Search

The sensitivity and specificity of six ELISA tests for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) to discriminate between sero-converted (for non-structural FMD virus proteins) and non-sero-converted cattle were evaluated for vaccinated and unvaccinated cattle. Since none of the tests could be considered as a proper reference test and for about half of the tested sera the true status (sero-converted or not for non-structural proteins, i.e. presence of antibodies) of the animals was unknown, a Bayesian analysis employing a latent class model was used that did not rely on the use of a reference test or gold standard. Prior information about prevalence for subsets of the data and specificity of the tests was incorporated into the analysis. The specificity of the six tests for vaccinated and non-vaccinated cattle ranged from 96 to 99%. For vaccinated cattle, one test stood out with an estimated sensitivity of 94% (95% CI from 89.8 to 98.1%). Second best for vaccinated cattle were two tests with estimated sensitivities of 85% (95% CI from 78.9 to 89.7%) and 92% (95% CI from 86.2 to 95.6%). For non-vaccinated cattle, the sensitivities of these three tests were around 97%. The remaining three tests showed lower estimated sensitivity for vaccinated cattle, ranging from 57 to 79%.

A cross-sectional study was performed to investigate some epidemiological aspects of foot and mouth disease (FMD) and paratuberculosis in small ruminant flocks located in two governorates in Southern Jordan. A total of 320 sheep and 300 goats from 38 and 24, sheep and goat flocks, respectively, were randomly sampled and assayed for presence of antibodies against FMD virus and Mycobacterium paratuberculosis using commercially available kits. A structured pre-tested questionnaire was administered to collect information on flocks’ health and management. A multivariable logistic regression model was constructed to investigate risk factors associated with seropositivity to the two studied diseases. The individual prevalence of FMD and paratuberculosis in sheep was 10.4 and 22.1%, respectively. The sheep flock level seroprevalence for FMD and paratuberculosis was 44.7 and 50%, respectively. In goats, the individual prevalence of FMD and paratuberculosis was 6.3 and 18.1%, respectively. The goat flock level seroprevalence for FMD and paratuberculosis was 33.3 and 45.8%, respectively. The logistic regression model revealed mixed farming as a common risk factor for both FMD and paratuberculosis. Grazing in communal areas and addition of new animals were identified as risk factors for paratuberculosis.

A case of foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) on a cattle farm in Normandy, Surrey, was confirmed on Friday August 3, 2007, the first case in the uk since 2001. The infection was detected nearby on a second farm on August 6. On September 12, fmd was confirmed on a farm approximately 20 km from Normandy in Egham, and this was followed by cases on five more farms in that area in the next three weeks. The majority of the infected farms consisted of multiple beef cattle holdings in semi-urban areas. In total, 1578 animals were culled on the infected farms, and fmd virus infection was confirmed in 278 of them by the detection of viral antigen, genome or antibodies to the virus, or by clinical signs. This paper describes the findings from animal inspections on the infected farms, including the estimated ages of the fmd lesions and the numbers of animals infected. It also summarises the test results from samples taken for investigation, including the detection of preclinically viraemic animals by using real-time reverse transcriptase-pcr.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) has been a major threat to livestock across the world. The predominant method of controlling this disease in endemic regions is through regular vaccination with inactivated vaccine. However, there are many limitations. For instance, cultivation of virulent FMD virus (FMDV) in the manufacturing units poses a risk of escape from production sites. Vaccines may sometimes contain traces of FMD viral non-structural proteins (NSPs), therefore, interfering with the NSP-based serological differentiation infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA). Moreover, vaccines are unable to eliminate virus from carrier animals. To address the shortcomings of inactivated vaccines, many efforts are currently devoted to develop novel vaccines including attenuated and/or marker inactivated vaccines, recombinant protein vaccines, synthetic peptide vaccines, and empty capsid vaccines. Here, we review the research progress of novel vaccines, problems that remain to be solved, and also raise some suggestions that would help in the development of FMD vaccines.

In Africa, for the control of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), more information is needed on the spread of the disease at local, regional and inter-regional level. The aim of this review is to identify the role that animal husbandry, trade and wildlife have on the transmission of FMD and to provide a scientific basis for different FMD control measures in Africa. Review of literature, published reports and databases shows that there is more long distance spread of FMD virus serotypes within North, West, Central and East Africa than in southern Africa. In North, West, Central and East Africa migratory animal husbandry systems often related with search for grazing and water as well as trade are practiced to a greater extent than in southern Africa. In southern Africa, the role of African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is more extensively studied than in the other parts of Africa, but based on the densities of African buffalo in Central and East Africa, one would assume that buffalo should also play a role in the epidemiology of FMD in this part of Africa. More sampling of buffalo is necessary in West, Central and East Africa. The genetic analysis of virus strains has proven to be valuable to increase our understanding in the spread of FMD in Africa. This review shows that there is a difference in FMD occurrence between southern Africa and the rest of the continent; this distinction is most likely based on differences in animal husbandry and trade systems. Insufficient data on FMD in wildlife outside southern Africa is limiting our understanding on the role wildlife plays in the transmission of FMD in the other buffalo inhabited areas of Africa.

We investigated the potential role of feral pigs and wild deer as FMD reservoirs with a susceptible-latent-infected-recovered geographic-automata model, using spatially referenced data from southern Texas, USA. An uncontrolled FMD outbreak initiated in feral pigs and in wild deer might infect up to 698 (90% prediction interval 181, 1387) and 1557 (823, 2118) cattle and affect an area of 166 km(2) (53, 306) and 455 km(2) (301, 588), respectively. The predicted spread of FMD virus infection was influenced by assumptions we made regarding the number of incursion sites and the number of neighborhood interactions between herds. Our approach explicitly incorporates the spatial relationships between domesticated and non-domesticated animal populations, providing a new framework to explore the impacts, costs, and strategies for the control of foreign animal diseases with a potential wildlife reservoir.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious and economically devastating disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals worldwide. Construction and purification of stable antigen for vaccine are necessary but technically difficult and laborious. Here, we have tried to investigate an alternative method by inserting a hexa-histidine tag (6xHIS) in the VP1 C-terminal for easy purification and replacing two amino acids of VP1/VP2 to enhance the stability of the capsid of the FMD virus (FMDV) Asia1/MOG/05. In addition, infectious 6xHIS-tagged stable (S/T) FMDVs were maintained under acidic conditions (pH 6.0) and were readily purified from small-scale cultures using a commercial metal-affinity column. The groups vaccinated with the S/T FMDV antigen showed complete protection comparing to low survival rate in the group vaccinated with non-S/T FMDV against lethal challenge with Asia1 Shamir in mice. Therefore, the present findings indicate that the stabilized and tagged antigen offers an alternative to using the current methods for antigen purification and enhancement of stability and has potential for the development of a new FMD vaccine.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly infectious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals, both domestic and wild. In 2001 it had a dramatic effect on the UK farming community and tourism, when the country experienced one of its worst epidemics (Royal Society 2002). Gloster et al. (2004a, b) described the disease, how it spreads and reviewed the part that meteorology played in the epidemic. This paper extends the work recorded in these papers by considering in detail a specific case study and investigates the hypothesis that the airborne virus could have been responsible for the introduction of FMD virus to the south-west of Scotland from the Cumbria area. It also seeks to establish a formal method by which an assessment of risk from airborne introduction can be made in the future. The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) is responsible for the control and eradication of incursions of FMD. For this task the mechanisms for disease spread must be clearly understood and the specific circumstances at the time of the incursion established. During the 2001 UK epidemic, Defra field staff investigated in detail the origin and spread of all cases of FMD. In many instances several routes by which virus could have entered a farm were identified. However, in a number of outbreaks it was difficult or impossible to establish the route of entry. Post epidemic studies have helped clarify the situation but still there are some outbreaks for which the route of infection is uncertain. For example, Thrusfield et al. (2005) carried out a study of the characteristics of the 177 outbreaks in Dumfries and Galloway, in which they ascribed probable and possible sources for outbreaks in the various clusters. In some clusters they were unable to identify sources including outbreaks in areas north of the Solway Firth, Kirkconnell (Defra designated cluster – Dumfries South), Rockcliffe (Defra designated cluster – Dalbeattie South), Kirkbean and Whithorn/Sorbie. The location of these towns/clusters is given in Fig. 1 and a detailed map of the widespread outbreaks in the Cumbria and Dumfries and Galloway areas may be found on the Defra website at http://footandmouth.csl.gov.uk/ secure/images/northcumbria.jpg.

International movement in animals and animal products has urged organisations like the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) to draw up guidelines to regulate and facilitate trade between Member Countries. However, as the global market continues to grow, further standardisation and harmonisation of antibody detection assays for infectious diseases are needed, especially regarding the development and use of reference materials. For OIE notifiable diseases for which primary or international reference standards are available or under development, National or Regional Reference Laboratories are encouraged to establish their own secondary and/or working standards. This paper describes the development of standards for the foot and mouth disease (FMD) solid phase competition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using positive serum obtained from calves vaccinated against the FMD virus. The procedure outlined in this manuscript can easily be extrapolated to similar serological assays and should lead to further international harmonisation of assays and test results.

Owing to its geographical distribution and its highly contagious character, the foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus is responsible for one of the most dreaded of all livestock diseases. The currently-used vaccine is polyvalent and is based on an inactivated virus. Current research on FMD vaccines focuses on the creation of vaccines that are easier and cheaper to produce, and that avoid manipulation of large quantities of virus. The use of transgenic plants to express relevant antigens has been evaluated for the purpose of vaccine production. The authors' working group has taken the FMD virus as a model to evaluate the feasibility of using transgenic plants to express viral antigens and to develop experimental vaccines. The purpose of this paper is to set forth the working group's results in the expression of FMD antigens in transgenic plants.

F or over a century, the countries of South America's Southern Cone1 have struggled to control or eradicate foot and mouth disease (FMD). These efforts have been undermined by a pronounced spatial spillover of the FMD virus. Because the virus spreads readily, the effectiveness of control efforts in one country, or on one ranch, is influenced by control efforts in nearby countries or ranches. These spatial effects are compounded by variations in incentives to control the disease and diverse sensitivities to neighbors. This paper demonstrates how control behavior is affected by spatial spillovers of varied intensity and by heterogeneous incentives to control disease. The decision to control disease is framed as a spatial game in which the behavior of neighbors influences the payoffs to individuals from control effort. Because trade, geographic, and policy factors can leave some individuals more susceptible to their neighbors' actions than others, we impose hard boundaries that constrain disease spread and modulate the intensity of spillovers. Divergent incentives to control disease are modeled by fixing some individuals in specific

Two main reasons prompted the authors to write this paper. First, outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (FMD) have occurred repeatedly in Mali and neighbouring countries during the last decade. Secondly, there is a pressing need for control strategies, since the first molecular epidemiological studies of FMD virus in West Africa have demonstrated that FMD transmission across national boundaries is common in this region. The authors discuss the FMD outbreaks that occurred during the period of 1980 to 1996, which were reported to the Central Livestock Office in Mali by field veterinarians. The outbreaks in 1980 and 1982 were confined to the regions of Kayes and Gao, respectively. Between 1991 and 1992, outbreaks occurred in Segou, Sikasso and Bamako. In 1996, FMD outbreaks were reported in cattle populations throughout Mali, except in Kidal in the Sahara desert, where temperatures reach 45 degrees C. High mortality was reported in young animals, while morbidity approached 100% in adult cattle.

Many factors influence the choice of methods used to develop antibody to infectious agents. In this paper, we review the current status of the main technologies used to produce monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) from the B cells of antigen-sensitized animals. While companies are adopting advanced high-throughput methods, the major technologies used by veterinary and medical research laboratories are classical hybridoma fusion and recombinant library selection techniques. These methods have inherent advantages and limitations but have many common aspects when using immunized rodents. Laboratories with expertise in both methods of antibody development have a distinct advantage in their ability to advance mAb technology. New and re-emerging infectious threats in today’s world emphasize the need for quality immunoreagents and the need to maintain expertise in mAb development. We provide examples of some common applications for mAb reagents used to identify pathogens such as the SARS-coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Bacillus anthracis, and foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus. We also outline a framework for investigators to make rational decisions concerning which method to use to develop mAbs based upon characteristics of the pathogen under study and the intended downstream application. Lastly, we provide parameters for the immunisation of mice and a classification system which describes the expected outcome for mAb development strategies when using classes of immunogens to generate mAbs with desired activities.

The 2001 foot and mouth disease (FMD) epidemic in the United Kingdom resulted in the popularisation of the concept of biosecurity. At its most basic, biosecurity refers to simple cleansing and disinfecting, but during the FMD epidemic it became associated with a powerful system of surveillance. We characterise surveillance as a thing in itself, a mode of ordering that can be added to others. The establishment and maintenance of categories are fundamental to the practice of surveillance, but social studies of surveillance have not yet fully realised the way such categorisation operates within the nonhuman and the spatial. Strange materialities are those things which do not quite belong within a particular order. We examine the actions of surveillance in the world of strange materialities that was the FMD epidemic. Here we see that surveillant practices acted on the nonhuman FMD virus by constructing territories to control humans. Surveillance seems to proceed as the translation of a worldview (a system of categorisation) into materiality and we conclude with some thoughts on what this may mean for geographical studies of technical, biological, and human materialities in which surveillant processes are at work.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is the most contagious disease of animals and a major constraint to international trade in live- stock and animal products. Clinical signs are characterized by vesicular lesions in and around the mouth, on the feet, and on the teats of dairy cattle. In adult sheep and goats, however, infection is frequently subclinical, or only mild lesions may appear. Rapid diagnosis of FMD is of great importance in the prevention and control of the disease. FMD is initially diagnosed clinically and confirmed by laboratory tests. However, testing for antibodies to FMD virus is also important for screening animals before move- ment, for vaccine potency testing, and for epidemiological studies. Nucleic acid detection techniques are powerful tools for rapid and sensitive diagnosis of the disease, with results comparable to those obtained by virus isolation. Considerable effort and atten- tion is now being directed toward the development of new methods and techniques for the rapid and accurate diagnosis of FMD, as well as the production of defined reagents.

On December 3, 2014, a type O foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak began in Korea. Although vaccinations were administered, FMD cases increased steadily for five months, and reached 185 cases by April 2015. Most of the affected animals were pigs, which are vulnerable to vaccination. The FMD virus belonged to the South-East Asia (SEA) topotype that had been observed three times in Korea between April 2010 and July 2014. However, the FMD virus isolated in December 2014 had a unique feature; that is, partial deletion of the 5′ non-coding region, a deletion not seen in previous SEA topotype isolates identified in Korea. We conclude that this outbreak included the introduction of a new FMD strain to Korea, and that Korea was now affected by genetically similar FMD virus strains that are related to those from neighboring countries.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the highly contagious disease of livestock that causes severe economic loss in susceptible cloven-hoofed animals such as cattle, swine, sheep and goats. FMD virus (F...

In Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan, the O-type foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) appeared and spread from March to July, 2010. The first infected livestock by FMD virus was detected on March 26, 2010 at Tsuno Town in Miyazaki Prefecture. The O-type FMD was found on March 14 at the suburb of Lanzhou City in Gansu, and on March 25, 2010 in Shanxi, China. The duration of FMD virus incubation is 2 to 8 days. Maki et al. (2011, 2012) presumed the cause of the first FMD in Miyazaki as follows: The yellow sand adhered with FMD virus was transported from Gansu to Miyazaki by global westerly winds. In this paper, we investigate whether the yellow sand generated in Gansu flew to Miyazaki in March, 2010 by using MODIS data of Terra and Aqua satellites. True-color mosaic images, AVI mosaic images and T11 mosaic images from China to Japan are made and examined. The aerosol vapor index (AVI) is defined as AVI=T12-T11, where T12 and T11 are the brightness temperatures at 12μm and 11μm wavelength, respectively. The AVI can detect the dust and sandstorms (DSS, i.e., yellow sands) in satellite images both at daytime and night. AVI values are classified into six levels from 0 to 5. From AVI images, DSS existed in the vicinity of Lanzhou on March 19, and in the south area of Shanxi on March 20, and in the vicinity of Tsuno Town on March 21. If Maki et al. are right, the cause of the first FMD in Miyazaki in March 2010 is that DSS generated in Gansu on March 19 flew to Miyazaki on March 21.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus serotype O is the most common cause of FMD outbreaks in India and three of the six lineages that have been described are most frequently detected, namely Ind2001, PanAsia and PanAsia 2. We report the full capsid sequence of 21 serotype O viruses isolated from India between 2002 and 2012. All these viruses belong to the Middle East–South Asia (ME–SA) topotype. The serological cross-reactivity of a bovine post-vaccination serum pool raised against the current Indian vaccine strain, O/IND/R2/75,was tested by virus neutralisation test with the 23 Indian field isolates, revealing a good match between the vaccine and the field isolates. The cross reactivity of the O/IND/R2/75 vaccine with 19 field isolates from other countries (mainly from Asia and Africa) revealed a good match to 79% of the viruses indicating that the vaccine strain is broadly cross-reactive and could be used to control FMD in other countries. Comparison of the capsid sequences of the serologically non-matching isolates with the vaccine strain sequence identified substitutions in neutralising antigenic sites 1 and 2, which could explain the observed serological differences.

Speed is paramount in the diagnosis of highly infectious diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), as well as for emerging diseases; however, simplicity is required if a test is to be deployed in the field. Recent developments in molecular biology have enabled the specific detection of FMD virus (FMDV) by reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP), real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and sequencing. RT-LAMP enables amplification of the FMDV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 3D(pol) gene at 63 °C (in the presence of a primer mixture and both reverse transcriptase and Bst DNA polymerase) for 1 h, whilst RT-qPCR amplifies the same gene in approximately 2 h 30 min. In this study, we compared the sensitivity and effectiveness of RT-LAMP against RT-qPCR for the detection of the FMDV 3D(pol) gene in 179 oesophageal-pharyngeal scraping samples (collected by probang) obtained from clinically healthy cattle and buffalo in Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania in 2010. The FMDV detection rate was higher with RT-LAMP (30.2%; n = 54) than with RT-qPCR (17.3%; n = 31). All samples positive by RT-qPCR (Cq ≤ 32.0) were also positive for the RT-LAMP assay; and both assays proved to be highly specific for the FMDV target sequence. In addition, the VP1 sequences of 10 viruses isolated from positive samples corresponded to the respective FMDV serotypes and genotypes. Our findings indicate that the performance of RT-LAMP is superior to RT-qPCR. Accordingly, we consider this test to have great potential with regard to the specific detection and surveillance of infectious diseases of humans and animals in resource-compromised developing countries.

The complete genomes of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) viruses recovered in Libya and Saudi Arabia in 2013 are described here. These viruses belong to an FMD virus lineage (Ind-2001, topotype Middle East-South Asia, serotype O) which is normally endemic in the Indian subcontinent. A contemporary virus sequence from Bhutan is also reported here.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an acute, highly contagious viral infection of domestic and wild cloven-hoofed animals. It is known to be endemic in Zambia, with periodic outbreaks occurring in different geographical areas of the country. This study was conducted to investigate the presence of FMD virus (FMDV) in reported FMD-suspected cases in cattle from the Kazungula and Mbala districts of Zambia. Sixty epithelial tissues or oesophageal-pharyngeal (OP) scrapings (probang samples) were collected from Mbala (n = 51) and Kazungula (n = 9) and examined for FMDV. The FMDV viral RNA and serotypes were examined by realtime reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and antigen Enzyme- linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. Twenty-two samples (36.7%) were positive for the FMDV genome by qRT-PCR with Cycle threshold (Ct) values ranging from 13 to 31. The FMDV-positive samples from epithelial tissues showed relatively higher Ct values compared to those obtained from OP scrapings, irrespective of geographical location. Forty percent (40%; n = 4) of epithelial tissues from Mbala were serotyped into SAT 2 serotype by antigen ELISA. Kazungula samples were serotyped into SAT 1. These findings indicated that Mbala and Kazungula districts had FMD outbreaks in 2012 that were ascribed to at least FMDV serotype SAT 2 and SAT 1 field strains. Furthermore, regular interaction between buffalos from the Mosi-o Tunya Park and domestic animals from surrounding areas could contribute to the occurrence of regular FMD outbreaks in Kazungula, whilst the uncontrolled animal movements across borders between Mbala and Nsumbawanga could be responsible for disease outbreaks in Mbala. In-depth molecular biological studies, including sequencing and phylogeny of the viruses, should be conducted to elucidate the complex epidemiology of FMD in Zambia, thereby providing valuable information needed for the rational control strategy of FMD in Zambia and neighbouring countries.

In February 2001, foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) was confirmed in Great Britain. A major epidemic developed, which peaked around 50 cases a day in late March, declining to under 10 a day by May. By mid-July, 1849 cases had been detected. The main control measures employed were livestock movement restrictions and the rapid slaughter of infected and exposed livestock. The first detected case was in south-east England; infection was traced to a farm in north-east England to which all other cases were linked. The epidemic was large as a result of a combination of events, including a delay in the diagnosis of the index case, the movement of infected sheep to market before FMD was first diagnosed, and the time of year. Virus was introduced at a time when there were many sheep movements around the country and weather conditions supported survival of the virus. The consequence was multiple, effectively primary, introductions of FMD virus into major sheep-keeping areas. Subsequent local spread from these introductions accounted for the majority of cases. The largest local epidemics were in areas with dense sheep populations and livestock dealers who were active during the key period. Most affected farms kept both sheep and cattle. At the time of writing the epidemic was still ongoing; however, this paper provides a basis for scientific discussion of the first five months.

Traceback systems in most countries of Asia are not well developed, as indicated by responses to a questionnaire by veterinary officials in thirteen countries. Marking of animals for traceback is practised only in a limited number of countries in specific areas or zones and for specific purposes only. In Malaysia, traceback has been undertaken by marking farm code tattoos on pigs. This enables the identification of the farm of origin of pigs found to be infected by Nipah virus in sero-surveillance programmes. The origin of the foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus that surfaced in the Republic of Korea in March 2000 was investigated through several epidemiological studies of suspected sources of contamination such as imported hay, yellow sand, milk collection trucks and feed delivery trucks. None of these studies gave results that indicated the origin of the FMD virus. The origin of the FMD virus that was recorded in Japan in March 2000 was also investigated in epidemiological studies; in this case, imported wheat straw was incriminated as the most likely source of infection. Comparative studies of the pathogenicities of FMD (type O) viruses isolated in Taipei China, the Republic of Korea and Japan, suggest that these viruses might have originated as vaccine strains used in a third country.

Genetic characterisation of two pathogens, namely foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus and Mycobacterium bovis, isolated from African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in southern Africa was used to determine the origin of buffalo in situations where the source of infection was obscure. By determining the phylogenetic relatedness of various FMD virus isolates using partial sequencing of the main antigenic determinant, VP1, the origin of buffalo moved illegally to the non-endemic region of South Africa was traced to the Kruger National Park (KNP) where FMD is endemic in the buffalo population. Comparative analysis of the 'genetic fingerprints' of bovine tuberculosis isolates from buffalo and cattle has aided in tracing the original source of infection of buffalo populations in the KNP. Furthermore, these analyses have assisted in tracing the origin of infected animals that have been moved to other parts of South Africa.

The similarity of the patterns of FMD outbreaks in Korea and Japan in 2000 and 2010 indicates that the most likely route of entry of the type O virus in Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan in 2010 was most likely via a person travelling from Korea to Japan. Due to delays in immediate responses and follow-up measures, the disease spread to many parts of Miyazaki Prefecture sacrificing a large number of cattle and pigs.The main causes of delays in organizing the control measures were :1) There was no early warning alerting veterinary professionals in the field.2) There was a delay in recognizing the cause of the disease as the FMD virus.3) The FMD virus that surfaced in Miyazaki was highly virulent to both cattle and pigs.4) There was a shortage of burial sites for the large number of sacrificed animals.5) There is no permanent emergency response unit in Japan to deal with exotic diseases of animals.Considering the scale of economic losses caused by the disease, drastic reforms are necessary to improve the emergency response systems and also to tighten the quarantine measures on human movement.

The present investigation was carried out on 15 randomly selected milch buffaloes divided into three groups on the basis of lactation at an organized farm, to study the foot and mouth disease virus type specific antibodies in milk and serum following FMD vaccination. Milk and serum samples collected before vaccination i.e. 0 day and on 7, 14, 28, 42 and 56 days post vaccination, were analyzed for the detection of FMD virus specific IgG1, IgG2 and IgA antibody response by indirect double antibody sandwich ELISA. Significant FMD virus type specific antibody titres (IgG1, IgG2 and IgA) were detected in milk and serum of buffaloes on different days post vaccination, though the levels of antibodies were lower in milk as compared to serum. FMD virus type specific IgG1 was found to be the predominant subclass as compared to IgG2 and IgA both in milk and serum of vaccinated buffaloes. Milk and serum IgG1, IgG2 and IgA antibody titres were positively correlated with values of regression coefficient (R) as 0.506, 0.434 and 0.396, respectively.

Four groups of ten nine‐month‐old Nelore heifers were used for this study. Each group received one of four foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) trivalent vaccines for the duration of the experiment. The four vaccine formulations (Normal, 2X, 4X and 8X) differed in 140S content to determine the serological reactivities to FMD virus (FMDV) nonstructural proteins 2C, 3ABC and 3D. Vaccination was by the intramuscular administration of vaccine on day 0, 180 and 360. Bleedings were done at 30 days post vaccination (dpv), 90 dpv, 30 days post revaccination (dpr), 90 dpr, and 30 days post third administration (dprr). There was a general tendency to have higher mean 3D responses with increased vaccine application but not with increased concentration of antigen. With 2C and 3ABC this tendency was not seen, neither with repeated application of vaccine nor with increased antigen concentration. All individual animal observations to 2C and 3ABC remained within three standard deviations of the average observed for naiv...

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly infectious enzootic disease caused by FMD virus. The complete genome sequence of a circulatory FMD virus (FMDV) serotype O isolated from Natore, Bangladesh, is reported here. Genomic analysis revealed antigenic heterogeneity within the VP1 region, a fragment deletion, and insertions at the 5′ untranslated region (UTR) and 3A region compared to the genome of the available vaccine strain.

Zambia has been experiencing low livestock productivity as well as trade restrictions owing to the occurrence of foot and mouth disease (FMD), but little is known about the epidemiology of the disease in these endemic settings. The fundamental questions relate to the spatio-temporal distribution of FMD cases and what determines their occurrence. A retrospective review of FMD cases in Zambia from 1981 to 2012 was conducted using geographical information systems and the SaTScan software package. Information was collected from peer-reviewed journal articles, conference proceedings, laboratory reports, unpublished scientific reports and grey literature. A space–time permutation probability model using a varying time window of one year was used to scan for areas with high infection rates. The spatial scan statistic detected a significant purely spatial cluster around the Mbala–Isoka area between 2009 and 2012, with secondary clusters in Sesheke–Kazungula in 2007 and 2008, the Kafue flats in 2004 and 2005 and Livingstone in 2012. This study provides evidence of the existence of statistically significant FMD clusters and an increase in occurrence in Zambia between 2004 and 2012. The identified clusters agree with areas known to be at high risk of FMD. The FMD virus transmission dynamics and the heterogeneous variability in risk within these locations may need further investigation.

Rapid, field-based diagnostic assays are desirable tools for the control of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Current approaches involve either; 1) Detection of FMD virus (FMDV) with immuochromatographic antigen lateral flow devices (LFD), which have relatively low analytical sensitivity, or 2) portable RT-qPCR that has high analytical sensitivity but is expensive. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) may provide a platform upon which to develop field based assays without these drawbacks. The objective of this study was to modify an FMDV-specific reverse transcription–LAMP (RT-LAMP) assay to enable detection of dual-labelled LAMP products with an LFD, and to evaluate simple sample processing protocols without nucleic acid extraction. The limit of detection of this assay was demonstrated to be equivalent to that of a laboratory based real-time RT-qPCR assay and to have a 10,000 fold higher analytical sensitivity than the FMDV-specific antigen LFD currently used in the field. Importantly, this study demonstrated that FMDV RNA could be detected from epithelial suspensions without the need for prior RNA extraction, utilising a rudimentary heat source for amplification. Once optimised, this RT-LAMP-LFD protocol was able to detect multiple serotypes from field epithelial samples, in addition to detecting FMDV in the air surrounding infected cattle, pigs and sheep, including pre-clinical detection. This study describes the development and evaluation of an assay format, which may be used as a future basis for rapid and low cost detection of FMDV. In addition it provides providing “proof of concept” for the future use of LAMP assays to tackle other challenging diagnostic scenarios encompassing veterinary and human health.

The analysis of sera obtained from animals vaccinated or revaccinated with inactivated vaccines against foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus showed that these vaccines induced antibodies against the virus infection-associated (VIA) antigen, detectable by agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID). The present study evaluates the antibody response to protein 3D and the VIA antigen (VIAA) of FMD virus induced by different vaccines in a group of 51 calves. This response was detected using AGID and a liquid-phase blocking sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for anti-3D antibodies (ELISA-3D). No anti-VIAA or anti-3D antibodies were detected after the initial vaccination. Following revaccination, animals giving positive results were detected by both methods. This immune response disappeared 60-120 days post-revaccination (dprv) according to the AGID method, and 90-180 dprv when ELISA-3D was used. Samples of oesophageal-pharyngeal fluid obtained from animals that remained positive for anti-VIAA antibodies at 90-120 dprv gave negative results for viral isolation, indicating that the transitional antibody response induced by the vaccine was due to the presence of non-structural antigens in the vaccine and not to viral infection. These results indicate that the ELISA-3D method could be used as a complementary method for sero-epidemiological studies as an indirect indicator of viral activity, as long as the age and vaccination status of the animals being sampled are taken into consideration.

We present a risk-assessment model to assess the risk of introduction of foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus associated with deboned beef importation. The model was developed in accordance with the risk-reduction procedures proposed by the European Community for meat importation. The risk reduction procedures include farm-level inspection, ante-mortem inspection, post-mortem inspection, chilling and deboning. The risk assessment was based on the prevalence of FMD-infected cattle in herds as well as the prevalence of infected herds in the exporting country. Computer simulations were carried out to evaluate the probability of FMD virus introduction by importing 100 tons of deboned beef in relation to FMD prevalence, number of cattle selected from each herd, and sample sizes in ante-mortem and post-mortem inspections. The effects of the risk-reduction procedures on the probability of FMD virus introduction were examined.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Zambia. Little is known of the epidemiology of FMD virus (FMDV) in the country and this has led to the continuous occurrence of FMD in southern Zambia. FMD severely impacts pastoral and agro-pastoral communities who are most reliant on livestock products for economy and food security.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in most countries in southern Africa. African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) are known to play a significant role in the transmission and dynamics of FMD virus (FMDV) in wildlife-livestock interface areas. The aim of this study was to investigate the serotype and determine the genetic relationships of FMDV recovered from animals in Tanzania, Zambia and Mozambique, and compare them with viruses detected from elsewhere in the sub-Saharan region.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in most countries of southern and eastern Africa. It affects cloven-hoofed animals that include livestock and wildlife. FMD is caused by FMD virus (FMDV), the single stranded positive sense RNA virus, with a high rate of genetic mutation(s). southern and eastern Africa relies profoundly on livestock production as a source of economic growth and livelihoods.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an acute, highly contagious viral disease of cloven footed animals. It is known to be endemic in India, with periodic outbreaks occurring in different geographical areas of the country. This study was conducted to investigate the presence of FMD virus (FMDV) in reported FMD-suspected cases and the secondary bacteria known to accompany FMD and to find the reason for high mortality rate. Blood samples were collected from affected animals of Shekhupur raura village of district Bulandsahar and examined for presence of antibodies against FMDV. The possible common sources of the outbreak might be the introduction of infected cattle and buffaloes from the cattle market and commingling of animals with those of infected neighbouring villages. As mass vaccination of animals (cattle and buffaloes) against Foot-and-mouth disease in Uttar Pradesh is going on, the occurrence of FMD in this area is a matter of great concern. This report appeals to the national and state authorities to impose strict regulations related to livestock movement and further improve monitoring and surveillance programme.

The prevalence of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in the southern African subcontinent between 1931 and 1990 is summarised, together with the major features of the epidemiology and control of the disease. The author emphasises the role of wildlife, especially African buffalo (Syncerus caffer). A proposal is made for a more structured and co-operative approach to investigating the extent and nature of antigenic variation within the Southern African Territories (SAT) types of FMD virus. Quantification of the economic impact of FMD on the agro-economics of the subcontinent is attempted, and the importance of the social values of rural peoples in this respect is explained.

A biphasic cooking system for beef frankfurters was evaluated for its effectiveness against foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMD virus) in an assay using 279 infected samples. FMD virus was inactivated by a thermal process consisting of a conventional continuous cooking process followed by steam cooking of vacuum packaged product. In vivo virus detection tests demonstrated that inactivation was achieved by steam cooking for 133 min to reach a minimum temperature of 92·2°C after conventional cooking of frankfurters. In contrast, FMD virus survived the conventional cooking process in continuous oven alone. A temperature indicator device was satisfactory used to monitor thermal processing in steam cooked frankfurters.

We are reporting you an effective DNA vaccine for FMD virus, and it was prepared using mannosylated chitosan (MC) nanoparticles to form the FMDV-pVAC-VP1-OmpA complex particles. These particles were characterized for their physical properties like morphology, size and charge prior evaluating the actual vaccine delivery effect of MC-nanoparticles. The immunological evaluation indicated that the 20 μg of DNA vaccine complexed with MC nano-particles was found optimum in inducing the immune response in G pigs as measured by FMDV specific neutralising antibodies and Th1/Th2 responses using micro SNT and ELISA, respectively.

a b s t r a c t The study was conducted on foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) viruses with the aim of selecting appropriate vaccinal strain to control of FMD in Ethiopia. The study was conducted in two-dimensional virus neu- tralization assay to determine the antigenic relationship 'r' value between the candidate vaccine strains and field isolates. A total of 21 serotype O, 7 serotype A, and 8 serotype SAT 2 FMD viruses, which were isolated from cattle and swine. A couple of isolates from each serotype were identified as vaccine can- didates in the trial (O-ETH/38/2005, O-ETH/58/2008, A-ETH/7/2008, A-ETH/6/2000, SAT2-ETH/76/2009 and SAT2-ETH/64/2009). The finding revealed all the vaccine candidate depicted high antigenic similar- ity, above the mean "r" value, to their own serotypes in the studied serotype population except for one serotype A field isolate, A-ETH/13/1981, with "r" value = 0.14 and 0.25) which is significantly lower than the minimum requirement. In general, the result indicated that these candidate vaccinal strains can be used for polyvalent vaccine production in the country.

The aim of our work was to develop a tool integrated into Quantum GIS (QGIS) that can help the user estimate and visualize the possible infective areas around an outbreak based on HYbrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model.

This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction, Foot- and -Mouth Disease, Swine Vesicular Disease Virus, Encephalomyocarditis, Ljungan Virus Infection and References.-- et al.

A cross-sectional seroprevalence study of cattle foot and mouth disease (FMD) was conducted in Somalia Regional State (Awbere and Babille Districts) Western, Ethiopia. 384 blood samples were collected in the period of October 2009 to March 2010 from 384 animals and tested for antibodies against non-structural protein of FMD virus by using the 3ABC-ELISA. The overall individual animal antibody seroprevalence was 14.05% (95% CI = 11.2 to 18.13%). Statistically no significant variation (P > 0.05) was observed in the prevalence of FMD in Awbere (14.2%) and Babille (15.1%) Districts. Similarly there was no significant variation (P>0.05) in seroprevalence among male (19.4%) and female (13.6%) animals. Seroposetivity recorded for calves (Zero), young (13.2%) and adult (18.9%) age groups of animals showed a significance variation (χ2 = 8.45, DF = 2, P = 0.01). The results of this study showed that FMD is an important cattle disease in the study areas. This fact justifies the need of attention and subsequent study for identification of the FMD virus circulating in the area, which helps in the implementation of an effective control measures. Key words: Cattle, Ethiopia, foot and mouth disease (FMD), Jijiga, seroprevalence, 3ABC-ELISA.