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It is well-known that children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and specific learning disorder (SLD) often exhibit behavioural and emotional problems. However, little is known about how these problems compare between the two groups of children. This study sought to fill this gap in knowledge by comparing the executive functions and behavioural-emotional problems of children with ADHD, SLD and typically developing children. For this study, 94 children were recruited through purposeful sampling (ADHD = 23, SLD = 30 and TD = 41). All participants were screened based on WISC-IV. Subsequently, participants were administered executive functions and behavioural problems questionnaires. The analysis of the data using MANOVA and Scheffe post hoc pairwise shows that children with ADHD and SLD had significantly higher scores on measures of executive function impairment than typically developing children. Our study revealed that children in the ADHD group scored significantly higher in social problems, aggressive behaviours, AD/HD problems, ODD, conduct problems and externalizing problems sub-tests. Conversely, the LD group demonstrated higher scores in the anxiety problems sub-test. Furthermore, our study demonstrated that children in the ADHD group scored significantly higher in the following sub-tests: metacognition, inhibit, shift, bri, shift and emotion control. In contrast, the LD group exhibited higher scores in the initiate sub-test. In addition, the two groups of children with disorders also exhibited more behavioural-emotional problems than typically developing children. These findings suggest that ADHD and SLD are associated with impaired executive function and increased behavioural-emotional problems. These findings have implications for the assessment and treatment of these disorders.

Physical activity (PA) benefits children's cognition, in particular executive functions (EF). Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Reading Difficulties (RD) and co-occurring ADHD/RD have low levels of PA and difficulties with EF. This study evaluated a PA programme to determine recruitment, attrition, feasibility (e.g. in-school or after-school hours), intensity of PA during the programme and effect sizes. Outcomes evaluated were EF, academic attainment and social and emotional behaviour. Sixty-nine children (35 males) aged 7-13 years participated in a delayed control design. The sample comprised 15 children with RD, 15 with high levels of ADHD symptoms, 15 with co-occurring RD and ADHD symptoms and 24 typically developing children. Thirty-one of the participants took part in a 12 week PA intervention designed to enhance cognition and 38 acted as a control group. The control group subsequently received the intervention and data was combined for analysis. The study was successful in recruiting participants for the intervention; more success was observed for in-school than after-school hours. Participants spent 46% (SD = 14) of the intervention in Moderate-to-Vigorous intensity PA (MVPA). A significant effect of time-point (pre- vs. post-intervention) was found for inhibition and visuospatial working memory ([eta][superscript 2] = 0.11 and 0.18 respectively). There was no interaction with symptomatology though; all groups had higher scores on EF tasks after the intervention. It is possible to recruit and retain participants with ADHD symptoms and reading difficulties to a school-based PA programme and adherence to measurements was good. Taking part in the programme may improve inhibition and visuospatial working memory and reduce symptomatology suggesting this is a potential source of remediation which should be explored.

The authors examined task-based (i.e., executive function), surveyed (i.e., effortful control), and physiological (i.e., resting cardiac respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) measures of child and maternal regulation as distinct moderators of longitudinal bidirectional links between child externalizing (EXT) behaviors and harsh parenting (HP) from 6 to 9 years. The sample size was 299 (50.9% female; 1% Asian, 4% multiple races; 14% Black; 78% White), and participants were recruited in the United States (a rural college town in Virginia and a midsized city in North Carolina). Higher child EXT at 6 years predicted higher HP at 7-8 years, which predicted higher EXT at 9 years. Also, this path was moderated by 6-year child effortful control, 6-year resting RSA, and 9-year executive function. In contrast, there was no moderating effect of any measure of maternal regulation. Findings suggest it is important to consider child self-regulation when examining bidirectionality in parent and child effects for HP and child EXT.

This systematic review synthesized current literature regarding the effect of physical activity (PA) interventions on brain structure (BS) and brain function (BF) in healthy children. This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews protocols and used the Rayyan web for data extraction. Eleven experimental studies were included. Specifically, six studies conducted chronic PA interventions, and the others applied acute PA interventions. Evidence from five articles (45.45%) confirmed that PA interventions had beneficial effects on brain structure and function in healthy children, including enhancing brain activation and microstructural plasticity. These articles shared a study protocol and were conducted in school settings, indicating homogeneity. Due to the technical complexity and limitations involved, there are few studies on brain health and development. Future research is necessary to validate and evaluate the effectiveness of PA interventions on brain structure and function in healthy children.

This study aimed to examine the unique longitudinal role of theory of mind (ToM) on reading comprehension among primary school children, while controlling for other influencing factors. It also examined how this impact varies by grade, text genre, and processing level. A sample of 430 Chinese children in Grades 2, 4, and 6 was observed over a period of 6 months. For each grade, longitudinal hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the unique contribution of ToM to reading comprehension across different text genres and processing levels. By controlling for variables such as reading frequency, decoding, vocabulary, nonverbal intelligence, listening comprehension, and executive function, ToM cannot predict the overall reading comprehension of children in Grade 2, but can predict it of children in Grades 4 and 6. For specific text genres, ToM predicted narrative comprehension in both Grades 4 and 6 and expository comprehension only in Grade 6. For specific processing levels, ToM predicted advanced comprehension in Grades 4 and 6 and basic comprehension only in Grade 6. Furthermore, ToM predicted advanced narrative and expository comprehension in Grades 4 and 6, and basic expository comprehension in Grade 6. These findings highlight the important role of ToM in reading comprehension development, particularly in the middle and upper stages of primary school. These results lay the foundation for further research on exploring the underlying mechanisms of the impact of ToM on reading comprehension and provide a social-cognitive perspective to enhance the development of reading comprehension.

Debugging is an intellectually rich and a challenging process when learning a programming language. This process is important for increasing the quality of the program and making it functional. Debugging, by its nature, is thought to be a practice with a state of focus and concentration. This study explored whether the debugging performance could be predicted by attention networks of students studying at the IT department of vocational high schools. 108 vocational high school IT department students participated in the research. First, students' attention levels were determined by utilizing the Attention Network Test. Second, a Debugging Performance Test was administered to determine their debugging performance. The analysis result indicated that the general attention network statistically predicted the debugging performance but the effect size was found to be small. Furthermore, the singular and dual interactions of the alerting attention network, the orienting attention network, and the executive attention network did not predict debugging performances. Yet, the interactions of the three attention networks on predicting the debugging performances were found to be statistically significant. These findings were discussed together with the existing studies in the literature and suggestions to obtain more in-depth information regarding these results were provoked.

Integrated writing (i.e., writing from sources) being a complex process, requires various linguistic and cognitive skills interacting with each other in a dynamic way. While recent studies have increasingly documented that writing processes are driven by a suite of cognitive abilities named executive function (EF), their roles in a literacy activity as complex as integrated writing remain underexplored. To address this core issue, the present study aimed to examine the direct and indirect effects of EF skills on students' performance of a Chinese listening-reading-writing task. A total of 135 Chinese undergraduates were involved, completing a battery of tests, including a computerized Chinese integrated writing task measuring their writing performance and five EF tasks measuring inhibition, cognitive flexibility, working memory (auditory-verbal and visual-spatial), and planning skills respectively. Students' integration activities were also recorded using a writing webpage. The path model indicated that inhibition, visual-spatial working memory, and planning skills could significantly and directly predict students' writing performance and the visual-spatial working memory could indirectly predict writing performance via the mediation of source-text switches while listening. This study offers new preliminary insights into the association between EF and integrated writing among Chinese undergraduates; pedagogical implications for the teaching of integrated writing are also discussed.

This study examined whether the assessment of executive function (EF) added a unique contribution to second language (L2) reading comprehension in children in French immersion. Participants were 8- to 9-year old children who completed a collection of measures assessing French reading (i.e., word reading, decoding, and reading comprehension ) and EF (working memory, inhibition, and shifting). After controlling for word-level reading, measures of shifting explained the most variance in reading comprehension compared to the variance accounted for by working memory and inhibition. The results add to the growing evidence of EF's contribution--especially shifting--to reading comprehension within the context of early literacy learning in the L2.

The mediators of real-world executive functions in autism during the transition into adulthood are mainly unknown. This study aimed to identify the mediators for the behavioral and cognitive domains of real-world executive functions in late adolescent and young adult autistic populations. We followed up 289 autistic children (aged 11.6 ± 3.8, male 82.2%) and 203 non-autistic controls (10.7 ± 2.9, 66.5%) to their ages of 16.9 ± 4.7 and 15.8 ± 3.9, respectively. The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, comprising two global scales (Behavioral Regulation Index and the Metacognitive Index), was used to assess real-world executive functions at Time 2. Mediators of behavior regulation and metacognition were explored among a wide range of clinical correlates and parental bonding. We found that the autistic group had lower executive functions than the non-autistic group with lower behavior regulation and metacognition subscores. Several childhood factors were significant mediators. Multiple mediation analyses revealed that childhood inattention remained a significant mediator for both behavior regulation and metacognition in late adolescence, and peer problems were the specific mediators of metacognition. Our findings suggest several childhood factors may mediate real-world executive functions during late adolescence. Treating common mediators such as inattention may improve real-world executive functions in autistic individuals during adulthood.

This study examined the spoken language, written language, and executive functions of 19 female adolescents with high risk factors in a long-term, holistic program. Standardized assessment results revealed that 63.2% of the participants had below-average spoken language, 68.5% had below-average written language, and 68.4% and 42.1% had some level of elevated executive functioning challenges (as reported by themselves and by the program staff, respectively). However, these profiles did not match their current disabilities: none had a speech/language impairment, 26.3% had a learning disability, and 78.9% had emotional/behavioral disorder. Additionally, there were stark differences in the number of disabilities and assessment scores between participants involved with the juvenile justice system and those who were not. Participants involved with the justice system had the greatest challenges in all areas. This and other findings from the study are described and discussed.

This study aimed to determine the effects of the Active Early Learning (AEL) childcare center-based physical activity intervention on early childhood executive function and expressive vocabulary via a randomized controlled trial. Three-hundred-and-fourteen preschool children (134 girls) aged 3-5 years from 15 childcare centers were randomly assigned to the intervention (8 centers; n = 170 children) or control group (7 centers, n = 144 children) in May 2019. Participants were mostly Australian (85%) and from slightly higher areas of socio-economic status than the Australian average. There was an AEL intervention effect on inhibition ([Beta] = 0.5, p = 0.033, d = 0.29) and expressive vocabulary ([Beta] = 1.97, p = 0.001, d = 0.24). Integration of the AEL physical activity intervention into the daily childcare routine was effective in enhancing children's executive function and expressive language development.

This cross-sectional study explored the relationship between 24-hour movement behaviors and executive function (EF) in preschool children. A total of 426 Han Chinese preschoolers (231 males; 3.8 ± 0.6 years old) from Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, China were selected from October 2021 to December 2021. Accelerometers were used to measure physical activity (PA) and sedentary behavior (SB), while sleep duration was obtained via a parent-report questionnaire. Components of EF (cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and working memory) were assessed using computerized behavioral tasks. The daily composition was significantly associated with inhibitory control and working memory. Inhibitory control improvements were linked to the addition of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) at the expense of SB and sleep. The reallocation between MVPA, SB, sleep, and light physical activity yielded a significant association with working memory.

Students with diverse learning needs are becoming more prevalent in higher education institutions. There has been a substantial rise in the number of adult learners with ADHD (American College Health Association, 2021). To ensure the support and achievement of neurodiverse learners, especially higher education students with ADHD, higher education faculty should implement strategies within their courses to support all learners. One framework frequently utilized in K-12 settings is Universal Design for Learning (UDL). UDL provides access to content by focusing strategies on engagement, various means of displaying content, and supporting learners in demonstrating their learning in a way that best supports their learning needs (CAST, 2018). Specific UDL strategies that would have a positive impact on learners with ADHD are discussed.

The present study explored whether poor executive functions (EF) underlying the difficulties of individuals with ADHD in reading comprehension (RC) are general or specific to the textual content they regulate. To address this question, adolescents with and without ADHD answered questions following the reading of texts and completed a series of tasks that assessed cognitive flexibility, updating and inhibition skills, using (a) non-verbal items, to assess a domain-general EF; (b) single written words, to assess verbal-specific EF; and (c) illustrated scenarios, to assess discourse-specific EF. Findings demonstrated that verbal and/or discourse measurements exhibited significant mediating effects beyond the contribution made by non-verbal measurements. When EF measurements of the same modality were computed as a single composite score, only the discourse measurement accounted for a significant mediating contribution. These findings suggest a domain-specific, or even a discourse-specific role of EF in RC of adolescents with ADHD, and bear implications for educational practice.

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) characteristically experience academic difficulties. There is growing evidence that the continuum from academic competence to underachievement is partially explained by executive function (EF; neurocognitive attention-regulation processes) and stress. Yet, there is scarce research investigating these relationships among students with or at risk for EBD, especially during the elevated stress and risk period of middle school, and particularly among racially/ethnically under-represented groups. Therefore, with 118 U.S. middle schoolers with or at risk for EBD and typical peers (70% Hispanic/Latinx; 25% Black), we examined group differences and relationships among perceived family, peer, and school stress, EF, and academic outcomes. When compared with their typical peers, students with or at risk for EBD scored lower on EF and academic tasks. For all students, higher EF predicted better academic functioning. Perceived stress was directly and negatively related with EF and indirectly associated with academic outcomes via EF.

This study investigated whether transitory and persistent poverty spells were associated with children's learning (literacy and numeracy scores) and executive function outcomes in Ghana. Children resided in the Greater Accra region (N = 2,154; 49% female; M[subscript age] = 5.2 years at wave-1) and were followed at four-time points over three years. Multivariate regression models were used to test whether exposure to transitory poverty (1-2 times) or persistent poverty (3-4 times) were differentially associated with child learning and executive function outcomes at wave-4 (M[subscript age] = 7.5 years) compared to children who did not experience poverty at any wave. Our results show that transitory poverty was significantly and negatively associated with children's literacy scores. Persistent poverty had the largest negative relations for both learning outcomes. Findings were mixed for executive function, with persistent poverty negatively related to cognitive flexibility, but not inhibitory control. Implications for global child development and learning are discussed.

This study evaluated the appropriateness of scoring the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function--Preschool (BRIEF-P) using age-equivalent scores generated from multiple measures of cognition and language among school-age children with Down syndrome (DS). Subscale T scores for 95 children with DS were contrasted using standard scoring on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function--Second edition (BRIEF-2; based on chronological age) to alternate scoring using the BRIEF-P (based on age equivalent) for patterns of subscale intercorrelations, differences in mean scores, and agreement on findings from clinical cut-off scores. Results with children with DS suggested using (1) the BRIEF-P for children ages 2-5 years old, (2) the BRIEF-2 with chronological-age scoring or the BRIEF-P with age equivalent scoring (with some caveats) for research on children ages 5-10 years old, and (3) the BRIEF-2 for children ages 11 and older.

Fine motor skills (FMS) are among the most studied nonlinguistic factors influencing early literacy acquisition. Although developmental studies have often supported the presence of a relationship between FMS and emergent literacy, the underlying mechanisms have not always been adequately explored. In this study, we used structural equation modeling to investigate the longitudinal relationship between FMS in kindergarten and reading and spelling in first grade among 212 Arabic-speaking children. We also used structural equation modeling to examine the contribution of executive functions (EFs) measures as the possible mediators of this relationship. The first structural equation model suggested that FMS (assessed by the functional dexterity test, copying letters, and pure copying) at kindergarten was a significant predictor ([beta] = 0.33, p < 0.05) of literacy achievement (assessed by spelling and reading words and pseudowords) in first grade. The second structural equation model suggested that EFs measures (as assessed by "The Head" - "Toes" - "Knees" - "Shoulders" self-regulation task and the digit-span forward and backward tests) fully mediated the relation between FMS and reading and spelling in the first grade. Results of the bootstrap method also supported the statistically significant effect of FMS on reading and spelling achievement through EFs, 95% CI [0.182, 0.802]. This study emphasizes the importance of screening young children with non-academic and non-language-based measures in order to identify the factors underlying difficulties with reading and spelling.

Montessori came to the United States at the turn of the 20th century, and the Method was, at first, accepted with enthusiasm. But it wasn't long before the honeymoon was over - American educators wrongfully accused Montessori of being behind the times of educational research of the day. One of these early criticisms of Montessori education targeted the amount of freedom given to children. The perceived wisdom of the era viewed teachers as the center of the classroom, and Montessori's critics were uncomfortable with the concept decentering the adult to educate the child. And what does this mean for cultures who do not have the same values around "peace and quiet?" In what ways does this idea of peaceful and quiet impact the neurodivergent children in our environments. A Montessori classroom should run on self-regulation, personal responsibility, and social harmony - not adult-imposed rules. Children need order, and adults must create an orderly environment. It sounds simple, but normalization and a culture of community can only happen with a prepared adult. A prepared adult allows children to practice essential executive functions and self-regulation skills like working memory, mental flexibility, and self-control. Observation is the secret sauce of the Montessori Method; without it, there is not Montessori Method. Everything we do in the classroom, from the lessons we give to how the furniture is arranges, should be based on observation.

Purpose: Language studies on populations with rare genetic disorders are limited. Hence, there is little data on commonly found or expected developmental linguistic traits and cognitive mechanisms that may be impaired. Based on the hypothesis that there is a close connection between language and cognition and the relevance of specific genetic changes in the development of each, our goal was to provide linguistic data on relationships with other executive functioning mechanisms. Method: This study assessed language skills, communicative behaviors, and executive functions in four children, aged 7-9 years, with rare genetic disorders, using standardized protocols and tests. Results: The findings revealed different levels of language impairment and executive functioning problems in each case. The overall executive function index performance for each of the four cases studied was clinically significantly high, indicating executive dysfunction. Conclusions: The cases analyzed illustrate different types of atypical development that affect both language and other cognitive mechanisms and underscore the importance of executive skills and the various ways in which they are involved in diverse levels of language that might be affected to a greater or lesser degree in rare genetic disorders. In conclusion, we found that language dysfunction is a salient feature of the rare genetic disorders included in our study, although this is not necessarily true for all genetic disorders. Along with these conclusive results, we performed a qualitative analysis of the linguistic and cognitive components that enable functional communication in order to allow optimal interpretation of the data we have collected, laying the foundations for a more effective therapeutic approach.

The ability of the brain to extract patterns from the environment and predict future events, known as statistical learning, has been proposed to interact in a competitive manner with prefrontal lobe-related networks and their characteristic cognitive or executive functions. However, it remains unclear whether these cognitive functions also possess a competitive relationship with implicit statistical learning across individuals and at the level of latent executive function components. In order to address this currently unknown aspect, we investigated, in two independent experiments (N[subscript Study1] = 186, N[subscript Study2] = 157), the relationship between implicit statistical learning, measured by the Alternating Serial Reaction Time task, and executive functions, measured by multiple neuropsychological tests. In both studies, a modest, but consistent negative correlation between implicit statistical learning and most executive function measures was observed. Factor analysis further revealed that a factor representing verbal fluency and complex working memory seemed to drive these negative correlations. Thus, the antagonistic relationship between implicit statistical learning and executive functions might specifically be mediated by the updating component of executive functions or/and long-term memory access.

Executive function (EF) is critical to students' academic behaviors and well-being. Environmental influences, particularly teacher-student interaction (TSI), play a key role in enhancing EF development. Previous studies have linked TSI quality to children's EF, yet the relationships between subdimensions of TSI--such as closeness, conflict, dependency, emotional support, classroom management, and instructional support--and EF outcomes remain unclear. Moreover, it is unclear whether these relations hold true across different cultural contexts. From an initial pool of 14,915 articles, in this meta-analysis, we considered 84 empirical studies across 18 cultural regions, revealing that TSI subdimensions are consistently related to EF with small-to-medium effect sizes. The analysis also identified statistically significant moderating factors, such as individualism, power distance, EF type, EF instrument, and socioeconomic status. Notably, stronger TSI-EF correlations were found among children from cultures with low-individualism and high-power-distance, as well as among children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. These patterns were particularly pronounced in studies measuring hot EF through adult-reported data. This comprehensive meta-analysis bridges knowledge gaps in TSI-EF dynamics, and supporting theories, such as attachment theory, social learning theory, and socio-cultural theory within educational settings. Crucially, it provides cross-cultural perspectives showing how cultural and contextual factors may intertwine with TSI-EF interactions.

Attendance at preschool represents an important transition, as it is often here that children have their first experience with unfamiliar adults. In this context, several factors can affect children's adjustment. Two important protective factors are the attachment relationship with the teacher and the level of executive functions. We investigate this interaction in order to reduce the occurrence of internalizing and externalizing symptoms. The results show that both the quality of the attachment relationship with the teacher and executive functions are related to a lower occurrence of internalizing and externalizing behaviours, and that executive functions play a mediating role between the attachment to the teacher and children's behaviours. Therefore, from the perspective of promoting children's adjustment to preschool and, more generally, children's well-being, it is critical at this age to promote the development of executive functions within a secure attachment relationship with the preschool teacher.

Developing children's FMS and executive function is a critical aspect of early childhood. The aim was to evaluate the fundamental movement skills (FMS) and executive function. The objectives were to investigate the locomotor and object control skills as well as inhibitory control and working memory of the selected children. Grade 1 (6-8-years-old) learners (N = 157) in Cape Town, South Africa were assessed with the Test for Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2) and Head Toes Knees and Shoulder task, before and after a 6-week active brain-break intervention. Participants were divided into a control (n = 53) and an experimental (n = 104) group. The results indicated an overall statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) for pre- and post-testing in both groups for FMS executive functioning (p < 0.01).The results highlight the importance of exposing Grade 1 learners to FMS and physical activity bouts during academic lessons to create opportunities for movement, development of FMS and enhancement of executive functioning.

Increasing mental health issues, such as emotional problems, pose a threat for the academic performance of undergraduate students. We propose a route connecting emotional problems and academic performance through executive functioning skills (EFS). Despite the abundance of research on the topic of EFS, there is a significant gap in understanding this route, specifically among a population of undergraduate students. The aim of this study was to examine whether EFS mediated the association between emotional problems and academic performance among undergraduate students. Cross-sectional data (n = 2,531) was used from a survey among Dutch undergraduate students from a large variety of faculties at a university of applied sciences. We assessed emotional problems using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21, five EFS (cognitive inhibition, task initiation, sustained attention, planning, time management), and academic performance (study delay; yes/no). Mediation analyses were performed, using the Hayes PROCESS macro, adjusted for gender. We found that cognitive inhibition, task initiation, sustained attention, planning, and time management mediated the association between emotional problems and academic performance. Regarding separate EFS, no large differences were found. The data suggests that improving all EFS in undergraduates experiencing emotional problems could be a fruitful strategy for preventing academic delays.

Reading comprehension skills, which involve numerous executive functions (EFs), are crucial for the academic success of school-aged children. Because children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have difficulties with language comprehension and EFs, achieving reading comprehension may be challenging for them. This study evaluated the distinct contributions of language comprehension and EF components to reading comprehension in order to reveal the possible mechanisms underlying poor reading comprehension among children with ADHD. A total of 69 Chinese-speaking children aged 8-12 years who were typically developing (TD, n = 36) or had ADHD (n = 33) participated in this study. All participants were assessed through intelligence, reading, and language comprehension tests. EF skills were measured using a verbal working memory (WM) test and four behavior tasks: the go/no-go task, a spatial WM (SWM) task, the Tower of London (ToL) task, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST). Results indicated that the ADHD group exhibited significantly lower language and reading comprehension scores than did the TD group. Moreover, the TD and ADHD groups had equivalent ToL scores but notably different go/no-go, WCST, SWM, and verbal WM test scores. After age, sex, and nonverbal intelligence quotient were controlled for, hierarchical regression models revealed the contributions of language skills to reading comprehension in both groups, but the contributions of EFs differed between the groups. Inhibition and verbal WM were significant predictors of reading comprehension in the ADHD group. In sum, the abilities to disregard irrelevant information and maintaining linguistic information of multiple episodes are important for Chinese-speaking children with ADHD to build a coherent mental representation of the text during reading comprehension.

Across geographically diverse samples, engagement in stimulating activities with young children is considered an important element of parenting that promotes cognitive, behavioral, and social-emotional development. Indicators of stimulation activities are often summed, based on the assumption that more stimulation is better and that different stimulating activities are equivalent. Instead, this study takes a household-centered analytic approach, applying latent class analysis to detect patterns of parental stimulation practices across six activities. We then examine predictors of the resultant latent classes and their implications for children's school readiness among a sample of Ghanaian kindergarteners (N = 2,117; M[subscript age] = 5.2 years; 51% male). Results support a 4-class solution that represents (i) Highly Stimulating; (ii) Social-emotionally Stimulating; (iii) Playful; and (iv) Playful and Academically Stimulating households. Multiple child and family characteristics differentially predict latent class membership, although class membership did not differentially predict children's literacy, numeracy, executive function, or social-emotional skills. Findings suggest that all combinations of parental stimulation are equivalently promotive of children's school-related skills and help reify a strengths-based perspective. The results deepen our understanding of the different configurations of parental stimulation and suggest that a tailored approach to parenting programs may be beneficial. Programs can build on activities that parents already do (e.g., social-emotional) to encourage increased stimulation in other areas (e.g., academic).

Sequence learning is fundamental to a wide range of cognitive functions. Explaining how sequences--and the relations between the elements they comprise--are learned is a fundamental challenge to cognitive science. However, although hundreds of articles addressing this question are published each year, the actual learning mechanisms involved in the learning of sequences are rarely investigated. We present three experiments that seek to examine these mechanisms during a typing task. Experiments 1 and 2 tested learning during typing single letters on each trial. Experiment 3 tested for "chunking" of these letters into "words." The results of these experiments were used to examine the mechanisms that could best account for them, with a focus on two particular proposals: statistical transitional probability learning and discriminative error-driven learning. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that error-driven learning was a better predictor of response latencies than either n-gram frequencies or transitional probabilities. No evidence for chunking was found in Experiment 3, probably due to interspersing visual cues with the motor response. In addition, learning occurred across a greater distance in Experiment 1 than Experiment 2, suggesting that the greater predictability that comes with increased structure leads to greater learnability. These results shed new light on the mechanism responsible for sequence learning. Despite the widely held assumption that transitional probability learning is essential to this process, the present results suggest instead that the sequences are learned through a process of discriminative learning, involving prediction and feedback from prediction error.

This study aimed to compare the executive functions (EFs) and occupational performance and perceived occupational proficiency (POP) in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. In this study, 72 children diagnosed with cerebral palsy (CP; n = 22), specific learning disabilities (SpLD; n = 26) or attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n = 24) were included in the study group and 84 typically developed children were included in the comparison group. All children were evaluated with the Child Occupational Self-Assessment (COSA) and all parents were evaluated with The Executive Function and Occupational Routines Scale (EFORTS) and the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM). Accordingly, statistically significant differences were found between the study group and the comparison group in terms of total scores of the COSA and EFORTS (p < 0.05). In addition, there was a significant difference between the CP, ADHD, and SpLD diagnosis groups and the comparison group in terms of sub-parameters of COSA and EFORTS score (p < 0.05). The findings showed that children with different diagnoses within neurodevelopmental disorders have difficulties in different EFs and occupational performance areas. Also, the pattern of association between EF and POP was different for each group. Therefore, therapists need to consider occupational performance and POP with EFs in their assessments before planning their intervention.

Problems with executive function (EF) are considered a hallmark of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). However, little is known about the developmental pathway of everyday EF in these two groups, and whether the two groups follow a similar or different developmental course. In this longitudinal study, children and adolescents with ADHD (n = 84, M[subscript age] = 11.6, SD = 2.0), ASD (n = 38, M[subscript age] = 12.0, SD = 2.3), and typically developing children (TDC; n = 50, M[subscript age] = 11.6, SD = 2.0) were clinically diagnosed and assessed with parent-ratings of everyday EF at baseline and at two-year follow-up (97% retention). Results showed that both individuals with ADHD and individuals with ASD displayed elevated levels of everyday EF problems relative to the TDC at baseline (Hedges g = 1.99 to 2.99). Over the two-year period, everyday EF improved in individuals with ADHD relative to the TDC, whereas individuals with ASD displayed no improvement relative to the TDC. At two-year follow-up, individuals with ADHD and individuals with ASD continued to display elevated levels of everyday EF problems relative to the TDC (Hedges g = 1.61 to 3.19).

Switching between languages requires the participation of executive functions (EFs) which comprise both the 'hot' affective aspects (hot EFs) and the 'cool' cognitive aspects (cool EFs). However, the role of these EFs in language switching is not clear. This study employed a word valence categorization task to explore the effects of hot (i.e. emotional valence and emotional congruency) and cool (i.e. inhibitory control ability, IC ability) EFs on high- and low-IC Chinese-English bilinguals' language switching costs. The results showed smaller language switching costs for positive than negative emotional words, for emotional incongruent than congruent trials, for positive than negative emotional words in emotional congruent trials and for negative emotional words in emotional incongruent than congruent trials. Moreover, hot and cool EFs worked interactively, with larger language switching costs for negative emotional words and the same pattern in emotional congruent trials for high-IC participants over low-IC ones. These results indicate that various aspects of hot EFs affect language switching costs individually and interactively, while also modulate the effects of cool EF on language switching costs during Chinese-English emotional word comprehension. These findings have implications for extending the Bilingual Interactive Activation plus (BIA+) model by incorporating both hot and cool EFs.

Research Findings: In the context of parent-child book sharing, cultural influences on cognitive distancing language and associations with child executive function (EF) have been understudied. This study examined cultural group similarities/differences in parent and child book-sharing distancing language among preschool-aged dual language learners from low-income Mexican American (MA) and Chinese American (CA) families. We further tested concurrent relations between parent/child distancing language and children's EF. The sample consisted of 88 children (45 MAs, 43 CAs, age = 38-68 months) enrolled in Head Start preschools and their parents. To assess distancing language, utterances were coded for cognitive demand and classified as referential (low demand), behavioral (moderate demand), or inferential (high demand). Cognitive tasks tapping inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility were used to assess child EF. Results showed parents and children from both cultural groups produced comparable numbers of story-related utterances. MA dyads used higher proportions of parent/child inferential statements and a lower proportion of parent referential questions. The proportions of parent behavioral questions and child behavioral statements were positively related to child cognitive flexibility. Practice or Policy: Findings highlight heterogeneity in parent-child verbal interactions among low-income multilingual families and have implications for promoting preschoolers' cognitive/language development in diverse populations.

Research Findings: Early elementary school is a crucial time for the development of executive functions, but less is known about the impact of parent-child narratives on executive function development in children of this age group. This study aims to investigate the influence of parental scaffolding styles in parent-child co-constructed narratives in the development of transitional kindergartners' executive function. The sample comprised 35 Hispanic and non-Hispanic parent-child dyads, who were video recorded discussing a past experience at home. Video recordings were transcribed and coded for parental scaffolding strategies. Through principal component analysis, three scaffolding styles were identified: elaborative, eliciting, and echoing. Children's executive function was measured using the pencil tap task. Hierarchical linear regression analysis revealed that parents' echoing scaffolding style was positively and significantly associated with children's executive function outcomes, after controlling for child expressive language, maternal education, and parent dominant narrative languages. Practice or Policy: These findings highlight that the way parents scaffold their children's narratives can have a positive impact on their development of executive function. It also emphasizes the need for educators and practitioners to recognize the role of parent-child language interactions in supporting children's cognitive development, and to collaborate with families to promote positive developmental outcomes.

Research Findings: There are sparse data on children's use of executive function (EF) and spatial skills in block play. However, there are important implications for studying EF and spatial skills with blocks across cultures, especially regarding best practices for supporting social-cognitive development in under-resourced populations and consideration of culturally unique customs and practices. Therefore, the current study compared EF-based skills and spatial block building behaviors in Canadian and Tzotzil Maya children. Participants included 82 preschoolers (55% Canadian) ages 48-59 months (M age = 54.37 months, SD = 3.37) observed and coded during a group block play session with peers. Controlling for demographic covariates, a composite EF-based variable including six behaviors (intentional selection of blocks, taking time, response inhibition, replacing/moving blocks, stabilizing, aligning) was significantly and positively associated with spatial configurations in block structures (symmetry, [beta] = 0.34; tiered orientation, [beta] = 0.37). The associations did not vary by culture. Practice or Policy: Results provide new knowledge about use of EF-based skills and spatial skills in an ecologically valid context and implications for cross-cultural measurement and practice.

This study investigates the interpretation of object-initial sentences in German-speaking children. We addressed the following questions: (1) Which morphosyntactic cues do children deploy to process object-initial sentences? (2) Which executive function (EF) abilities support them during this task? This study examined the effect of case and number agreement morphology in 4;6-year-old German-speaking children (N = 27) on their interpretation of unambiguous S(ubject)-V(erb)-O(bject) and OVS sentences by combining an offline (sentence-picture matching) and an online (looking-while-listening) paradigm. Participants' working memory and cognitive control abilities were assessed by means of a (forward) digit-span test and a flanker task. Case-marked OVS sentences were processed more accurately than number-marked ones, although both conditions were less accurate than SVO sentences. We found a comprehension facilitation driven by higher cognitive control skills that enhances, specifically the interpretation of the more demanding number cue in OVS structures already in 4;6-year-olds. Higher working memory skills are generally associated with children's processing skills as they support the correct parsing of all online conditions and of both SVO and OVS in the offline case condition. We conclude that while case-marking appears to be processed more reliably than number by preschoolers, also number information alone can be processed, especially by children with higher cognitive control skills.

Higher education is a predictor of employment for individuals who have an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and an increasing number of students with ASD are enrolling in college. However, deficits in executive functioning (EF) make academic success difficult. This systematic review of literature identified ten research studies examining the effects of college supports for students with ASD that targeted an aspect of EF, specifically working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, self-regulation, organization, and time management. Common supports included mentorship and group therapy, with interventions often facilitated by graduate or peer students. Although outcomes were generally positive, most researchers relied on participant feedback rather than objective measures of executive function.

Background: Evidence shows that children's household contexts of economic pressure and home chaos may better represent children's daily home experiences than family socioeconomic status. Still, limited research has examined the impacts of household contexts on child developmental outcomes and their underlying mechanisms. Objective: This study examined the longitudinal associations of economic pressure and home chaos with children's prospective word reading and school readiness and executive functioning (EF) skills of attention shifting, inhibitory control, and working memory. Methods: Longitudinal data were collected from a socioeconomically representative sample of 523 Chinese children (mean age 5.38 years; 52.9% male) and their parents and teachers in Hong Kong. Fathers and mothers at Time 1 (start of the school year) reported their perceived economic pressure and home chaos through questionnaires. At Time 2 (end of the school year), children's EF and Chinese word reading were directly assessed with behavioral tasks, whereas teachers rated children's school readiness using a questionnaire. Results: Controlling for child age and gender, economic pressure was associated with later working memory and attention shifting. Time 1 economic pressure was indirectly associated with time 2 word reading and school readiness via time 2 working memory. A negative direct relationship was found between home chaos and school readiness. No significant associations were observed between home chaos and later EF skills. Conclusions: Economic pressure predicts later working memory as well as word reading and school readiness. The study suggests a potential role of working memory in the links between home environment and school readiness.

The present study aims to examine the Executive Function (EF) skills of preschool-aged children who are deaf and hard of hearing (DHH), and explore the variables related to their EF skills. Thirty preschoolers who were DHH and an additional 35 preschoolers with typical hearing were recruited. All DHH use spoken language as their communication mode, and wore hearing devices. Results revealed that preschoolers who are DHH are delayed in some EF skills, particularly inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. Interestingly, in working memory, they exhibit age-appropriate verbal working memory, whereas they do not have an advantage over their hearing peers in visual-spatial working memory. Correlational results showed that working memory is related to language skills, while inhibitory control is related to the age of auditory exposure and early intervention. Thus, the results highlight the importance of early auditory exposure and early intervention, as well as language, in EF development in preschoolers who are DHH.

This study examined the use of a wearable smartwatch-based intervention to support the executive functioning needs of college students with intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders. The study was designed to address the universal design for learning guidelines and checkpoints for Provide options for Executive Functions. Three students with intellectual disability, two on the autism spectrum, participated in this multiple-probe across participants with an embedded ABAB design to determine whether a causal relationship exists between the smartwatch intervention and the percentage of tasks completed independently. Students were taught to use a wearable smartwatch device to enter novel appointments for the coming week and the associated tasks. All students self-operated the wearable device to enter appointments, attend appointments on time, and complete associated tasks. Results are discussed in the context of applying new technology applications to assist individuals with intellectual disability and autism to self-manage technological supports to learn new skills, set reminders, and enhance independence.

It is unclear whether children with autism spectrum disorders have atypical semantic fluency and lower memory for the semantics of words. Therefore, we examined semantic typicality, fluency and recall for the categories of fruits and animals in 60 children with autism aged 7-15 years (boys: 48/girls: 12) compared to 60 typically developing controls. Relative to controls, the autism group had reduced animal fluency, fruit typicality and recall for fruits. Notably, these measures were associated with more autistic-like symptoms and/or lower adaptive functioning across the autism and control groups. In conclusion, atypical semantics of fruits in the autism group may reflect development of idiosyncratic semantic networks while their lower semantic fluency and recall suggest impaired executive language functions.

In recent years awareness of the importance of executive function (EF) skills for students' academic growth has increased. Research suggests that experience in school promotes EF development; however, recommendations regarding evidence-based practices that educators can use to support EF in their classrooms are limited. Here we outline two main reasons that this may be the case. First, there are significant challenges in the measurement of EF, which have implications for our understanding of how children use EF skills in support of learning in the moment and in real-world settings like the classroom. Second, there is limited direct research on the types of classroom experiences that promote EF. In describing both, we highlight emerging evidence and new methods that are helping us better understand the development of EF and the ways in which school experiences shape this growth, which will ultimately inform the development of school-based strategies to promote these skills.

Because deficits in executive functions (EFs) characterize most neurodevelopmental disorders, it is appropriate to question the value of EFs for understanding learning disabilities. Two types of studies--those testing whether EFs moderate treatment effects and those testing the direction of effects between EFs and academic skills--are presented to support the idea that EFs are useful for the study of learning disabilities in the context of intervention. Moderator effects in reading and math intervention studies suggest that considering EFs to be properties of not only persons, but also interventions is important for understanding treatment effects and for designing more effective interventions. An experimental study comparing math word problem solving interventions and EF interventions provides evidence for bidirectional development of working memory and math word problem solving. Directions for future experimental research that systematically and more rapidly investigate growth in EFs and academic skills in individuals with learning disabilities are presented.