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Understanding and communicating uncertainty is a key skill needed in the practice of science. However, there has been little research on the instruction of uncertainty in undergraduate science education. Our team designed a module within an online geoscience field course which focused on explicit instruction around uncertainty and provided students with an uncertainty rating scale to record and communicate their uncertainty with a common language. Students then explored a complex, real-world geological problem about which expert scientists had previously made competing claims through geologic maps. Provided with data, expert uncertainty ratings, and the previous claims, students made new geologic maps of their own and presented arguments about their claims in written form. We analyzed these reports along with assessments of uncertainty. Most students explicitly requested geologists' uncertainty judgments in a post-course assessment when asked why scientists might differ in their conclusions and/or utilized the rating scale unprompted in their written arguments. Through the examination of both pre- and post-course assessments of uncertainty and students' course-based assessments, we argue that explicit instruction around uncertainty can be introduced during undergraduate coursework and could facilitate geoscience novices developing into practicing geoscientists.

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of concept maps on science achievement among elementary and secondary education students, including low-achieving students. A systematic search located 55 studies about concept mapping in science achievement published in peer-reviewed journals and dissertations between 1980 and 2020. We extracted 58 independent standardized mean difference effect sizes from 55 eligible studies involving 5,364 students from Grade 3 to Grade 12 who used concept maps for learning in physics/earth science, chemistry, and biology that met the specified design criteria. A random-effects model meta-analysis revealed that the mean effect size was moderate for overall science (g = 0.776). The mean effect sizes varied from moderate to large based on the subject area (g = 0.671 for biology; g = 0.590 for chemistry; g = 1.040 for physics and earth science); these differences between groups were not statistically significant (p = 0.220). Concept maps were generally associated with increased science learning across several learning and teaching conditions, and methodological features (low-achieving students, higher teaching guidance, intermediate grades, low- or middle-income countries, journal publications, and late year of publication). However, we found significant heterogeneity in most subsets. Implications for future research and practice recommendations are discussed.

Sustainability has a molecular basis that suggests a central role for chemistry in addressing today's challenges to Earth and societal systems, and this role requires educators to see chemical reactions and processes as integral parts of dynamic and interconnected systems. Despite this prospect, few accessible resources are available for students and educators to facilitate systems thinking in chemistry for sustainability. We have developed an interactive digital learning tool (https://planetaryboundaries.kcvs.ca) based on the Planetary Boundaries framework, which uses interactive visualizations to help users better understand Earth system sustainability challenges and helps chemists and educators connect substances, reactions, and chemistry concepts to sustainability science. The tool highlights the fundamental role that chemistry plays in regulating the individual biophysical Earth system processes and in determining their control variables. It incorporates key features of a systems thinking framework by illustrating the dynamic interconnections among the processes and their control variables and demonstrates change of the Earth system over time. Finally, the interactive tool provides educators with accessible entry points to support the integration of chemistry curriculum content with sustainability considerations.

In this study, we analyzed the descriptive knowledge and mental models of the phenomenon of tides manifested by 111 preservice primary teachers. The instrument employed is an open-ended questionnaire, analyzed by means of an approach that explores the descriptions, explanations, and predictions in respect of this phenomenon by our subjects. First, we made a descriptive study of the kinds of ideas applied across different dimensions of analysis, and, subsequently, a cluster analysis was performed to check how those ideas were articulated and modeled. By means of this analysis, we were able to identify the mental models underlying the responses of preservice primary teachers. Furthermore, the results showed that the models they did have were not used when it came to making predictions in local situations. Instead, they employed heuristic rules based on everyday assumptions, not always consistent with tidal cycles of approximately 12 h. However, faced with situations that required thinking on a global scale, they did use their models, normally based on alternative conceptions. Lastly, from the results obtained, we consider some of the possible difficulties that preservice primary teachers may have in learning about the phenomenon of tides, and the implications for future teaching--learning designs aimed at overcoming those difficulties.

The paper reflects on public discourses about science and pseudoscience, proposing the same discursive structure for both--the Esperantist-Epideictic genre. This genre of discourse might bring together characteristics that we understand as constituents of the public discourse on science. It also enables us to depict the process by which to maintain cohesion on a group's values. The discursive activity points to science as neutral, free, and independent of social influences captivating those already in this discursive sphere. The discursive hermeticity appears in the Esperantist content and the Epideictic form by avoiding the dialogical situations where there is no epistemological and axiological dispute. We thus, show that the Esperantist-Epideictic genre helps to understand the process of maintaining a cohesive group whose beliefs about the Flat Earth appear in social media. We use data from three sources: transcriptions from seminars held at that 1st FlatCon Brazil, most viewed videos on YouTube where affirmationists talk about Flat Earth, and semi-structured exploratory interviews conducted at FlatCon. Our findings indicate that some conceptions of validation of knowledge, scientific method, science bias, reality, and truth compound a distinct part in the current conversations about the Flat Earth movement. Moreover, the Esperantist-Epideictic genre of discourse can be an analytical tool for framing the echo chamber in social media while defending or attacking the Flat Earth movement. We conclude that in a time where there is a growing consensus that science is under attack, the ways in which its defenders are trying to stand up to it may be causing some harm.

Objective/Research Question: This paper reports on data collected in a multi-year National Science Foundation grant project involving a professional development (PD) model built to support community college faculty as change agents (CAs). The research question was: How do disciplinary communities of practice (CoP) emerge among community college faculty working in teams? Methods: This research employed a mixed-method design. Data collection included interviews, focus-group sessions, reflective journals, observations, end-of-workshop evaluations, survey data with the 23 geoscience faculty CA, and data from a national survey. Data analysis used the principles of CoP. Results: When compared to other community college geoscience faculty nationally, the participants in our study reported greater levels of behaviors characteristic of CoP. The CoP emerged due to network building and resource sharing within the PD. The findings highlight the significance of structured PD on the development of robust disciplinary CoP. The initial orientation of CAs, existing institutional structures, and cultures of community colleges influenced the CoP. Putting lessons learned into practice, sharing outcomes, and leading regional PD for others contributed to strengthening of the CoP. Conclusions/Contributions: Intentional PD catalyzed the emergence of strong CoP among the community college geoscience faculty participants. The opportunities to connect with disciplinary colleagues teaching in community colleges who shared an interest in supporting student success and improving teaching practices and the opportunity to share lessons learned contributed to the CoP. Structured interactions, critical reflection, and leading colleagues in PD supported developing, maintaining, and growing the CoP.

This paper, the third in a series on Earth System Science Education, describes various pedagogical ways forward when science teachers are addressing the curriculum implications of the recent interdisciplinary field of Earth System Science (ESS). Parts I and II introduced the key ideas of ESS and the implications for the Australian Curriculum: Science (see "Teaching Science" 68.1 & 68.2 respectively). Part III outlines several research-informed pedagogies to help learners develop more scientific understandings of the Earth System and appropriate related abilities. We believe the suggested ESS additions, emphases and the recommended pedagogies could comprise one pathway toward a more comprehensive and confident Earth System literacy and a stronger engagement in the Earth and other sciences at every school level, and to the curriculum as a whole. Better-informed, sustainability decision-making and actions by students as today's, and tomorrow's, citizens are the hoped-for outcome. [For Part II, see EJ1355521.]

Fifth-grade students applied quantitative reasoning in exploring the flow times of three simulated lavas of different viscosities down the slope of a hand-made volcano. After modeling the lava flow times for 6 km down the volcano slope, students used their quantitative models to predict the evacuation times for villagers living 10 km down. Reported are how students structured and represented their data in model creation, how they applied their knowledge of viscosity in identifying variation and covariation displayed in their models, and how they applied quantitative reasoning in making predictions from their models. Students' quantitative models included graph forms not formally taught at their grade level, including ordered case value, stacked bar, and line graphs. Models comprising ordered case value and line graphs appeared to facilitate students' detection and interpretation of covariation between lava viscosity and flow time. Although there was some difficulty in explicating a global view of covariation, students could identify the variation in the viscosity and time separately. Linking their knowledge of viscosity with lava flow times suggested at least an implicit understanding of covariation, and illustrated a reciprocal relationship between mathematics and science. In making predictions about evacuation times, students applied both quantitative interpretation and quantitative literacy (Mayes, 2019), together with their understanding of viscosity and their contextual knowledge of volcanoes. Students' diverse applications of quantitative reasoning were not anticipated, especially since they were not given any particular directions. In expressing the certainty of their predictions, students referred to viscosity and lava flow rates, the dimensions of the volcano, and environmental factors.

Several properties of Earth's magnetic field (field vectors, time dependence) are measured in various locations using a smartphone/tablet magnetic sensor. To enable a proper use of the magnetic sensor as a classroom tool, the exact location of the sensor in the device and its resolution must be identified in a first step. Then, students may perform several measurements on their own, allowing a comparison of the recorded field vectors and a discussion of the possible deviations. We also show that long-time measurements of the local magnetic field are possible using the smartphone sensors, which can be compared to available internet data. All the information obtained enables a better understanding of the properties of the Earth's magnetic field and of the requirements for real applications of magnetic sensor elements.

This paper, the second in a series of three, explores the representation of Earth System Science (ESS) in the Australian Curriculum (ACARA, 2018a)) through the Cross Curriculum Priority area of Sustainability and the Australian Curriculum: Science (F-12), with a focus on F-10. Part I (in Teaching Science, 68.1) overviewed the current understandings of the Earth System and the relatively recent interdisciplinary field of Earth System Science (ESS). Here, in Part II, an analysis of the Cross Curriculum Priority area of Sustainability and the Australian Curriculum: Science (F-12) revealed that several key ESS understandings and system-thinking skills were present. How the most current ESS understandings and abilities could lead to a far deeper understanding of the Earth System are then considered and those that may need more attention from students and teachers are highlighted. Part III (in a forthcoming issue) outlines several research-informed pedagogies to help learners develop more scientific understandings of the Earth System, and appropriate related abilities. These Earth System goals and pedagogies needed to be considered in the ACARA review of the Australian Curriculum: Science and the Sustainability Cross Curriculum Priority area -- to that end, this paper was submitted to the appropriate committees. We believe the suggested ESS additions and emphases could comprise one pathway toward a more comprehensive and confident Earth System literacy and a stronger engagement in the Earth and other sciences at every school level, and to the curriculum as a whole. Better-informed, sustainability decision-making and actions by students as today's, and tomorrow's, citizens is the hoped-for outcome. [For Part I, see EJ1346071.]

Scientific literacy is one of the basic competencies that must be possessed in the XXI century. These competencies include explaining scientific phenomena, designing and evaluating scientific investigations, and interpreting scientific data and facts. These three competency indicators must be embedded in students to help them to solve problems and give the best responding to issues especially science issues, as well as "flat earth theory". The purpose of this study was to describe students' scientific literacy competencies in responding to scientific issues "flat earth theory" and their indications in responding to issues. This research is a description research by questionnaire method and interview. The research subjects were 92 students in several high schools in Malang. The questionnaire results show that 95.65% of students rejected the "flat earth theory". Among those who rejected the theory, 20.97% of respondents did not conduct an investigation to conclude the information of the theory. The interview results of this research indicate that students only relied on initial knowledge or initial information to conclude the issue.

This study aimed to describe the development of augmented reality-based interactive multimedia to improve the critical thinking skills of elementary school teacher education students in learning earth structure and fisheries material science. This type of research was research and development by Sukmadinata consisting of preliminary studies, model development, and model testing. The research subjects were elementary school teacher education students at Sebelas Maret University, Indonesia. The technique of collecting data used tests, questionnaires, and observations. The collected data was then analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative data analysis used the interactive models of Miles and Huberman and quantitative data analysis using a paired sample t-test. The results of the study show that the development of media products determines indicators of learning, programming, display, and curriculum. The main field test obtained ?value = 0.002< 0.05, it can be decided that H0 rejected. Students think critically using augmented reality-based interactive multimedia better than before using it. At present, it is obtained interactive multimedia based on augmented reality that is feasible to use in accordance with the views of experts and users.

The objective of the present study is to determine the effect of the process of designing a slowmation (SMA) on the development of 21st century skills of "learning and innovation" in 4th grade science class "Light and Sound" and "Planet Earth" units. Study group included 44 students attending 4th grade in two private schools in Southeastern Anatolia region. Four female and five male, a total of nine focus students were determined in the study group where the application was implemented. The study was conducted in 17 weeks (51 periods), out of which six weeks spanned the pre-application process and the application lasted for 11 weeks. Different data collection tools such as video records, semi-structured interviews, group audio recordings, 21st century learning and innovation skills scale r and student diaries were used to collect data in the study. Quantitative data were analyzed and interpreted using SPSS software. Qualitative data were analyzed with descriptive analysis. Overall results of the study demonstrated that slowmation application resulted in the development of 21st century learning and innovation skills, namely creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration and communication skills.

Learners with disabilities are often denied field-based learning experiences in naturalistic disciplines. Geology can present substantial barriers due to rugged terrain in difficult-to-reach locations. In 2014, a field trip was executed with the dual purpose of 1) designing inclusion in field learning and 2) demonstrating to college faculty an accessible field experience. Direct observations of participants on the trip, as well as pre- and post-trip focus groups, illuminate the student and faculty field learning experience. Geoscience faculty have little guidance or support in understanding what disability is, how to reconcile accommodation with field-geology learning goals, and they cited instances where disability service providers acted as gatekeepers. The net effect of these ontologies is to reduce faculty empathy with, and thus their ability to be inclusive of, students with disabilities in field settings. Recommendations for instructors include taking campus disability-services administrators on field trips, opening and maintaining communications with disability service providers, and designing pedagogically sound field trips that align as much as possible to principles of universal design. An advocacy approach is described, which focuses on the students and the educational process, instead of on institutional compliance. Finally, geoscience faculty should conceptualize disability service providers as accessibility service providers. Keywords: field trips, Earth science, accessibility, inclusive, disabilities.

Collaborative, project-based learning models have been shown to benefit student learning and engagement in the STEM disciplines. This case study evaluates the use of highly collaborative project- and problem-based learning models in introductory courses in the geosciences and biology. In the geosciences, we developed project-based modules with a strong local focus. Student teams worked on three project-based laboratories dealing with the local geology/geomorphology, water quality of a local stream, and local flooding issues. These replaced traditionally taught laboratories on topographic maps and rivers and streams. Student teams presented project results in lieu of taking a traditional laboratory practical. In biology, we designed a collaborative learning model that incorporated three problem-based learning modules into a first-semester introductory biology course. Students were assigned topics in evolution, cell biology and genetics to research independently during the course of the semester, with each module culminating in a brief presentation on the topic. Modules were designed to mirror concepts being covered in the lecture. Preliminary results suggest that student performance and attitudes towards course material benefitted from this learning model. The authors consider outcomes, benefits, and challenges to students and instructors.

Applying virtual reality (VR) technology to geoscience classrooms provides a new way to engage students. Visualizing geological information in 360-degree allows students to experience processes of the Earth and makes them feel like they are outside the classroom. This paper describes a convenient technique for making 360-degree VR environments specifically for geoscience classrooms. In comparison to traditional classrooms, this teaching method enables students to more easily comprehend how geological features occur in nature through a series of 360-degree outcrop scenes and 360-degree infographic images. The learning from using this VR environment in geoscience classrooms at the high-school level is assessed. Results from three different high schools show that the learning gain of students is improved by 22-28% and the overall average post-test scores are significantly higher than pre-test scores at the p = 0.05 level after using the VR environment in the classrooms. This technique could potentially benefit any science classroom and have applications in other disciplines requiring similar visualization techniques.

This paper identifies the complex interactions of a multi-member partnership and outlines the synergetic opportunities and challenges within the model. At the core of the partnership model is the restoration of the waterways surrounding New York City through the reestablishment of the oyster into New York Harbor. The overarching goal was to connect members of the community to their environment to increase social awareness and responsibility. Stewardship of the harbor through involvement of education, business, and private sectors increased the citizen science involvement of the community. The key to the success of this partnership model is the overlapping of roles and responsibilities as well as a strong "connector" serving to mediate the interactions among the stakeholders and enable the success of the partnership. The partnerships were dynamic and evolving blurring lines and responsibilities. Serendipitous outcomes enhanced partnership relationships and in turn, the efficacy of the project.

The aim of the article is to assess the quality of visualisation of geomorphology, hydrology and agriculture of Czechia through maps, schemes and photographs in geography textbooks for ISCED 1 and ISCED 2 levels of education. A total of 15 geography textbooks were selected and a total of 90 visuals from these textbooks were analysed. The scaling method according to defined criteria relating to the concept of usability was applied; the result of scaling was the usability coefficient. The data obtained through scaling was subsequently statistically analysed. The outcomes of the statistical analysis show that the usability coefficient of visuals in textbooks for the older cohort is higher than in textbooks for younger students. The usability coefficient as an indicator of quality of the assessed visuals is linked especially to the tradition of publishing houses, as visuals in textbooks published by publishers with relatively long tradition are of a higher quality than those by publishers with shorter tradition and therefore less experience with publishing textbooks. Differences in the quality between individual types of visuals or themes are not statistically significant.

The teaching of Earth Sciences (ES) is particularly delicate and seems to be problematic for both learners and Moroccan teachers for multiple reasons. Based on this observation, this study aims at identifying the difficulties related to the teaching of ES by exploring the points of view of the Moroccan teachers toward this field. As an investigative tool, we used a questionnaire and semi-directive interviews with nearly 122 secondary school teachers of Life and Earth Sciences (LES). The results of our survey revealed that the major difficulties that hinder the teaching of natural sciences are mainly related to the teachers' university studies. Most of them had training in biology as well as in the relationship that the natural sciences maintain within time and space, the limited abstraction capacity of unmotivated learners, and the inadequacy of their prerequisites in these sciences. On the other hand, they were aware of the demotivating geological knowledge taught to the learners and the lack of initial and continuous training for teachers, especially for those who specialized in natural sciences.

In this paper we discuss the role of transduction in the teaching and learning of science. We video-filmed pairs of upper-secondary physics students working with a laboratory task designed to encourage transduction (Bezemer & Kress, 2008). The students were simply instructed to use a hand-held electronic measurement device (IOLab) to find the direction of the Earth's magnetic field and mark its direction using a paper arrow. A full multimodal transcription of the student interaction was made. In our analysis of this transcription we identify three separate transductions of meaning. In particular, we observed that student transduction of meaning to the paper arrow allowed it to function as both a persistent placeholder for all the meaning making that had occurred up until that point and as a coordinating hub for further meaning making. Our findings lead us to recommend that teachers interrogate the set of resources necessary for appropriate disciplinary knowledge construction in the tasks they present to students. Here, teachers should think carefully about whether the introduction of a persistent placeholder would be useful and in that case what this placeholder could be. We also suggest that teachers should think about what persistent resource may function as a coordinating hub for the students. Finally, we suggest that teachers should be on the lookout for student transductions to new semiotic resources in their classrooms as a sign that learning is taking place. We claim that the constraining and complementary nature of transduction offers a good opportunity for teachers to check student understanding, since disciplinary meanings need to be coherent across semiotic systems (modes).

Our plan is to bring professors and their Moroccan pupils to focus on the teaching-learning of physics, without adopting forced mathematical modeling in previously unknown frames and registers, as is actually the practice. The preliminary study consists of developing a new analytical model for the teaching-learning of the radioactive decay law. However, the validation study was conducted to test its pertinence. The results show that, compared to the official model, pupils are very satisfied. In fact, the proposed new model intelligibility frame facilitates the linking of the concept of space of reality, with those of registers and frames. The pupils' performance amounted to 65.33% in the development of the analytical model of the radioactive decay law, while in terms of suitable applications, pupil performance ranged from 0% to 75%. This result is partly due to the collaborative work, which induced a very significant increase in pupil performance. They were observed between increases ranging from 33.3% to 69.5%. In fact, we attribute these good performances to the ICT resources' mobilization, specifically SimulP200, the one that we have exclusively elaborated. These resources have also mitigated the difficulties of the experiment, and those related to the processes of elaboration of different radioactive decay law model.

The aim of this study is to compare 2018 Science Course Curriculum (SCC), 2015 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and 2018 High School Entrance Examination (HSE) in terms of content domains, cognitive domains and learning objectives. Qualitative research method, was used in this study. Data were analyzed using document review matrices to determine the similarities and differences between the objectives of SCC, TIMSS and HSE. SCC outcomes and HSE science questions were also classified according to TIMSS cognitive domains. Results show that the learning objectives of the fields of Physics, Biology and Earth Sciences of TIMSS are compatible with those of all grade levels of SCC and that the objectives of Chemistry are compatible with those of the seventh and eighth grades. Most of HSE questions are compatible with the objectives of SCC, however, the latest revision in the curriculum has introduced some eighth grade objectives to other grade levels. HSE science questions measure higher-level skills than TIMSS science questions. The subject domain of the "Organisms and Life" of SCC has the most learning objectives in the levels of "knowing" and "reasoning" while the subject domain of the "Physical Events" has the most learning objectives in the levels of "applying." Besides, the seventh-, fifth- and eighth-graders have the most objectives in the levels of "knowing," "applying," and "reasoning," respectively. It is hoped that the results will contribute the literature in improvement of science curricula and interpretation of national and international exams.

Trillion Theory (TT), a new theory, estimates the cosmic origin at one trillion years. This calculation of thousands of eons is based upon a growth factor where solar systems age-out at a max of 15 billion years, only to recycle into even larger solar systems, inside of ancient galaxies that are as old as 200 billion to 900 billion years. TT is a new brash cosmology theory proposing many new radical ideas. These proposed ideas should be given credence, as such small changes can give rise to large consequences in speeding the present cosmic revolution. All astronomers must undertake greater introspection by performing forensics on black holes throughout cosmos. This article discusses the following topic areas: TT's background, big questions TT answers, the basics of TT, how Earth formed into a sphere, how the sun formed, law of all spheres by T Theory, how the solar system formed, how galaxies became cosmic hotels, materials used to build cosmos, how cosmos grew ever-larger, cosmic design in Trillion Theory, the goals of TT, and proofs of TT. [Note: The volume number (11) shown on the PDF is incorrect. The correct volume for this article is 10.]

Micrometeorites originate from small pieces of rock from space colliding with the Earth's atmosphere at high velocity, such as the Perseid meteors which hit the atmosphere at 60 km/s. When they do so, they burn up, causing a flash of light that we see as a meteor. Many groups have been successful collecting these particles using various devices. Such activities make great science projects for middle and high school students, and we plan to start a program to train students in the collecting methods and get them interested in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) careers. Various methods are used to collect micrometeorites from rainwater, but little work has been done to assess the most efficient method of collecting these particles from space and then analyzing them. Before we began our citizen science project, we determined that it was necessary to conduct a pilot project to determine the most effective method of collecting micrometeorites from rainwater. Four collecting methods were tried and the method that collected the most micrometeorites was also the simplest, that being a simple bucket under the downspout of the gutter system of a house and a magnet which is then run through the bucket to gather the meteorites.

Communicating climate information is challenging due to the interdisciplinary nature of the topic along with compounding cognitive and affective learning challenges. Graphs are a common representation used by scientists to communicate evidence of climate change. However, it is important to identify how and why individuals on the continuum of expertise navigate graphical data differently as this has implications for effective communication of this information. We collected and analyzed eye-tracking metrics of geoscience graduate students and novice undergraduate students while viewing graphs displaying climate information. Our findings indicate that during fact-extraction tasks, novice undergraduates focus proportionally more attention on the question, title and axes graph elements, whereas geoscience graduate students spend proportionally more time viewing and interpreting data. This same finding was enhanced during extrapolation tasks. Undergraduate novices were also more likely to describe general trends, while graduate students identified more specific patterns. Undergraduates who performed high on the pre-test measuring graphing skill, viewed graphs more similar to graduate students than their peers who performed lower on the pre-test.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has prompted the shift from traditional face-to-face instruction to new methods in online platforms. As national governments enforce public health measures to minimize the risk of the virus' transmission, learning institutions grapple with the new norms in education. Teachers are finding ways to address the changes attendant to the current situation. Old practices have to be revisited and recalibrated to fit the demands of a global community in a pandemic. This paper describes my personal reflections on the adjustments caused by the pandemic in my practice as an Earth science educator and some of the ways to possibly address them. Changes in plans due to suspension of laboratory activities and postponement of off-campus activities necessitate the search for equally effective alternatives through online teaching. Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, teachers, students, parents, and all stakeholders are expected to respond proactively to the needs of the time. Changes and challenges can be turned into opportunities that will provide quality education during this uncertain period.

During the early decades of the 18th century, Newtonian physics was still new. Much effort was expended in testing its validity. One arena in which evidence could be found was the shape of Earth. Was it perfectly spherical? On the observational side there were two hints. In 1671 Jean Richer had measured the rate of ticking of a pendulum clock near the equator and found it to swing more slowly than in Europe: the conclusion was that gravity was weaker towards the equator. And in 1718 Jacques Cassini announced that he had analyzed surveying data over a large region of France and found that they suggested a prolate shape (elongated at the poles). But the precision required to draw such a conclusion with confidence was very great, and there was considerable doubt as to whether it had actually been achieved.

Informed by curriculum theory, this in-depth qualitative case study examined the experiences of one senior teacher, Stephen, as he enacted the first unit of Queensland's new "Earth and Environmental Science" (EES) syllabus. This study aimed to understand how Stephen navigated the 'space' between the intended and enacted curriculum, by focussing on what informed his teaching practice, and how Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) was realised (or otherwise). The realisation of ESD was limited to a few instances of teaching students about sustainability content, as Stephen's attention was turned to issues of time and student assessment, following major curricular reform. The tensions that Stephen recounted appeared to relate to a narrowed space between the intended and enacted curriculum, which manifested in feelings of reduced teacher autonomy. The implications of these findings for realising ESD in the context of curricular reform, and the importance of teacher reflexivity in achieving ESD, are discussed.

System thinking in an important area of study across STEM and non-STEM disciplines. The Earth system approach that drives the geosciences and is essential to issues of sustainability makes system thinking a critical skill in geoscience education. A key area in understanding the development of system thinking skills in the geosciences relies on the development of a tool to assess Earth system thinking skills. This paper documents the development process of the Earth system thinking concept inventory (EST CI). The instrument was administered in multiple iterations using Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTURK) (n = 1004). Evidence of validity and reliability was accrued using elements of both classical test theory (CTT) and item response theory (IRT). Key metrics used in this study include item difficulty, item discrimination, infit and outfit statistics, differential item functioning, item-person maps, item characteristic curves, and KR-20 statistics. By using these two approaches to validity and reliability in a complementary fashion, we were able to take an iterative approach to provide robust evidence for both validity and reliability. Additionally, the instrument is semi-customizable as language regarding feedbacks can be shifted between using "positive" and "negative" or "reinforcing" and "balancing" terminology, with the latter resulting in better reliability among a largely novice audience.

This paper, presented in three parts, overviews the current understandings of the Earth System and the relatively recent interdisciplinary field of Earth System Science (ESS) from a school education perspective. The representation of ESS in the Australian Curriculum is explored through the Cross Curriculum Priority area of Sustainability and the Australian Curriculum: Science (F-12), although the focus is up to Year 10. Initially the most current ESS framework and concepts (Steffen et al. 2020) are introduced (Part I). In the first of two follow-up journal articles an analysis of the Sustainability Cross Curriculum Priority area and the Australian Curriculum: Science indicated that several key ESS understandings and system-thinking skills were present. How the most current ESS understandings and abilities could lead to a far deeper understanding of the Earth System are then considered and those that may need more attention from students and teachers are highlighted (Part II). The final article outlines several research-informed pedagogies to help learners develop more scientific understandings of the Earth System, and appropriate related abilities (Part III). These Earth System goals and pedagogies needed to be considered in the ACARA review of the Australian Curriculum: Science and the Sustainability Cross Curriculum Priority area -- to that end, this paper was submitted to the appropriate committees. We believe the suggested ESS additions and emphases could comprise one pathway toward a more comprehensive and confident Earth System literacy and a stronger engagement in the Earth and other sciences at every school level, and to the curriculum as a whole. Better-informed, sustainability decision-making and actions by students as today's, and tomorrow's, citizens is the hoped-for outcome.

This study presents an analysis of the incommensurability about the representations or models elaborated by children from an Indigenous community within three areas or cultural domains, namely, the ethnic, daily (domestic), and school domains and their implications in relation to science education. The children belong to an Indigenous Nahuatl community which is located in the Sierra Norte of Puebla, México. The analysis is based on the children's model constructions concerning two scientific topics: (1) the mixture of colours and (2) the Earth's shape and day-night cycle. Both topics belong to the school program. The children's models are the result of previous investigations that are analysed within this work from an epistemological approach where non-translatability criteria are used to determine the incommensurability of the corresponding models to the different cultural areas. The results show that the models in each area are effectively incommensurable and are therefore coexistent without any integration or displacement process or the presence of conflict among the three cultural areas on a daily life basis. A brief discussion is showed on the implications of results on the difficulties of crossing border processes and the potential conceptual conflicts in young students.

We report our progress on the "River Memorial Museum" didactic intervention project developed with schools, in the basin of the Atoyac River in Mexico, that are significantly impacted by the pollution produced through industrialisation. The teachers of the elementary schools in these communities, environmental scientists, educators, and community activists participated jointly in a "co-construction" process, designing "interdisciplinary" educational activities to study local environmental issues and recovering the principles of a "socio-critical perspective of mathematical modelling." In this paper, we centre on presenting the methodology of the didactic intervention with the teachers of one school of an Atoyac River basin community and the principles for designing educational activities we developed collaboratively with them. We believe this methodology could be helpful to support others in thinking about similar opportunities in their communities.

What emerges when climate-related displacement is positioned in conversation within the relational practices of collective resistance and oral tradition? In this article, I consider climate displacement and community placement through multiple layers within present day ecologies, narrative texts, and longer views of time. Situated within Black ecologies, I apply both archival stories and current research to think beyond plantation logics, with river ecosystems and wetlands, extending concepts of climate change education. The article is layered in place and time through the writing of Louisiana author Ernest Gaines, centering Black epistemologies, oral traditions, and storied pedagogies of place. Relating the ecological roles and intimacies of water in and beyond the colonizing US settler state might unsettle current universalized notions of displacement and climate change education.

The nodules on the roots of soybeans provide N that the plant uses for growth and development. The goal of this study is to observe if the number of nodules on the taproot, volume of nodules on the taproot, the total number of nodules, or the number of nodules on the secondary roots in the early growth stages of soybeans have a significant correlation with the amount of elemental N in mature seed. The Soybean Nodule Acquisition Pipeline was used to quantify these traits and the mature seed was analyzed to obtain the amount of elemental N. The data set used for this project consisted of six genetically and phenotypically diverse soybean lines from two unique sites in 2018. Strong positive correlations were discovered between the number and volume of nodules on the taproot and the amount of N in mature seed. There was a less significant correlation between total nodule counts and N in mature seeds. There was not a strong significant correlation between nodules on the secondary roots and N in mature seeds.

This paper addresses the subject of the semiosis process in the transactions between teachers and students about the knowledge at stake in science education. We present a conceptualisation of these transactions as a joint action between students and teachers. This conceptualisation enables us to understand the semiosis process as it unfolds during teaching-learning situations as the semiosis of both the didactic contract and the didactic milieu. We analyse this semiosis in a case study of earth science education at 5th grade, which comprised two subsequent teaching sessions delivered by the same teacher. Our results give an account of the contract-milieu semiosis under the description of different semiotic modes (speech, gestures, stance, gaze, writings, modellings and proxemics). We also define the generic and specific dimensions of semiosis in relation to the knowledge at stake. Finally, we evaluate the relevance of the teaching practice we observed in terms of its staging of a relationship between the semiosis of didactic contracts and didactic milieus.

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is a technology-driven inquiry-based approach that encourages social interaction and shared knowledge construction in completing computer-aided tasks. Although there were researches carried out on CSCL, no research to date has extensively examined how CSCL enhanced with scripts containing student-generated questions can facilitate the development of logical thinking, an essential skill to effectively comprehend science concepts. In this light, this research examined the effects of co-creating scripts in CSCL on students' logical thinking. This utilized a three-group pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design with two delayed posttests which involved Grade 7 students. One group was exposed to CSCL with scripting while the other group was exposed to CSCL without scripting. On the other hand, the control group was exposed to a conventional teaching approach. Findings revealed that CSCL approaches significantly improved students' logical thinking, F(2, 113) = 5.616, p = 0.0025. Further, the delayed posttests consistently showed that CSCL with scripting significantly influenced the development of logical thinking. Notably, this research builds and extends on previous researches regarding the synergistic scaffolding of the inquiry-based approach, technology integration, collaborative learning, and question-asking activity. This innovation catalyzed learning and offered essential implications that provided opportunities for future research directions.

The aim of this article is to explore the worth of a materialist/posthumanist approach to ethics, specifically affirmative ethics (Braidotti, 2018, 2019a), within the field of education. I work empirical material that 'does' this ethics in classrooms and draw on Deleuze's (1988) ethically guided materialism as taken up by Braidotti (2019b), to gain purchase on it. Defined as a relational matter of human and non-human powers of acting in pursuit of affirmative values, affirmative ethics focuses up "relations," "forces" and "affects." It poses considerable challenges to a normalised construction of ethics as located solely within a constituted human subject with moral intentionality as its core. Affirmative ethics presents empirically as an emergent property of relational assemblages of human and more than human elements that bring ethical subjectivity into effect. Pedagogy and curriculum perform a constitutive role in these assemblages, as does pedagogic affect, showing how this ethics can be activated. A materialist affirmative ethics makes for a multi-faceted and generative practice of ethics. Oriented to collectivity and with relationality 'built-in', it has the potential to play a significant role in the reconstitution of individualised subjectivity which neoliberal modes of governance continue to advance in education.

Background: The goal of this research was to determine students' perceived self-efficacy in science classes through involving students in expanding disciplinary core idea (DCI) and interdisciplinary core idea (ICI) maps, as a method to visualize knowledge (utilizing mind mapping and concept mapping) to support students to integrate interdisciplinary learning. The research involved (a) creating (by science educators) eight curriculum-related, disciplinary core idea maps and two interdisciplinary core idea maps; (b) teachers guiding students in an experimental group, to make interdisciplinary connections so as to expand DCI and ICI maps in an intervention lasting a year and a half from grade 10 to 11; (c) providing feedback on students' developed DCI and ICI maps; (d) administering questionnaires seeking students' perceptions about their self-efficacy towards core ideas, both before and after the intervention and (e) interviewing science teachers (5) and selected students (25), after the intervention, about their perceptions towards the use and outcomes of their DCI and ICI maps. Besides the experimental group, a control group (no intervention) was involved. Results: Outcomes showed that the intervention (guiding students in creating disciplinary and interdisciplinary core idea maps to visualize their learning) supported students significantly in their perceived self-efficacy in the fields of Life Science and Earth Science, plus in the use of Models and Systems. In Physics and Chemistry, the students' perceived self-efficacy was not statistically significantly positive after the conducted intervention. This stemmed from disciplinary core ideas, related to Physics and Chemistry, being more abstract, with students making fewer connections and integrating less new knowledge into the related DCI and ICI maps. In the interviews, both teachers and students stated that the intervention (including expansion of DCI and ICI maps) supported students' science learning. Conclusions: Creating and expanding disciplinary and interdisciplinary core ideas more clearly indicates students' learning, through their ability to make meaningful connections, enabling students to raise their self-efficacy in preparing for their future. The results from this research demonstrate that students' perceived self-efficacy can occur through knowledge visualization by expanding both DCI and ICI maps enabling the making of greater interdisciplinary connections.

This study details the mentored research component of a program intended to recruit, retain, and transfer students attending a two-year college (2YC) to four-year geosciences programs. Eighteen of 20 students who started the program were from minoritized backgrounds: 12 women, six racial/ethnic minorities, 12 low-income, and 13 first-generation college attendees. During a calendar year, students engaged in faculty-mentored research at a 4-year university (4YU), coursework at the 2YC, and a paid six-week internship in geoscience education. Students were to spend at least five hours weekly on research February-June and make a public presentation of results in December. Of 11 students who completed their research projects, 10 were minoritized students. Eight of 11 transferred into a science major. Students progressed the most in research when working together on a project designed for them and regularly meeting in-person with their mentors. Student exit interviews indicated that they valued the research experience and the skills gained. However, less progress occurred in the summer than planned, and students cited challenges in commuting to the 4YU due to jobs and personal commitments. Mentor-student matching produced mixed success. Based on the findings, we recommend incorporating a mini-internship with each mentor into the spring course, then pairing the students with one project and mentor for the summer and fall. Funding the research hours in addition to the internship would help alleviate financial burdens on students. Finally, all mentors would benefit from training together to better understand the mindsets of 2YC students and effectively accommodate individual needs.

Recruitment and retention are critical for geoscience and the need for innovative ways of building these bridges to the geosciences is growing. Field experiences are a common attractor for students to the field sciences such as geoscience, but many research- and field-based experiences are limited to those who are already majors. Innovative, experiential approaches to geoscience recruitment and retention could be a new way to attract more students to geoscience. International field and research experiences designed for undergraduates from any academic discipline aim to provide opportunities for students to explore their (geo)science interests and potential career paths. A single, exploratory case study approach with semi-structured interviews combined with quantitative pre- and post-survey results is used to highlight the experiences of four students and their plans for continuing in the geosciences. Students (including geoscience and non-geoscience majors) were found to have had inherent, pre-college, and college influences for participation in the field experience; all students indicated plans to continue in the geosciences. Two years after the experience, researchers followed-up with the students and found that three of the four were still involved in the geosciences. Many international geoscience field experiences are exclusively for majors, but experiential learning opportunities like these should also be considered for potential majors. These results are beneficial for departments interested in designing and adapting their recruitment and retention efforts to better train the next generation of geoscientists.

Student success programs have achieved demonstrated benefits in broadening participation in the geosciences and other STEM fields. These programs typically require an application from potential participants despite known challenges in recruiting students from historically underrepresented populations. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an invitational recruitment strategy for engaging undergraduate geology majors in the Geoscience Pathways program at the University of Texas at San Antonio, a large public Hispanic-Serving Institution. The program aimed to improve the academic performance and career preparedness of these majors to facilitate their transition into the geoscience workforce. This strategy involved generating a pool of students who met program selection criteria, delivering personalized paper invitations that guaranteed participation to individuals in classes, and securing their commitment to participate after a program briefing. Using paper invitations to communicate with selected students gave higher response rates about attending the program briefing than using email to reach invitees. Of the students attending briefings, nearly 90% decided to participate, with their demographics generally matching those of their peers at the same educational level. Based on focus groups and surveys, receipt of personalized invitations also positively impacted the self-efficacy and motivation of participants. Results indicate that carefully planned recruitment processes are central to developing programs to engage populations that have historically participated less in the geosciences and other STEM fields. Actively working toward the participation of all students of potential can help propel underrepresented groups into a geoscience career carrying increased motivation, skills, and experience to address the projected workforce shortfall.

The Geo-Launchpad Program is a pre-Research Experience for Undergraduates (pre-REU) providing a summer internship and professional development for two-year college (2YC) students from Colorado. The program goal was to build students' interest and capacity to engage in geoscience-focused STEM career pathways. The pre-REU helped students develop skills necessary to conduct scientific research. Students worked on a project that supported scientific research under the direction of a science mentor. The program also provided multi-level mentoring, information about career pathways in geosciences, and professional development. Multi-level mentoring included engagement with 2YC faculty, researchers and professionals, and students in other internship programs. Career pathways were illuminated through informal weekly discussions with guest speakers. Evaluation data from 2015-2018 indicated the program succeeded in building students' interest in and capacity to pursue geoscience-focused STEM careers. Annual program modifications were informed by evaluation data. Data were collected using a modified version of the Undergraduate Research Student Self-Assessment instrument and findings were aligned with the Framework for 21st Century Learning. The internship experience was valuable for students both from the scientific research preparation perspective and developing soft skills through professional development. Overall, the professional development component of Geo-Launchpad was demonstrated to be a highly valuable component of the intern experience. In particular, data showed that exposure to a wide array of geoscience career options and pathways through the Geoscience Career Circles was one of the most impactful elements of the Geo-Launchpad internship.

The geosciences have a pervasive, persistent, and deeply troubling lack of diversity, despite the availability of a suite of well-documented, research-based strategies for broadening participation in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). The pervasiveness, persistence, and depth of the problem indicate that the lack of diversity is systemic, and is embedded in the culture of our discipline, including in the academic departments where future geoscientists are educated. Shifting the demographics of our community will therefore require changing the culture of geoscience, including within our departments. Departmental change is possible and can be accelerated intentionally. Levers for cultural change include using data to illuminate the need; incentivizing the work that closes equity gaps and builds inclusive environments; and developing a departmental community of practice committed to just, equitable outcomes. Departmental discussion groups can facilitate and support both the development of a community of practice and the ongoing work of the community, including identifying context-appropriate solutions from the research literature. The SAGE 2YC project (Supporting and Advancing Geoscience Education at Two-Year Colleges) has used discussion groups to raise awareness and understanding of the factors leading to homogeneity in the geoscience community and of the strategies for achieving equity and inclusion. SAGE 2YC participants have successfully closed or narrowed equity gaps. As scientists, we have the skills necessary to gather, analyze, and interpret relevant data and to evaluate the efficacy of strategies we implement. As humans, we have the moral and ethical responsibility to do this work to improve equity and inclusion in STEM.

Using transformative experience theory as a framework, we investigate the potential of utilizing mobile technology and social media to foster deep-level engagement in the form of connections between in-school and out-of-school experience. A ninth-grade Earth science teacher instructed students to take pictures with their mobile devices when they noticed a connection to unit content and upload these with a caption to a private social media group. Analysis of digital artifacts and focus group interviews found that students were inclined to post content from the Internet more than pictures from their everyday experience. Nevertheless, participation in the activity was associated with transformative engagement (i.e., engagement with content in everyday life and expansion of perception and value related to the content). However, participation varied and barriers to engagement were identified.

Active learning classrooms (ALCs) are designed to support collaborative learning in large class sections that are often taught with a lecture format. Studies on ALCs indicate that they have positive influences on student learning, but the same studies fail to look at learning differences between subgroups of students. In the current study, students enrolled in an introductory STEM course (N = 273) instructed in ALCs completed learning inventories and questionnaires designed to measure the influence of social context. Results showed a lack of learning differences within the classroom environment, a positive relationship between learning gains and perceptions of the student-student interactions, and differences in the perception of the social context unique to ALCs based on gender and ethnic and racial diversity.