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Head trauma is a frequent indication for cranial imaging in children. CT is considered the first line of study for suspected intracranial injury because of its wide availability and rapid detection of acute hemorrhage. However, the majority of childhood head injuries occur without neurologic complications, and particular consideration should be given to the greater risks of ionizing radiation in young patients in the decision to use CT for those with mild head trauma. MRI can detect traumatic complications without radiation, but often requires sedation in children, owing to the examination length and motion sensitivity, which limits rapid assessment and exposes the patient to potential anesthesia risks. MRI may be helpful in patients with suspected nonaccidental trauma, with which axonal shear injury and ischemia are more common and documentation is critical, as well as in those whose clinical status is discordant with CT findings. Advanced techniques, such as diffusion tensor imaging, may identify changes occult by standard imaging, but data are currently insufficient to support routine clinical use. The ACR Appropriateness Criteria are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed every 3 years by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and review include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer-reviewed journals and the application of a well-established consensus methodology (modified Delphi) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures by the panel. In those instances in which evidence is lacking or not definitive, expert opinion may be used to recommend imaging or treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Late-career radiologists are defined as those older than the age of 56 years (I suspected that I was in fact a late-career radiologist but did not necessarily appreciate having this confirmed...). By not taking the benefits provided to regular employed faculty (and depending upon the negotiated wage), per diem radiologists can indeed cost a department less per shift. [Extracted from the article]

The practice of contrast-enhanced ultrasound in children is in the setting of off-label use or research. The widespread practice of pediatric contrast-enhanced US is primarily in Europe. There is ongoing effort by the Society for Pediatric Radiology (SPR) and International Contrast Ultrasound Society (ICUS) to push for pediatric contrast-enhanced US in the United States. With this in mind, the main objective of this review is to describe the status of US contrast agent safety in non-cardiac applications in children. The five published studies using pediatric intravenous contrast-enhanced US comprise 110 children. There is no mention of adverse events in these studies. From a European survey 948 children can be added. In that survey six minor adverse events were reported in five children. The intravesical administration of US contrast agents for diagnosis of vesicoureteric reflux entails the use of a bladder catheter. Fifteen studies encompassing 2,951 children have evaluated the safety of intravesical US contrast agents in children. A European survey adds 4,131 children to this group. No adverse events could be attributed to the contrast agent. They were most likely related to the bladder catheterization. The existing data on US contrast agent safety in children are encouraging in promoting the widespread use of contrast-enhanced US. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Participation in ACR accreditation programs has become an essential practice for adult and pediatric imaging centers across the country. The responsibility for these ACR programs is vested in the Commission on Quality and Safety, 1 of 7 operational commissions in the ACR. The MRI Accreditation Program evaluates the qualifications of personnel, quality control programs, MR safety policies, and image quality specific to MRI. Currently, the ACR MRI Accreditation Program is designed primarily to evaluate adult MRI practices, which are in many ways not applicable to pediatric applications and facilities. In this article, the authors describe the difficulties faced during the ACR MRI Accreditation Program at a dedicated children''s hospital and offer suggested changes for the process. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The appropriate imaging for pediatric patients (ages 0-5 years) being evaluated for limping depends on the clinical presentation, specifically, the presence of signs of infection, any localization of pain, and history of or suspected trauma. Common diagnoses causing limping in children are briefly reviewed, and recommended imaging techniques are discussed, including toddler''s fracture, transient synovitis, septic arthritis, Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease, and osteomyelitis. The ACR Appropriateness Criteria® are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed every 2 years by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and review include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer-reviewed journals and the application of a well-established consensus methodology (modified Delphi) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures by the panel. In those instances in which evidence is lacking or not definitive, expert opinion may be used to recommend imaging or treatment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The diagnostic imaging of patients presenting with right lower quadrant pain and suspected appendicitis may be organized according to age and gender and to the presence or absence of “classic” signs and symptoms of acute appendicitis. Among adult patients presenting with clinical signs of acute appendicitis, the sensitivity and specificity of CT are greater than those of ultrasound, with improved performance when CT is performed with intravenous contrast. The use of rectal contrast has been associated with decreased time in the emergency department. Computed tomography has also been shown to reduce cost and negative appendectomy rates. Both CT and ultrasound are also effective in the identification of causes of right lower quadrant pain unrelated to appendicitis. Among pediatric patients, the sensitivity and specificity of graded-compression ultrasound can approach those of CT, without the use of ionizing radiation. Performing MRI after inconclusive ultrasound in pregnant patients has been associated with sensitivity and specificity of 80% to 86% and 97% to 99%, respectively. The ACR Appropriateness Criteria® are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed every 2 years by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and review include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer-reviewed journals and the application of a well-established consensus methodology (modified Delphi) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures by the panel. In those instances in which evidence is lacking or not definitive, expert opinion may be used to recommend imaging or treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Variable definitions of outcome (Constant score, Simple Shoulder Test [SST]) have been used to assess outcome after shoulder treatment, although none has been accepted as the universal standard. Physicians lack an objective method to reliably assess the activity of their patients in dynamic conditions. Our purpose was to clinically validate the shoulder kinematic scores given by a portable movement analysis device, using the activities of daily living described in the SST as a reference. The secondary objective was to determine whether this device could be used to document the effectiveness of shoulder treatments (for glenohumeral osteoarthritis and rotator cuff disease) and detect early failures. Methods: A clinical trial including 34 patients and a control group of 31 subjects over an observation period of 1 year was set up. Evaluations were made at baseline and 3, 6, and 12 months after surgery by 2 independent observers. Miniature sensors (3-dimensional gyroscopes and accelerometers) allowed kinematic scores to be computed. They were compared with the regular outcome scores: SST; Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand; American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons; and Constant. Results: Good to excellent correlations (0.61-0.80) were found between kinematics and clinical scores. Significant differences were found at each follow-up in comparison with the baseline status for all the kinematic scores (P < .015). The kinematic scores were able to point out abnormal patient outcomes at the first postoperative follow-up. Conclusion: Kinematic scores add information to the regular outcome tools. They offer an effective way to measure the functional performance of patients with shoulder pathology and have the potential to detect early treatment failures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significant progress has been made in radiation protection for children during the last 10 years. This includes increased awareness of the need for radiation protection for pediatric patients with international partnerships through the Alliance for Radiation Safety in Pediatric Imaging. This paper identifies five areas of significant progress in radiation safety for children: the growth of the Alliance; the development of an adult radiation protection campaign Image Wisely™; increased collaboration with government agencies, societies and the vendor community; the development of national guidelines in pediatric nuclear medicine, and the development of a size-based patient dose correction factor by the American Association of Physicists in Medicine, Task Group 204. However, many challenges remain. These include the need for continued education and change of practice at adult-focused hospitals where many pediatric CT exams are performed; the need for increased emphasis on appropriateness of pediatric imaging and outcomes research to validate the performance of CT studies, and the advancement of the work of the first pediatric national dose registry to determine the 'state of the practice' with the final goal of establishing ranges of optimal CT technique for specific scan indications when imaging children with CT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Radiation Protection in Medicine conference, reviewed in this journal supplement, outlined nine strategies to promote radiation protection for patients. The Alliance for Radiation Safety in Pediatric Imaging has focused its work on three of those areas: creating awareness of the need and opportunities for radiation protection for children; developing open-source educational materials for medical professionals and parents on this critical topic for improved patient safety and communication; and lastly, advocating on behalf of children with industry, government and regulatory bodies to improve equipment design and safety features, standardisation of nomenclature and displays of dose reports across vendor platforms that reflect the special considerations of children. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Despite advances in other modalities, US remains an essential technology in pediatric imaging. Improvements in technology provide increasingly detailed anatomical images, and new techniques show promise in providing novel anatomical as well as physiological and structural information. Other specialties are recognizing the value of US to their patients and are increasingly performing their own examinations. Economic and social factors are also influencing the development and use of US. This review will evaluate many of these issues and demonstrate that the future of pediatric US is bright and that pediatric radiologists can and should continue to be leaders in its use and development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) is a common pediatric anomaly linked to renal scarring and hypertension. Although there are many mouse VUR models, cystograms have previously only been performed in euthanized animals, thus preventing serial assessments for VUR in the same animal and not delineating "live" physiology. Our purpose was to develop a live murine cystogram assay that could be used serially to track reflux. We injected microbubbles via transurethral catheters into bladders of C57BL6/J and C3H/HeJ inbred mouse strains that are known to have low and high VUR rates, respectively. We performed ultrasound to visualize microbubbles in the renal pelvis to determine feasibility of the procedure. We then repeated the microbubble ultrasound using a transducer allowing for visualization of both kidneys and ureters simultaneously and for 3 dimensional (3D) reconstruction. We then performed "euthanized" cystograms on all mice for comparison. C3H/HeJ mice had a strong and persistent microbubble signal in the renal pelvis and ureters bilaterally with low-contrast infusion volumes (<100 μl) and similarly showed bilateral reflux by euthanized cystograms. With larger infused volumes (≥150 μl), C57BL6/J mice had small volumes of microbubbles in the renal pelvis that cleared quickly and did not show reflux on euthanized cystograms. Thus, using animal models of known VUR, we demonstrate the utility of contrast-enhanced ultrasound to visualize reflux in live mice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The appropriate imaging for pediatric patients being evaluated for suspected physical abuse depends on the age of the child, the presence of neurologic signs and symptoms, evidence of thoracic or abdominopelvic injuries, and whether the injuries are discrepant with the clinical history. The clinical presentations reviewed consider these factors and provide evidence-based consensus recommendations by the ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Expert Panel on Pediatric Imaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Recently, we observed an increase in the number of late preterm neonates with pneumatosis coli (Pcoli) an infrequently reported benign form of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). Objective: To review our experience (2000-09) with infants who presented with visible blood in the stools (VBS) and pneumatosis intestinalis (PI). Methods: Retrospective cohort study. There were 65~infants who had VBS and PI. Thirty-two who constituted the pneumatosis coli (Pcoli) group were compared with 33 infants with VBS and PI who were designated as classic NEC. Results: 75% of Pcoli cases occurred during 2008-09. Demographics and obstetrical risk factors (except for preterm labor and antepartum steroid use) for the mothers of both groups were similar. Ninety-one percent of Pcoli were $\geq $ 34w while 82% of classic NEC cases were &les; 33w GA. At the time of diagnosis 70% of infants in the Pcoli group and 30% of those in the classic NEC group were < 7d old. In the Pcoli group prior to VBS, 78% of these infants were taking formula and 22% formula and breast milk. VBS was the only clinical sign which prompted radiographic evaluation. Thirty of these 32 infants had blood cultures (all negative), 20% received antibiotics, 50% continued with feedings, no patients had surgery and all survived. In the classic NEC group prior to VBS 47% were taking formula, 47% formula and breast milk and 6% breast milk. Seventy-four percent of these infants had abdominal distention, emesis or apnea, 48% had abnormal WBC-diff, and 6 infants had positive blood cultures. Ten infants had surgery and 3 of them expired. Among Pcoli infants, PI was limited to the colon in 94% of the cases. In the classic NEC group 35% of infants had difuse PI, 65% had focal PI and 27% had portal venous gas. Conclusion: Pcoli is a benign form of NEC that affects mainly late preterm or term infants, who once diagnosed, in contrast to classic NEC patients, require less intensive care. Further studies are needed to elucidate etiology (including the role of feeding practices) and to explore preventive or therapeutic measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pediatric interventional radiology procedures are becoming increasingly common in the medical community, in part due to the significant medical benefit derived from these studies. At the same time, the medical radiation used for these studies contributes to the radiation dose to this unique population of patients. As children are more sensitive to radiation than adults and have a longer lifetime to manifest those changes, a concerted effort should be made toward radiation protection in this setting. Pediatric interventional procedures may differ from adult examinations in several ways, including the small size of the patient, the proximity of the operator''s body and hands to the beam, and small body spaces resulting in precarious wire purchase. We describe specific strategies to improve patient and staff safety. These include staff education, safety checklists, a team approach, and formalized review and quality assurance programs. Practical steps to reduce patient dose are reviewed, and tools to assist in achieving the goal of optimizing radiation safety in children undergoing interventional procedures are provided. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In the past decade, new therapeutic agents have been developed that permit gastroenterologists to treat virtually all forms of Crohn''s disease. The success of these treatments depends on an accurate diagnosis of the nature and extent of disease. Fortunately, radiologists now possess a powerful arsenal of imaging techniques to guide the choice of therapy. This article discusses the usefulness of both traditional and newer imaging techniques in the management of Crohn''s disease and its various clinical presentations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article focuses on the Image Gently, Step Lightly campaign of the Alliance for Radiation Safety in Pediatric Imaging. It notes that the campaign aims to promote awareness on the implication of radiation dose in pediatric interventional radiology (IR), as well as remind practitioners to consider minimized radiation dose exposure during pediatric interventions. It discusses the accessible information and tools provided by the organization's website, www.imagegently.com, regarding the campaign.

Developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) affects 1.5 of every 1,000 caucasian Americans and less frequently affects African Americans. Developmental dysplasia of the hip comprises a spectrum of abnormalities, ranging from laxity of the joint and mild subluxation to fixed dislocation. Early diagnosis of DDH usually leads to low-risk treatment with a harness. Late diagnosis of DDH in children may lead to increased surgical intervention and complications. Late diagnosis of DDH in adults can result in debilitating end-stage degenerative hip joint disease. Screening decreases the incidence of late diagnosis of DDH. Clinical evaluation for DDH should be performed periodically at each well-baby visit until the age of 12 months. There is no consensus on imaging screening for DDH. Consideration for screening with ultrasound is balanced between the benefits of early detection of DDH and the increased treatment and cost factors. In addition, randomized trials evaluating primary ultrasound screening did not find significant decrease in late diagnosis of DDH. In the United States, hip ultrasound is selectively performed in infants with risk factors, such as family history of DDH, breech presentation, and inconclusive findings on physical examination. Ultrasound for DDH should be performed after 2 weeks of age because laxity is common after birth and often resolves itself. A pelvic radiograph can optimally be performed after the age of 4 months, when most infants will have ossification centers of the femoral heads. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A new ambulatory technique for qualitative and quantitative movement analysis of the humerus is presented. 3D gyroscopes attached on the humerus were used to recognize the movement of the arm and to classify it as flexion, abduction and internal/external rotations. The method was first validated in a laboratory setting and then tested on 31 healthy volunteer subjects while carrying the ambulatory system during 8 h of their daily life. For each recording, the periods of sitting, standing and walking during daily activity were detected using an inertial sensor attached on the chest. During each period of daily activity the type of arm movement (flexion, abduction, internal/external rotation) its velocity and frequency (number of movement/hour) were estimated. The results showed that during the whole daily activity and for each activity (i.e. walking, sitting and walking) the frequency of internal/external rotation was significantly higher while the frequency of abduction was the lowest ( P < 0.009). In spite of higher number of flexion, abduction and internal/external rotation in the dominant arm, we have not observed in our population a significant difference with the non-dominant arm, implying that in healthy subjects the arm dominance does not lie considerably on the number of movements. As expected, the frequency of the movement increased from sitting to standing and from standing to walking, while we provide a quantitative value of this change during daily activity. This study provides preliminary evidence that this system is a useful tool for objectively assessing upper-limb activity during daily activity. The results obtained with the healthy population could be used as control data to evaluate arm movement of patients with shoulder diseases during daily activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Communication campaigns are an accepted method for altering societal attitudes, increasing knowledge, and achieving social and behavioral change particularly within public health and the social sciences. The Image GentlySM campaign is a national education and awareness campaign in radiology designed to promote the need for and opportunities to decrease radiation to children when CT scans are indicated. In this article, the relatively new science of social marketing is reviewed and the theoretical basis for an effective communication campaign in radiology is discussed. Communication strategies are considered and the type of outcomes that should be measured are reviewed. This methodology has demonstrated that simple, straightforward safety messages on radiation protection targeted to medical professionals throughout the radiology community, utilizing multiple media, can affect awareness potentially leading to change in practice. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A new method of evaluation for functional assessment of the shoulder during daily activity is presented. An ambulatory system using inertial sensors attached on the humerus was used to detect the ability to work at a specific position of the shoulder. Nine arm positions were defined based on humerus elevation. The method was tested on 31 healthy volunteer subjects. First, we estimated the ability of the system to detect the different elevation angles and arm positions of each subject. Following that, we evaluated their arm positions during approximately 8h of daily activities. Each arm position was recognized with a good sensitivity (range 80–100%) and specificity (range 96–99%). During daily activity, we estimated the frequency (number/h) that the humerus reached each arm position during the periods of 0–1s (period P1), 1–5s (period P2) and 5–30s (period P3). Our data showed that all subjects had 96% of their arm position reached under the 5th level (100–120°). No significant difference was observed between dominant and non-dominant sides for the frequency and duration of arm positions (p >0.3). Our evaluation was in accordance with the clinical questionnaire (the Constant score) for the P1 duration, but differed for longer periods P2 and P3. By quantifying the arm positions and their durations for both shoulders, we proposed a new score to evaluate the ability to work at a specific level based on the symmetry index of the arms activity. Using this score, we obtained, on average, good symmetry for healthy subjects. This score can be useful in evaluating the asymmetry in arm function in patients with a shoulder disease. The proposed technique could be used in a number of shoulder diseases where problems in performing daily activities should be expressed in terms of objective measure of arm position. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary: Pneumonias in children can be complicated by pleural effusions, empyema and abscesses. The incidence of these complications is increasing, correlated to an increased virulence of the pneumococcal bacterium. These complications may prolong morbidity and lead to decreased pulmonary function. Traditionally, patients were treated medically with antibiotics, and refractory complications were treated surgically with large bore chest tube placement and thoracotomy. Improvements included instilling fibrinolytics into the chest tubes and video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery, which expedited recovery and improved outcomes. Image guided techniques from interventional radiology have been developed as an alternative to treat these patients with minimal invasiveness. These therapies have achieved high success and low complication rates, and are the preferred first-line procedures when available. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A new method of evaluation for functional assessment of the shoulder during daily activity is presented. An ambulatory system using inertial sensors attached on the humerus was used to differentiate a dominant from a non-dominant shoulder. The method was tested on 31 healthy volunteers with no shoulder pathology while carrying the system during 8h of their daily life. Shoulder mobility based on the angular velocities and the accelerations of the humerus were calculated and compared every 5s for both sides. Our data showed that the dominant arm of the able bodied participants was more active than the non-dominant arm for standing (+20% for the right handed, +15% for the left handed) and sitting (+24% for the right handed, +32% for the left handed) posture, while for the walking periods the use of the right and left side was almost identical. The proposed method could be used to objectively quantify upper-limb usage during activities of daily living in various shoulder disorders. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked recessive disorder with monogenic mutations setting the stage for successful gene therapy treatment. We have completed a study that directly deals with the following key issues that can be directly adapted to a gene therapy clinical trial using rAAV considering the following criteria: 1) A regional vascular delivery approach that will protect the patient from widespread dissemination of virus; 2) an approach to potentially facilitate safe passage of the virus for efficient skeletal muscle transduction; 3) the use of viral doses to accommodate current limitations imposed by vector production methods; 4) and at the same time, achieve a clinically meaningful outcome by transducing multiple muscles in the lower limb to prolong ambulation. Methods: The capacity of AAV1, AAV6 or AAV8 to cross the vascular endothelial barrier carrying a micro-dystrophin cDNA was compared under identical conditions with delivery through a catheter placed in the femoral artery of the mdx mouse. Transduction efficiency was assessed by immuno-staining using an antibody (Manex1a) that recognizes the Nterminus of micro-dystrophin. The degree of physiologic correction was assessed by measuring tetanic force and protection from eccentric contraction in the extensor digitorum longus muscle (EDL). The vascular delivery paradigm found successful in the mouse was carried to the non-human primate to test its potential translation to boys with DMD. Results: Regional vascular delivery resulted in transduction by rAAV8.micro-dystrophin reaching 94.5 ± 0.9 (1 month), 91.3 ± 3.1 (2 months), and 89.6 ± 1.6% (3 months). rAAV6.micro-dystrophin treated animals demonstrated 87.7 ± 6.8 (1 month), 78.9 ± 7.4 (2 months), and 81.2 ± 6.2% (3 months) transduction. In striking contrast, rAAV1 demonstrated very low transduction efficiency [0.9 ± 0.3 (1 month), 2.1 ± 0.8 (2 months), and 2.1 ± 0.7% (3 months)] by vascular delivery. Micro-dystrophin delivered by rAAV8 and rAAV6 through the femoral artery significantly improved titanic force and protected against eccentric contraction. Mouse studies translated to the hindlimb of cynamologous macaques using a similar vascular delivery paradigm. rAAV8 carrying eGFP in doses proportional to the mouse (5 x 1012 vg/kg in mouse vs 2 x 1012 vg/kg in monkey) demonstrated widespread gene expression [medial gastrocnemius - 63.8 ± 4.9%, lateral gastrocnemius - 66.0 ± 4.5%, EDL - 80.2 ± 3.1%, soleus - 86.4 ± 1.9%, TA - 72.2 ± 4.0%. Conclusion: These studies demonstrate regional vascular gene delivery with AAV serotype(s) in mouse and non-human primate at doses, pressures and volumes applicable for clinical trials in children with DMD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ultrasound is useful as a diagnostic tool in the evaluation of the pediatric spine, and can also help guide procedures in the interventional radiology suite or the operating room. This pictorial exhibit will display examples of diagnostic and interventional uses of ultrasound with respect to the pediatric spine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2014, a multidisciplinary consensus on the classification of pre- and postnatal urinary tract dilation (UTD classification) was developed. Its goal was to provide a standardized system for evaluating and reporting urinary tract dilation both in the prenatal and postnatal periods. In this review, we summarize insights learned from the implementation of the UTD classification system since its inception, providing clarifications on common points of confusion. In addition, we review current literature in the clinical validation of the UTD classification system to provide credence for its use in managing fetuses and children with urinary tract dilation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]