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Although there are several nuisance species of serpulids reported worldwide, the present study shows that some of them have been overlooked even in geographic areas that are considered well studied. We report for the first time in Majorca the invasive species Ficopomatus enigmaticus and the first records for the Balearic Islands of the also non-native species Hydroides dianthus, H. dirampha, H. elegans and H. nigra. The most abundant species were F. enigmaticus, found at higher densities in Portixol (with up to 280 ind. m–2), and H. elegans, found at highest densities in the port of Palma (with up to 270 ind. m–2). Species have been identified after morphological examination and corroborated by mitochondrial DNA sequence data: cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) and cytochrome b (Cytb). Molecular data show that the same haplotypes have been found in distant and disjoint biogeographic areas worldwide, which is only explicable by unintentional translocation of specimens through vectors (i.e. ship hulls or ballast water). Species delimitation analyses support previous findings that species complexes are common in both Ficopomatus and Hydroides. In fact, only among the Majorcan samples were we able to detect three species of the F. enigmaticus species complex, two of the H. elegans species complex and two of the H. dianthus species complex. The genetic distances between members of the F. enigmaticus species complex are 8.7% to 16.7% in COI sequences. The species of Hydroides hold 5.4% to 47.6 % genetic divergence between species of the same complex., Hay constancia de especies alóctonas de serpúlidos reportadas en el mundo. Pero el presente estudio muestra que algunas de ellas han sido pasadas por alto incluso en áreas geográficas consideradas bien estudiadas. En este trabajo se cita por primera vez en Mallorca la especie invasora Ficopomatus enigmaticus y se registra también por primera vez para las Islas Baleares las también especies exóticas Hydroides dianthus, H. dirampha, H. elegans e H. nigra. Las especies más abundantes fueron F. enigmaticus, encontrada en mayores densidades en Portixol (con hasta 280 ind. m–2) y H. elegans, encontrada en mayores densidades en el puerto de Palma (con hasta 270 ind. m–2). Las especies han sido identificadas después su estudio morfológico y corroboradas por las secuencias de ADN mitocondrial: subunidad 1 de la citocromo c oxidasa (COI) y citocromo b (Cytb). Los datos moleculares muestran que se han encontrado los mismos haplotipos en áreas biogeográficas distantes e inconexas de a nivel mundial, lo que solo se explica por la translocación involuntaria de ejemplares a través de vectores (es decir, cascos de barcos o agua de lastre). Los análisis de delimitación de especies respaldan resultados previos acerca de la existencia de complejos de especies en ambos géneros Ficopomatus e Hydroides. De hecho, sólo entre las muestras mallorquinas pudimos detectar tres especies del complejo de especies F. enigmaticus, dos del complejo de especies de H. elegans y dos del complejo de especies de H. dianthus. Las distancias genéticas entre los miembros del complejo de especies de F. enigmaticus son del 8.7 al 16.7% en las secuencias COI. Las especies de Hydroides tienen un 5.4-47.6% de divergencia genética entre especies del mismo complejo.

A lectotype is designated for the name Dianthus virgineus. The relationships between D.virgineus, D.caryophyllus var. caryophyllus, and D.caryophyllus var. inodorus are analyzed. Dianthus virgineus is the oldest available name that applies to a species complex that is often referred to as D.sylvestris or a broad circumscription of the cultivated ornamental D.caryophyllus. The taxonomic consequences are discussed, and the need for further studies is highlighted.

The pollen morphology of 89 taxa belonging to the genus Dianthus L. is considered, utilizing light, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and the taxa are compared based on their pollen characters. Of these, the pollen morphology of 73 taxa is reported for the first time. Pollen grains of Dianthus taxa are spheroidal, polypantoporate and 29.1-53 mu m in size, and have 12-24 prominent or sunken apertures uniformly distributed on their surface. Spinules were present on all pollen grains, and puncta were seen in 73 taxa. The exine surface ornamentation can be divided into three types, namely microechinate, microechinate-punctate or microechinate-punctate-foveolate. Cluster analysis and principal component analysis demonstrate that the clustering of Dianthus taxa studied does not correlate well with the sectional classification; rather, the punctum number, the pollen diameter and the spinule number are the most valuable variables for separating the examined taxa.

In order to understand the effects of different growth regulators and their concentrations on the rooting culture of carnation tissue culture seedlings, the optimal growth regulators and their concentrations were explored by adding different concentrations of IAA and IBA to the basic culture medium for tissue culture experiments and observing the rooting and growth of carnation tissue culture seedlings. The results showed that the sterilization effect of 10% sodium hypochlorite for 4 min was the best; the root length and number of roots in MS medium were significantly higher than that in 1/2 MS and 2 MS medium, and the roots were faster, the rooting rate was high, and the plant growth was good; IAA and IBA of 1.0 mg/L were all conducive to the root elongation, and significantly increased the number of roots, the rest of the concentration promoting effect was not significant, and the high concentration would inhibit the root growth. The growth of the plants treated with IBA was better, and the best was 1.0 mg/L IBA, which was most conducive to the rooting culture of carnation. The above results provide further theoretical basis for in vitro rapid propagation and industrial production of carnation cut flowers.

In the present study, six known compounds were investigated that were isolated from the aerial parts of plant

Interfering peptides (iPs) have been recognized as valuable substances to specifically target protein-protein interactions (PPIs) in senescence and disease. Although the concept of iPs has been validated for several PPIs in medical and pharmaceutical research, little attention so far has been paid to the enormous potential iPs that may provide to target and control plant growth and developmental processes or plant environmental responses. However, recent research on PPIs in the ethylene signaling pathway has identified the synthetic peptide NOP-1 derived from the nuclear localization signal of ethylene regulator EIN2 as an efficient inhibitor of typical ethylene responses such as ripening, aging, and senescence. Biophysical and biochemical studies on purified recombinant proteins of the ethylene receptor family from various plant species demonstrate that the synthetic peptide binds in the nM-μM range at the plant target. Here, we describe methods to evaluate and quantify the effect of the NOP-1 peptide on flower senescence as a typical ethylene response in the intact plant system. This approach will help to systematically advance our technological capability to delay plant ethylene responses and to expand shelf-life or vase life of fruits and flowers.

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L., Caryophyllaceae) is a popular and important market flower in China (Kayamori et al., 2012). Leaf spots of Cladosporium tenuissimum Cooke were first observed in ...

Dianthus anatolicus var. afyonensis Ugurlu, M. Koch & Donmez var. nova is described from central Turkey (Cay, Afyonkarahisar). It is morphologically different from D. anatolicus by stem, leaf and calyx length, and the shape of epicalyx scales and petals. We also used amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) data to identify and circumscribe the new variety. Habitat, ecology and the conservation status of the new variety are described.

OBJECTIVE To investigate the effect on pregnancy outcome of integrating a comprehensive management plan for patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) into the World Health Organization universal maternal care infrastructure. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS A comprehensive preconception-to-pregnancy management plan for women with T1D was implemented in 11 centers from 8 Chinese cities from 2015 to 2017. Sequential eligible pregnant women (n = 133 out of 137 initially enrolled) with T1D and singleton pregnancies attending these management centers formed the prospective cohort. The main outcome was severe adverse pregnancy outcome comprising maternal mortality, neonatal death, congenital malformations, miscarriage in the second trimester, and stillbirth. We compared pregnancy outcomes in this prospective cohort with two control groups with the same inclusion and exclusion criteria: a retrospective cohort (n = 153) of all eligible pregnant women with T1D attending the same management centers from 2012 to 2014 and a comparison cohort (n = 116) of all eligible pregnant women with T1D receiving routine care from 2015 to 2017 in 11 different centers from 7 cities. RESULTS The rate of severe adverse pregnancy outcome was lower in the prospective cohort (6.02%) than in either the retrospective cohort (18.30%; adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.31 [95% CI 0.13–0.74]) or the contemporaneous comparison cohort (25.00%; aOR 0.22 [95% CI 0.09–0.52]). CONCLUSIONS The substantial improvements in the prospective cohort are evidence of a potentially clinically important effect of the comprehensive management plan on pregnancy outcomes among Chinese pregnant women with pregestational T1D. This supports the development of similar approaches in other countries.

A potent, quick and refined plant regeneration protocol was effectively established for Dianthus caryophyllus via nodal segment explants cut out from a 2-year-old vigorous mother plant. The three diverse cytokinins viz. 6-benzyladenine (BA), Kinetin (Kin) and thidiazuron (TDZ) were assessed as enhancements to Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium, the maximum frequency of multiple shoot bud induction was attained on MS medium augmented with 5.0 μM BA and 1.0 μM α-naphthalene-acetic acid (NAA). The in vitro raised shoots when subcultured on plant growth regulator (PGR) free MS basal medium extensively amplified the rate of shoot multiplication (44.8 ± 3.5) and shoot length (7.5 ± 0.29 cm) without showing any morphological and physiological features of degeneration even after fifth subculture passage. The in vitro raised microshoots were best rooted in half-strength MS medium augmented with 2.0 μM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). The tissue culture raised plantlets with a completely developed shoot and root system were effectively transferred to the earthen pots having garden soil and grown in greenhouse condition with a 90% survival rate. Growth parameters of 2 months old in vitro raised plants were compared with in vivo grown seedlings of the same age group.

The genus Carlavirus (family Betaflexiviridae, order Tymovirales) currently includes 53 species recognized by the ICTV. The NCBI GenBank database has 43 full-length carlavirus genome sequences (7,890 to 9,073 nt). Surprisingly, the type species Carnation latent virus is not associated with a complete genome sequence of a carnation latent virus (CLV) isolate; GenBank only has accessions with 1313 or fewer nucleotides. The goal of this study was to determine the full-length genome sequence of CLV. Naturally infected greenhouse-grown 'Kiwi Lace' carnation plants that tested positive for CLV by ELISA and RT-PCR were used as source plants for high-throughput sequencing, completed by 5' and 3' RACE and validated by Sanger sequencing of CLV-specific RT-PCR-generated amplicons. The complete CLV-KL sequence (MN450069) was determined to be 8,513 nt in length. In pairwise analysis, the genome shares 40-46% identity with recognized carlaviruses and the six in silico-translated proteins have 15-62% amino acid sequence identity to their respective carlavirus orthologs. The CLV-KL coat protein shares 98.4% identity with the NCBI reference sequence CLV-UK. In phylogenetic analysis, CLV clusters with butterbur mosaic virus, coleus vein necrosis virus, and garlic common latent virus. This is the first report of the full genome sequence of an isolate of carnation latent virus, the type member of the genus Carlavirus.

Endemic species are believed to converge on narrow ranges of traits, with rarity reflecting adaptation to specific environmental regimes. We hypothesized that endemism is characterized by limited trait variability and environmental tolerances in two Dianthus species (Dianthus pseudocrinitus and Dianthus polylepis) endemic to the montane steppes of northeastern Iran. We measured leaf functional traits and calculated Grime’s competitor/stress-tolerator/ruderal (CSR) adaptive strategies for these and co-occurring species in seventy-five 25-m2 quadrats at 15 sites, also measuring a range of edaphic, climatic, and topographic parameters. While plant communities converged on the stress-tolerator strategy, D. pseudocrinitus exhibited functional divergence from S- to R-selected (C:S:R = 12.0:7.2:80.8% to 6.8:82.3:10.9%). Canonical correspondence analysis, in concert with Pearson’s correlation coefficients, suggested the strongest associations with elevation, annual temperature, precipitation seasonality, and soil fertility. Indeed, variance (s2) in R- and S-values for D. pseudocrinitus at two sites was exceptionally high, refuting the hypothesis of rarity via specialization. Rarity, in this case, is probably related to recent speciation by polyploidy (neoendemism) and dispersal limitation. Dianthus polylepis, in contrast, converged towards stress-tolerance. ‘Endemism’ is not synonymous with ‘incapable’, and polyploid neoendemics promise to be particularly responsive to conservation.

Main conclusion This paper reviews the cryopreservation of the ornamental, carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.), as an important method for the long-term preservation of this plant's germplasm. Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is an important ornamental plant that is used as a potted plant as well as a cut flower. Important Dianthus germplasm would benefit from long-term strategies such as cryopreservation. Unlike the in vitro tissue culture literature of this ornamental, which has been studied in considerable detail, and with several genetic transformation protocols, surprisingly, the literature on its cryopreservation is still fairly scant, with barely two dozen or so studies, mostly having employed shoot tips. Early (< 2007) and more recent (2007-2020) cryopreservation techniques for carnation, including ultra-rapid cooling, encapsulation-vitrification, and encapsulation-dehydration, efficiently replaced programmed slow cooling processes used in early studies in the 1980s. Two large gaps (1997-2006, and 2016-2020) in which no carnation cryopreservation studies were published, requires future studies to cover new knowledge to fill gaps in information. Carnation cryopreservation research would benefit from testing a wide range of in vitro explants, new techniques such as the cryo-mesh, improved regeneration protocols for post-cryopreserved material, and the use of low-temperature storage as a mid- to long-term complementary germplasm storage strategy. This mini-review provides details of what has been achieved thus far and future objectives that could fortify cryopreservation research of this ornamental, as well as provide a robust long-term germplasm repository.

A change of layer arrangement of shoot apical meristem (SAM) organized by three cell layers (L1, L2 and L3) is thought to be one of the provocations of bud sport, which often induces changes in phenotypic colors in periclinal chimeras. This paper describes a cell layer rearrangement which is the cause of spontaneous flower color mutation by using two carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) cultivars that are presumably periclinal chimeras, 'Feminine Minami' (deep pink flower) and its recessive sport 'Tommy Minami' (pinkish red flower). The genotype of the acyl-glucose-dependent anthocyanin 5-glucosyltransferase (AA5GT) which is responsible for the color change of red to pink, in each cell layer was deduced by genomic analysis using tissues originated from specific cell layer and investigation of partial petal color mutations. In the results, the genotype of the L1 of 'Feminine Minami' was heterozygous for functional AA5GT and non-functional AA5GT carrying retrotransposon Ty1dic1 (AA5GT-Ty1dic1), and its inner cell layer hid red flower genotype, whereas AA5GT-Ty1dic1 of the L1 of 'Tommy Minami' became homogenic in absence of the insertion of a new Ty1dic1. Our outcomes concluded that the L1 of 'Tommy Minami' harboring the recessive AA5GT alleles are attributed to the inner cell layer of 'Feminine Minami' possessing red flower genotype.

Bingöl’den (Türkiye) toplanan Dianthus hymenolepis Boiss. subsp. bingolensis, bilim dünyası için yeni bir alttür olarak tanımlandı. D. hymenolepis subsp. bingolensis Quercus petrae açıklıklarındaki kayalık yamaçlarda yetişir. Yeni olarak tanımlanan alttürün betimlemesi, fotoğrafları ve genel ekolojik tercihleri verildi., Dianthus hymenolepis Boiss. subsp. Bingolensis,, collected from Bingöl (Turkey), was defined as new subspecies for the scientific world. D. hymenolepis subsp. bingolensis grows rocky slopes in Quercus petrae openings. The description, photographs and general ecological preferences of the newly defined subspecies were given.

An SNP mutation in the miR172 target site of the DcAP2L gene is associated with a double flower phenotype in Dianthus chinensis., The double flower is a highly important breeding trait that affects the ornamental value in many flowering plants. To get a better understanding of the genetic mechanism of double flower formation in Dianthus chinensis, we have constructed a high-density genetic map using 140 F2 progenies derived from a cross between a single flower genotype and a double flower genotype. The linkage map was constructed using double-digest restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (ddRAD-seq) with 2353 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping analysis was conducted for 12 horticultural traits, and major QTLs were identified for nine of the 12 traits. Among them, two major QTLs accounted for 20.7% and 78.1% of the total petal number variation, respectively. Bulked segregant RNA-seq (BSR-seq) was performed to search accurately for candidate genes associated with the double flower trait. Integrative analysis of QTL mapping and BSR-seq analysis using the reference genome of Dianthus caryophyllus suggested that an SNP mutation in the miR172 cleavage site of the A-class flower organ identity gene APETALA2 (DcAP2L) is responsible for double flower formation in Dianthus through regulating the expression of DcAG genes.

Background: The real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) is widely used for gene expression analysis, owing to its advantages of high specificity, sensitivity and repeatability. A suitable reference gene is an absolute prerequisite for accurate normalization, nevertheless, the frequently-used reference gene was reported unstable under different experimental conditions and causes failure to correctly analyze the expression of the interested gene. Therefore, it is vital to systematically evaluate the expression stability of these candidate reference genes before performing RT-qPCR. Results: In this study, two computational statistical methods were used, including geNorm and NormFinder, in order to determine the expression stability of 12 frequently-used reference genes in Dianthus caryophyllus across different experimental conditions. The results show that the expression stability of candidate genes varies greatly in different sample pools, which again proves the instability of these common housekeeping gene expressions. In general, the expression of UBQ10 (ubiquitin10), EF1a (elongation factor 1A) and TIP41 (TIP41-like family protein) were relatively stable under different experimental conditions, while the expression stability of 18S (18S Ribosome RNA), TIF5A (translation initiation factor 5A) and PP2A (protein phosphatase 2A) were relatively poor. Conclusion: EF1α, TIP41 and UBQ10 were considered the most appropriate reference genes when all samples were put together, while UBQ10 was most stable in exogenous hormone treatments. TUB and UBQ10 can be used as reliable internal control genes under stress, while CYP and TUA can act as reliable internal controls in different tissues. This is the first systematic study of selection of reference genes in Carnation, and will benefit future expression studies in this crop.

Introduction Short-term electrocardiogram (ECG) examinations of horses may not detect paroxysmal arrhythmias. Twenty-four hour Holter equipment can be unwieldy and inconvenient for long-term use. This study evaluated a novel long-term ECG patch recorder, the Carnation Ambulatory Monitor (CAM) in horses, determining ideal placement, practicality, durability and performance. Animals Twenty-one adult mixed-breed horses. Methods Prospective observational study. Three horses had ECG patches fitted at selected sites (phase 1); the two most promising sites were used for further wear testing (phase 2) and the best site was chosen for a trial in 18 horses (phase 3), 16 of which had presented for evaluation of cardiac disease. In phase 1, the CAM was compared with a standard telemetric ECG. The CAM ECGs were analysed using proprietary software. Results The most promising sites for CAM placement were the ventral midline caudal to the xiphisternum and left thorax caudal to the girth. The ventral midline was chosen for further evaluation. The CAM provided reliable and generally excellent ECG quality at rest (median quality score 4.5/5, range 3–5), over extended periods, allowing detection of arrhythmias. The ECG quality was poor during exercise (median quality score 1, range 1–5), except in three horses. In 15/17 placements in the standing horse, greater than 85% of the potential recording time was achieved. Conclusions The CAM is a convenient and well-tolerated device for evaluating equine cardiac rhythm at rest over long periods. Further evaluation of the ideal placement site during exercise may increase its diagnostic utility.

Flowers with more petals are of more ornamental value. It is well known that AGAMOUS (AG) is the core member of the C-class gene which plays an essential role in double flower formation and identification of stamens and carpels in Arabidopsis thaliana. We searched C-class genes in the genome of the carnation, and found two AG orthologs (DcaAGa, DcaAGb). Phylogenetic analysis showed that the two genes were closely related to the euAG subclade. Then we searched the genomes of other Caryophyllales plants (Beta vulgaris, Spinacia oleracea, Chenopodium quinoa) for C-class genes, and found that their C-class genes all belonged to the euAG subclade. Semi-quantitative PCR (sq-PCR) analysis indicated that the expression of DcaAG genes in the single flower phenotype was higher than that in the double flower phenotype. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis showed that the expressions of DcaAG genes in the flower bud were significantly different from those in the root, stem, and leaf between the single and double flower phenotype carnations, and that DcaAG genes were specifically expressed in the stamen and carpel of carnation. Moreover, the expression of other floral organ identity genes (AP1 and AP2, PI and AP3, SEP1 and SEP3 corresponding to the A-, B-, and E-class of genes, respectively) showed no significant difference in all floral organs between the single and double flower phenotype carnations, suggesting that C-class (DcaAG) genes might play an important role in the double flower phenotype in carnation. Petal loss or decrease, precocious flowering, silique shortening, and seed sterility were observed in 35S::DcaAGa and 35S::DcaAGb transgenic Arabidopsis plants. All these results show that DcaAG genes might affect the petal number negatively and have a specific function in stamen and carpel development in carnation.

Aichi Prefecture is the second-largest producer of carnations in Japan. At the Aichi Agricultural Research Center (AARC), nine unique cultivars have been developed with the goal of achieving brand recognition for locally cultivated spray-type carnations. In particular, the cultivar “Kane Ainou 1-go,” which was developed in cooperation with the National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), has an extremely long vase life of 19.2–21.3 days and high annual yields. Furthermore, due to its hard stems, high-quality cut flowers can be obtained as early as autumn. This cultivar has desirable characteristics, such as large pink flowers and thick stems, and is an example of the outstanding qualities for which the AARC carnation breeding program strives to become known.

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is the major floricultural crop in Japan and also worldwide. The vase life of cut ornamental flowers, including carnations, is an important trait determining their quality and consumers’ preference. Studies aimed at improving the vase life of carnation flowers has been began in 1992 using conventional cross-breeding techniques at the Institute of Vegetable and Floriculture Science, NARO. We repeatedly crossed and selected promising offspring with long vase life for seven generations. The two developed cultivars, ‘Miracle Rouge’ and ‘Miracle Symphony’ with genetically determined long vase lives, were released. In these cultivars, ethylene production was prevented by suppression of the ethylene-related genes, DcACS1, DcACS2, and DcACO1. Line 532–6 showed an ultra-long vase life averaging 30 days (approximately fivefold that of the normal cultivar, ‘White Sim’). In line 532–6, genes such as DcCPIn and DcCP1, which regulate programmed cell death apart from genes related to ethylene were suppressed, and the plant showed extremely low ethylene production. In addition, we found line 806-46b with two characteristics: an ultra-long vase life and low ethylene sensitivity. This chapter provides an overview of information on the breeding of carnation cultivars with genetically long vase life, and of the outcomes relating to the molecular bases of the long vase life trait.

A conserved mechanism regulates the dominantly inherited double-flower trait, and involves natural allelic variation at the microRNA172 binding site in the novel PETALOSA subclade of TARGET OF EAT (TOE)-type genes., The double-flower phenotype has been selected by humans for its attractiveness in various plant species and it is of great commercial value for the ornamental market. In this study we investigated the genetic determinant of the dominant double-flower trait in carnation, petunia, and Rosa rugosa, and identified mutant alleles of TARGET OF EAT (TOE)-type genes characterized by a disruption of the miR172 target sequence and of the C-terminal portion of the encoded protein. Despite the phylogenetic distance between these eudicots, which diverged in the early Cretaceous, the orthologous genes carrying these mutations all belong to a single TOE-type subgroup, which we name as PETALOSA (PET). Homology searches allowed us to identify PET sequences in various other species. To confirm the results from naturally occurring mutations, we used CrispR-Cas9 to induce lesions within the miR172 target site of Nicotiana tabacum PET genes, and this resulted in the development of supernumerary petaloid structures. This study describes pet alleles in economically important ornamental species and provides evidence about the possibility of identifying and engineering PET genes to obtain the desirable double-flower trait in different plants.

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) has four kinds of major anthocyanin pigments: pelargonidin 3-O-malyl-glucoside; pelargonidin 3-O, 5-O-cyclic malyl-diglucoside; cyanidin 3-O-malyl-glucoside; and cyanidin 3-O, 5-O-cyclic malyl-diglucoside. Acylation of anthocyanins by malic acid and formation of cyclic anthocyanin structures by binding sugar moieties through an organic acid are specific to Dianthus species. Each carnation cultivar’s flowers contain a single major anthocyanin, which dictates the characteristic coloration—vermilion, pink, dark-red, or red–purple. The anthocyanins can be distinguished based on absorption spectra, or by Rf values, coloration, and fluorescence in thin-layer-chromatography analysis. The pigment responsible for deep yellow coloration of carnation flowers is chalcone 2′-O-glucoside. Flower images under blue light are used to discriminate between chalcone 2′-O-glucoside and yellow carotenoid. Two flavones—apigenin 6-C-, 8-C-diglucoside, and apigenin 6-C-glucoside-7-O-malyl-glucoside—have been identified in carnation flowers; the latter is a co-pigment to a new anthocyanin in a transgenic blue-purple carnation. Six flavonols—kaempferol 3-O-rhamnosyl-(1–2)-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-glucosyl-(1–2)-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-rhamnosyl-(1–6)-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-glucosyl-(1–2)-[rhamnosyl-(1–6)]-glucoside and its malyl ester, and kaempferol 3-O-rhamnosyl-(1–2)-[rhamnosyl-(1–6)]-glucoside—have been identified as responsible pigments for cream-white coloration. Images under ultraviolet light are used to estimate the flavonol levels in cream-white and white flowers. Representative coloration patterns of carnation cultivars are presented with microscopic images of the coloration borders.

Benzenoid aromatic compounds are the most important scent components of Dianthus, although some wild Dianthus species also produce terpenoids and fatty acid derivatives as principal scent components, and thereby having diverse scents. The scent of Dianthus carnations is described as spicy and is generally ascribed to eugenol. Our research shows lower diversity of carnation scents than wild Dianthus scents and differing main scent types among cultivars for cut and potted flowers. We also found that scents of most of the current cultivars for cut flowers were not spicy and had fruity notes derived from methyl benzoate. In addition, scent emissions decreased sharply after harvesting, and were almost absent after a few days. In this chapter, we describe the chemistry of scents from the current carnation cultivars. In plants, methyl benzoate is usually synthesized from benzoic acid by benzoic acid carboxyl methyltransferases (BAMT). Hence, the corresponding gene BAMT is considered important for scent biosynthesis in carnations. From nucleotide sequence analyses of the carnation genome, more than 10 candidate BAMT genes were found. We describe the characteristics of this gene and its homologs in the second half of this chapter.

Within many species, confusions occur between infraspecific taxa, recurrent ecotypic differentiation and phenotypic plasticity. Subspecies are often debated when they are supported only by slight morphological differentiation coupled to habitat variation. In this context we tested the evolutionary support of the four contested subspecies of Dianthus superbus. Based on 147 Eurasian accessions, our integrative study combines three complementary approaches: (i) Genetic differentiation, with neutral genetic markers, i.e. 326 AFLP markers, 25 nuclear microsatellites and nrDNA ITS ribotypes; (ii) morphological differentiation, with 20 morphometric characters measured in situ and ex situ to assess phenotypic variation; (iii) ecological differentiation, indirectly based on 128 floral volatile compounds under selection of habitat-specific pollinators. Phylogenetic, morphometric and biochemical analyses support the distinction between European and East Asian samples, with an intermediate position of Central Asian samples. However, in Europe, phylogenetic markers only slightly distinguish West from Central European samples, without support for subspecies. Morphometric differentiation was found for subsp. alpestris. This morphotype was stable ex situ under different climatic conditions, and also supported by slight differences in volatile scents and phenology. Infraspecific taxonomy still reveals interesting polymorphisms, but also calls for a revision toward refined taxa. Dianthus superbus subspecies highlighted three dissimilar cases: (i) the East Asian subsp. longicalycinus must be considered as a distinct species; (ii) the morphometric and ecological distinction of subsp. alpestris supports its ecotypic differentiation despite a lack of phylogenetic divergence; (iii) subsp. sylvestris was not supported by any markers, arguing for an artefact of phenotypic plasticity under different environmental conditions.

Flower production is an important economic activity in the Cochabamba Valley, Bolivia. Species and varieties of Roses (Rosa sp-), Chrysanthemums (Chrysantemum sp.), Carnations (Dianthus carophyllus), Gladiolus (Gladiolus communis), Saticias (Limonium sp.), Liliums (Liliums sp.,) etc. are grown. Rusts affect a variety of crops, including flowers. The aim of this study, was identify the rust diseases that is affecting to three important flower species. Stems and leaves of samples with characteristic rust symptoms of smallholder farmer parcels were collected between 2016 and 2018 of the Chrysantemum grandiflorum, G. communis and Limonium sp. Based on morphometric studies the causal agent of rust diseases was identify as the first record to Puccinia horiana on chrysanthemum, Uromyces transversalis on Gladiolus and Uromyces limonii on Limonio in the Cochabamba Valley, Bolivia.

Interspecific hybridization is one of the most important strategies used for creating variations in ornamental plants because it has the potential to combine useful traits, such as favorable morphology, disease resistance, and some environmental tolerances, of both parents that could not be achieved by crossing within a single species. Because carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) cannot tolerate hot and humid climates (e.g., hot summers in Japan), the quality and yield of cut flowers decrease under these conditions. Therefore, for stable and quality carnation production in Japan and elsewhere, it is important to breed cultivars with heat tolerance and early flowering. Herein, two indigenous species to Japan, Dianthus japonicus Thunb. and Dianthus × isensis Hirahata et Kitam., were cross-hybridized with carnation to introduce useful traits of these two species into carnation. On reciprocal interspecific hybridization between carnation and D. japonicus, hybrid plants were obtained only when carnation was used as the seed parent. Although hybrid plants rarely obtained were sterile, they successfully restored fertility by producing amphidiploids through artificial chromosome-doubling treatment. When reciprocal interspecific crosses were employed between carnation and D. × isensis, fertile hybrid plants were obtained in both cross-directions. Because these two types of interspecific hybrids exhibited useful traits of the donor species, they will be efficiently used as valuable germplasm for further carnation breeding.

Carnation is one of the most important floricultural crops in the world. Over 20 wild species of Dianthus have been integrated during the long history of carnation breeding, and a wide range of petal colors, including red, yellow, orange, and white, have been developed. These flower colors are derived from quantitative and qualitative differences in flavonoid compounds. Wild Dianthus species expressing petal colors through carotenoids or chlorophylls have not been documented. In contrast, green-flowered and pale yellow-flowered carnation cultivars, which express their petal colors with these pigments, have been developed by conventional breeding. Such cultivars might be mutants that have lost the ability to avoid the accumulation of carotenoids and chlorophylls in the petals. In this section, based on our analysis of green- and pale yellow-flowered carnation cultivars, we discuss the possible mechanisms that regulate the accumulation of carotenoids and chlorophylls in carnation petals.

The marketability of cut flowers is directly affected by their vase life, which determines acceptability for commercial purposes. In carnations and other species of cut flowers, corolla is one of the most affected parts during flower senescence due to the petal withering which is accelerated by metabolic processes occurring after separation from the mother plant. Melatonin (MT) is a compound with antioxidant properties, naturally present in plant tissues that plays important roles in the regulation of different metabolic processes. In this research work the effect of different MT concentrations (0.01, 0.1 and 1 mM) on the vase life of cut carnations flowers cv. Baltico was evaluated. The greatest delay in senescence was observed with 0.1 mM MT concentration, increasing vase life up to 10 days more as compared to control carnations. Although all MT concentrations assayed significantly (P

1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) oxidase (ACO) catalyzes the final step of ethylene biosynthesis. ACO proteins are also reportedly encoded by a multigene family. Although the presence of several ACO genes is suggested in carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.), DcACO1 is the only ACO gene in which full-length cDNA has been isolated. This study aimed to clone another ACO gene in carnation flowers and investigate changes the expression of the two ACO genes in floral organs during flower senescence. We cloned a homolog of the ACO gene from carnation gynoecium and designated it DcACO2. Transcript levels of DcACO2 were higher in the style and ovary than in the petals at harvest, although DcACO2 transcript levels in these organs increased during flower senescence. The ACO activity in the style was very high at harvest, suggesting that this high activity could be attributed to the translation of the DcACO2 transcript. However, DcACO2 transcript was only detected at very low levels in the petals of senesced flowers. Ethylene and ACC treatments accelerated petal wilting and increased ethylene production of the petals, style, and ovary. In the style and ovary, the DcACO1 transcript level was markedly higher than the DcACO2 transcript level as a result of ethylene and ACC treatments, and DcACO1 transcript levels in the petals were also increased by ethylene and ACC treatments. These results indicate that the expression of DcACO1 and DcACO2 are differently regulated among floral organs during senescence in carnation flowers.

Background Differences in population densities of Frankliniella occidentalis among different plant species suggest a preference for particular hosts. Host plant volatiles are often involved in insect fitness. However, few studies have explored the interaction between flower volatiles and fitness. The host fitness of F. occidentalis for different flowers was assessed through field investigation, and the olfactory preference of thrips for flower volatiles was tested in the laboratory. Results In the field study, 18 flower host plants were classified at four fitness levels by F. occidentalis. Olfactory tests showed that female F. occidentalis had significantly different preferences for different plant odours among the volatiles of the four tested flowers (each representing the four fitness levels), whereas male F. occidentalis did not. The relative response of F. occidentalis females to flower volatiles (Rosa rugosa > Dianthus caryophyllus > Gerbera jamesonii > Pelargonium hortorum) was consistent with the field performance of F. occidentalis. In total, 23, 29, 16 and 26 components were identified in the volatile profiles of R. rugosa, D. caryophyllus, G. jamesonii and P. hortorum, respectively. 3,5-Dimethoxytoluene (24.94%), nonanal (30.42%), (E)-3-penten-2-one (52.31%) and zingiberene (29.88%) were the single most abundant components of the volatiles of R. rugosa, D. caryophyllus, G. jamesonii and P. hortorum, respectively. Conclusion Volatiles are important in attracting F. occidentalis to suitable hosts, and differences in the types and concentrations of volatile components among flowers may directly influence the olfactory responses and field performance of thrips. Potential attractants could be developed for integrated pest management programmes against this pest. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

In order to develop a proper conservation programme for several endangered, rare or endemic species of Dianhtus from Romania, molecular characterization by simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers has been accomplished. Amplification of SSR loci in individuals belonging to different populations of D. callizonus, D. glacialis ssp. gelidus, D. henteri, D. nardiformis and D. tenuifolius revealed 23 polymorphic alleles. D. callizonus and D. tenuifolius showed particular sets of SSR alleles. D. glacialis ssp. gelidus, D. henteri and D. nardiformis proved to share almost the same alleles in most of the loci. The highest genetic diversity was observed in D. glacialis ssp. gelidus and D. tenuifolius in locus MS-DINMADSBOX. Allelic patterns across Dianthus species indicate that the mean number of different alleles was highest in D. glacialis ssp. gelidus, while the number of effective alleles was highest in D. tenuifolius. There are no particular differences in individuals belonging to the same species. Genetic diversity is generally low, ranging from 0.18 (D. callizonus) to 0.44 (D. henteri). Regarding the genetic diversity within populations of the same species, no differences were revealed by the use of the SSR markers tested in the present study.

The article is dedicated to the results of study of introduction of the Dianthus caucaseus Sm. on the basis of the South-Ural Botanical Garden-Institute. The gynodioecy of specie was studied. The stage of fl owering, their duration, morphology and size of the fl owers in hermaphrodite and pistillate forms were studied. It is shown that individuals of D. caucaseus have good seed yield, which is due to high productivity and a large number of fl owers per plant. The rhythm of the development of specie refers its to long-term vegetative evergreen plant summer fl owering.

Indirect selection is a useful tool for the selection of complex traits like vase life (VL) of cut carnations. Our objective, therefore, was to assess the relative merit of indirect selection compared to direct selection. Phenotypic and genetic correlations were calculated for traits such as VL, flower diameter (FD) of standard carnation, stem length (SL) and count of flowers (CF) in mini carnations, phenotyped in three different experiments. The experiments are special in that some traits are measured in a second phase. Data were analyzed by bivariate mixed models considering in which phase the trait was measured. Some relevant genetic correlations were found in VL and FD and the traits SL and CF, but our results indicate that indirect selection would show no benefit compared to direct selection. However, the combination of direct and indirect selection could improve breeding of long-lasting cut carnations.

Postharvest treatment with nano-silver (NS) extends the longevity of many cut flowers, including carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.). Its beneficial effects are generally attributed to the inhibition of bacterial growth in basal stem-ends. However, Ag+ ions released from NS are also potential blockers of ethylene action. In the present study, we investigated the efficacy of NS pulse treatment, compared with conventional silver thiosulfate (STS) treatment, for alleviation the effects of exogenous ethylene on cut standard ‘Master’ carnation flowers. Cut carnations exposed to 5 or 10 μL L−1 ethylene for 12 h showed reduced vase life, inhibited flower opening, premature wilting, and petal discoloration, which markedly diminished their ornamental quality. A NS pulse treatment of 250 mg L−1 (2.3 mmol L−1) for 1 h prior to ethylene exposure reduced the inhibited flower opening and, thereby, prolonged the vase life. These effects were comparatively inferior in terms of flower opening and vase life extension to those obtained with a 1.0 mmol L−1 STS pulse for 1 h. However, without exogenous ethylene NS treatment was nearly as effective as STS treatment for enhancing flower opening and extending vase life. NS treated cut carnation stems (exposed to exogenous ethylene or not) also maintained higher relative fresh weight during the vase period than those treated with STS. The Ag concentration in the stem-ends of the NS-treated cut carnations was higher than that in those of STS-treated stems, and was also higher than that in other tissues. Moreover, Ag provided by NS also reached the receptacles, calyxes, and petals. Overall, NS pulse treatments enhanced the ornamental quality and extending the vase life of cut ‘Master’ carnation flowers by antagonizing the deleterious effects of ethylene and probably inhibiting the proliferation of bacteria at the cut stem-ends.

Endogenous signals in response to exogenous factors determine the senescence of flowers. Interactions among phytohormones especially abscisic acid (ABA) and ethylene are the major determinant of the senescence. In the present study, complex expression patterns of the genes related to ABA and ethylene as endogenous signals were investigated on cut carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) that were exposed to different light spectra. Expression of ethylene biosynthetic (DcACS and DcACO), and signaling (DcETR and DcEin2) genes and also genes involved in ABA biosynthesis (DcZEP1 and DcNCED1), transport (DcABCG25 and DcABCG40) and catabolism (DcCYP707A1) were evaluated in petals of carnations exposed to three light spectra [white, blue and red]. Lowest relative membrane permeability (RMP) was detected in flowers that exposed to Blue light (BLFs), as a consequence, the longest vase life was found in BLFs. The Red and White lights markedly accelerated flower senescence and increased expression of DcACS and DcACO on day 6 and 10 of vase life assessment respectively; while Blue light inhibited the expression of ethylene biosynthetic genes. Expression of the genes involved in the production and transport of ABA and in signal transduction of ethylene was elevated during vase life of flowers irrespective of exposure to different light spectra. In conclusion, Blue light can be an effective environmental factor to extend the vase life of carnation flowers by delaying the petal senescence through down-regulation of ethylene biosynthetic genes and up-regulation of ABA biosynthetic genes.

Vector-borne diseases threaten human and agricultural health and are a critical component of the ecology of plants and animals. While previous studies have shown that pathogen spread can be affected by vector preferences for host infection status, less attention has been paid to vector preference for host sex, despite abundant evidence of sex-specific variation in disease burden. We investigated vector preference for host infection status and sex in the sterilizing "anther-smut" pathogen (Microbotryum) of the alpine carnation, Dianthus pavonius. The pathogen is transferred among hosts by pollinators that visit infected flowers and become contaminated with spores produced by infected anthers. The host plant has a mixed breeding system with hermaphrodites and females. In experimental floral arrays, pollinators strongly preferred healthy hermaphrodites over both females and diseased plants, consistently across different guilds of pollinators and over multiple years. Using an agent-based model, we showed that pollinator preferences for sex can affect pathogen spread in populations with variable sex ratios, even if there is no preference for infection status. Our results demonstrate that vector preferences for host traits other than infection status can play a critical role in pathogen transmission dynamics when there is heterogeneity for those traits in the host population.

The reproductive success of a plant species depends to some extent on its flowering phenology. Thus, it is important to understand the flowering period, the flowering intensity and the synchrony of flowering to determine their respective influence on the reproductive success of the plant species. This study was conducted on the only natural population of Dianthus morisianus and on the first attempted translocation of the species. The aim of this study was to analyse the flowering phenology of the two populations to understand each and compare them. To analyse the flowering phenology, the initiation date, the intensity, the maximum flowering moment, the synchrony and the duration of flowering were tested. The studied plants had different flowering durations between years and the intensity and number of stems were significantly lower in the offspring of translocated plants than the natural plants. The early flowering plants had a longer flowering period and produced more flowers than those that flow...

The article deals with the results of the introductory study of Dianthus under the cultural conditions. It also covers biological peculiarities of vegetative and reproductive organs in ontogenesis, rhythm of seasonal development, and the possibilities of its utilization are defined. D. orientalis is a perennial, polycarpic, semi-bush plant. The plant is characterized by a large distribution on the territory of Georgia. Several new locations are marked. In the first year after planting, the plant passes all the phases of the virginal period, beginning from its emergence until its mature vegetative state and it is represented by closely linked 14-21 to 28-42 vegetative abbreviated shoots. Intensive growth and formation of the reproductive organs of the plant begin on the second year of its development. The reproductive sprouts are monocyclic, characterized by branching that produce flowers and bear fruit. At the end of the vegetation, the plant is represented by a basal part of 10-13 cm diameter, with a number of renewal buds, and vegetative abbreviated shoots. As the plant grows older the morphometric indices of the above ground and the underground parts of the plant grow as well. The number of reproductive sprays on all levels of a five-year old plant and consequently the number of flowers is 2400-4000. The root system consists of main and additional roots; the main root, except for its basal, does not differ from the secondary roots. In the process of vegetation there are two periods of development - spring (March, April, May, June) and after the maturation of the seed, slightly expressed generation and summer- autumn (August, September, October). In comparison with the wild growing plants, those growing under the cultural conditions showed better quantity and growth quality, increase of morphometric characteristics and the number of reproductive and abbreviated vegetative shoots, improved external appearance and compactness of bushes. Development of the plant passes noticeably faster and accordingly the duration of the separate stages and phases is shorter. The difference is due to the cultural conditions under which the plant grows and develops. Decrease of all indices and a partial loss of the basal parts of the plant can be considered as a transitory stage into senile period that is marked 10-12 years after the emergence of the plant. Development rhythm of D.orientalis, its annual abundant flowering and fruit bearing, in some cases the ability of self reproduction, increase of quantitative and qualitative indices of the vegetative and reproductive organs without any special care verify that the plant has a high chance of being introduced under cultural conditions. So it is certain that this original, decorative and easily-maintenance plant can be used in different types of floral arrangements like mixborders, borders, rocky sites, and alpine gardens together with different kinds of ground cover plants and other Dianthus species

This study was aimed to evaluate genetic diversity using molecular markers and morphological traits in carnation, Dianthus caryophyllus (fam: Cryophyllaceae) widely grown as an ornamental. Fifteen cultivars were examined employing seven Conserved DNA-derived Polymorphism (CDDP) and seven Directed Amplification of Minisatellite DNA (DAMD) markers. These varieties were planted in a randomized complete block design in three replicates at the experimental farm of the National Institute of Ornamental Plants, Mahallat, Iran. Analysis of variance for morphological traits showed significant differences among the examined cultivars. Morphological traits such as flower longevity, flower diameter and number of branches were statistically significant at 1 percent probability level. CDDP and DAMD markers produced an average polymorphic index content of 0.38 and 0.29 for CDDP and DAMD markers, respectively. Genetic distance matrix ranged from 0.02 to 0.84 in CDDP and from 0.09 to 0.78 in DAMD marker analysis. Cluster analysis for the two markers revealed that cultivars were grouped in three clusters. Results of molecular evaluation showed that CDDP and DAMD markers have high ability to differentiate carnation cultivars through assessment of the genetic diversity.

Petal color of 10 carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) cultivars MINAMI series is divided into two color groups, the acyanic group and the cyanic group. The acyanic group consists of yellow-flowered cultivars 'Poly Minami' and 'Lemon Minami' and off-white-flowered cultivar 'Vanilla Minami'. The cyanic group consists of orange-flowered cultivars 'Orange Minami' and 'Minami', pinkish-flowered cultivars 'Pippi Minami', 'Passion Minami', 'Feminine Minami' and 'Sakura Minami', and reddish-flowered cultivar 'Tommy Minami'. MINAMI series produced from bud mutation has a unique direction of flower color changes. Therefore, the usage of these plant materials might contribute to the elucidation of the mechanism of flower color mutation.

Spraying growth regulators on plants is one of the most effective factors on its growth and development. The goal of this study was to improve productivity and quality of carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) in severe environmental conditions. A positive influence of salicylic acid 90 mg L−1 on total number of flowers per m2 and number of flowers per greenhouse 200 m2 were observed: 412 flowers per m2 and 81,064 flowers per greenhouse as compared to the control treatment 308.33 flowers per m2 and 57,796 flowers per greenhouse. The total cost of one greenhouse production (504 m2 area) reached to 4019.8 US $. All the treatments got high flower productivity compared with control treatment. Salicylic acid 90 mg L−1 achieved highest net returns depends on variable cost 5567.84 $/greenhouse. Keywords: Carnation, Growth regulators, Economic study

Carnation is one of the most important and the most consumed cut flowers worldwide. In this research, the effects of eco-friendly compounds including chitosan (25 and 50 mg L−1), thymol (25 and 50 mg L−1) and green silver nanoparticles (25 and 50 mg L−1) in comparison to control (distilled water) and sucrose (2%) were investigated on postharvest of cut carnation “Tabor.” Experiment was carried out as completely randomized design with three replications. Evaluated characteristics were vase life, relative fresh weight, relative solution uptake, chlorophyll contents and ion leakage of leaves and petals tissues. Results showed that the vase life of cut carnations was extended by the addition of either 25 or 50 mg L−1 chitosan (17 days) or either 50 mg L−1 green silver nanoparticles (15.7 days) as compared with control (10 days). The effects of different treatments on relative fresh weight (except for third and fourth days) and relative solution uptake were significant in evaluated days as well. Although chlorophyll content was not changed significantly, all compounds significantly (P

The germination requirements of four taxonomically related taxa of Dianthus (D. arenarius L. subsp. borussicus Vierh., D. carthusianorum L., D. gratianopolitanus Vill., and D. deltoides L.) were studied under controlled conditions in a laboratory. A set of experiments were conducted to evaluate seed germination responses to storage period and cold stratification, different hydrogen ion concentrations (pH), potassium nitrate ([Formula: see text]), temperatures, and light conditions. Experiments were also performed to study the effects of sowing depth and water supply on seedling emergence. There were no differences in germination between seeds incubated under light or dark conditions for any of the taxa we studied. Germination percentages increased significantly with increases in temperature. The taxa of Dianthus we studied showed similar responses to sand burial, i.e., seeds placed on or near the soil surface had maximum emergence, and emergence declined with increasing depth of seed burial. In the studied taxa, germination was reduced by declining osmotic potentials. Cold stratification increased the germination rate, but did not affect final germination percentage of Dianthus seeds. A higher concentration of nutritious solutions (KNO3) negatively affected the germination percentage. The results show that seeds of the studied taxa are potentially germinable in the species’ habitat at any time between April and October.