psychologists of the interwar era experienced during the majority of their working lives resulted from sexism institutionalized through practices such as anti-nepotism rules that effectively excluded many married women from the academy, informal hiring practices operating in "old-boy network" fashion, and exclusion from certain key graduate training centers. Yet, many women were productive psychologists during this era and contributed to the growth and expansion of the discipline. Examination of published literature generated biographical information for 107 eminent women; C. A. Murchison's (1932b) Psychological Register provided a less detailed but more inclusive inventory to yield data on a total of 320 women. This article recounts our systematic search for this "lost generation" and emphasizes the extent and diversity of their contributions to psychology.

On a quiet spring morning, the 20th of April 1999, Columbine High School emerged from relative anonymity as a typical suburban high school and became internationally recognized as a symbol of school violence and tragic loss. As a parent whose child was in the school at the time of the attack, I struggled to make sense of the tragedy. I decided to conduct research into the experience as a way to learn lessons that might help others exposed to community-wide trauma in the future. Through modified oral history interviews of other Columbine parents in combination with other qualitative research strategies, I collected and studied stories of the events of that day and the years following. An unexpected by-product emerged from the study, for it seemed that I was not only learning about crisis response and trauma care but also offering a means for parents to gain comfort in reflecting on their own experience. This paper describes the distinct approach that I employed to create a gateway to understanding this experience. It does not explicate the findings of the Columbine study but instead explores the potential for positive outcomes for those who, by giving voice to their stories, can connect to a deeper appreciation for their own experience.

The beginning of the twentieth century saw the emergence of the discipline of genetics. It is striking how many female scientists were contributing to this new field at the time. At least three female pioneers succeeded in becoming professors: Kristine Bonnevie (Norway), Elisabeth Schiemann (Germany) and the Tine Tammes (The Netherlands). The question is which factors contributed to the success of these women's careers? At the time women were gaining access to university education it had become quite the norm for universities to be sites for teaching and research. They were still expanding: new laboratories were being built and new disciplines were being established. All three women benefited from the fact that genetics was considered a new field promising in terms of its utility to society; in the case of Tammes and Schiemann in agriculture and in the case of Bonnevie in eugenics. On the other hand, the field of genetics also benefited from the fact that these first female researchers were eager for the chance to work in science and wanted to make active contributions. The all worked and studied in environments which, although different from one another, were positive towards them, at least at the start. Having a patron was generally a prerequisite. Tammes profited from her teacher's contacts and status. Bonnevie made herself indispensable through her success as a teacher and eventually made her position so strong that she was no longer dependent on a single patron. The case of Schiemann adds something new; it shows the vulnerability of such dependency. Initially, Schiemann's teacher had to rely on the first generation of university women simply because he was unable to attract ambitious young men to his institute. In those early, uncertain years of the new discipline, male scientists tended to choose other, better established, and more prestigious disciplines. However, when genetics itself had become an established field, it also became more attractive to men. Our case studies also demonstrate that a new field at first relatively open to women closes its doors to them once it becomes established.

The policy of promoting fellowships abroad by the JAE for young scientist had an important complement in the foundation of a series of small scientific laboratories and research centres joined basically under the National Institute of Science and the Residencia de Estudiantes. The present article offers a general perspective of the activities developed by some of those laboratories, their main protagonists and research groups, particularly those related to biomedical research. The scientific task developed by the Instituto Cajal and the Natural Sciences Museum is not directly considered, since other contributions in this monographic issue regard those institutions. The process of creation of small teaching and research laboratories since 1912 is shown, and their participation in the university experimental teaching during the 1920s, especially regarding the Residencia de Estudiantes laboratories. Among them, the Laboratory of General Physiology lead by Juan Negrín. The significance of his physiological school is shown as well as the starting point of the scientific career of Severo Ochoa.