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An unprecedented trinorcassane diterpenoid and a cassane furanoditerpenoid were isolated from the seeds of Caesalpinia minax. It is the first example of dicylic cassane-type trinorditerpenoid, which is different from reported 16- or 17-norcassane diterpenoids. The structure of the compounds was elucidated on the basis of 1D and 2D NMR analysis. Biosynthesis pathways are postulated, and this pathway was supported by semi-synthesis., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Fifteen cassaen-type diterpenes were isolated from the 95% ethanolic extract of the seeds of C. minax through various chromatographic techniques. Their structures were identified on the basis of spectroscopic data as pulcherralpin (1), caesalpinin ML (2), chamaetexane C (3), chamaetexane D (4), 6β, 18-diacetoxycassan-13, 15-diene (5), neocaesalpin K (6), neocaesalpin MP (7), neocaesalpin M (8), neocaesalpin Q (9), neocaesalpin P (10), neocaesalpin R (11), caesaldekarin D (12), caesaldekarin A (13), caesaldekarin b (14), 3β,6α-diacetoxyvouacapane (15). Among them, compounds 14, 9-11 were isolated from this plant for the first time.

A natural dye extracted from Caesalpinia sappan heartwood was used as photo sensitizer for the first time to fabricate titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles based dye sensitized solar cells. Brazilin and brazilein are the major pigments present in the natural dye and their optimized molecular structure were calculated using Density functional theory (DFT) at 6-31G (d) level. The HOMO-LUMO were performed to reveal the energy gap using optimized structure. Pure TiO2 nanoparticles in anatase phase were synthesized by sol-gel technique. The pure and natural dye sensitized TiO2 nanoparticles were subjected to structural, optical, spectral and morphological studies. Low cost and environment friendly dye sensitized solar cells were fabricated using natural dye sensitized TiO2 based photo anode. The solar light to electron conversion efficiency of Caesalpinia sappan heartwood extract sensitized dye sensitized solar cell is 1.1%., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Caesalpinia sappan L. (Lignum Sappan) is a Chinese medicinal plant for treating ischemic cerebral apoplexy. Deoxysappanone B (DSB), a homoisoflavone compound isolated from C. sappan L. (Lignum Sappan), was studied for anti-neuroinflammatory and neuroprotective properties using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV-2 microglia neuroinflammation model and LPS-induced microglia-neuron co-culture system. Our findings showed that DSB effectively inhibited BV-2 microglia-mediated neuroinflammatory mediators׳ release including NO, PGE₂, TNF-α, IL-6 and reactive oxygen species. Moreover, DSB markedly protected neurons against inflammatory microglia-mediated neurotoxicity in a microglia-neuron co-culture system. Mechanism study revealed that DSB blocked two major neuroinflammation-related signaling pathways including IKK-IκB-nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) and p38/ERK mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades, further leading to the inhibition of neuroinflammatory mediators׳ production. The present study provides evidence that the anti-neuroinflammatory and neuroprotective effect of DSB are due to the suppression of neuroinflammatory mediators׳ production as well as inflammation-induced neurotoxicity through regulation of multi-targets. Therefore, DSB may serve as a neuroprotective agent for the treatment of neuroinflammatory disorders and inflammation-related neuronal injury., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Brazilin is a nearly colorless dye precursor obtained from the heartwood of several species of trees including brazilwood from Brazil, sappanwood from Asia and the Pacific islands, and to a minor extent from two other species in Central America, northern South America and the Caribbean islands. Its use as a dyeing agent and medicinal in Asia was recorded in the 2(nd) century BC, but was little known in Europe until the 12(th) century AD. Asian supplies were replaced in the 16(th) century AD after the Portuguese discovered vast quantities of trees in what is now Brazil. Overexploitation decimated the brazilwood population to the extent that it never fully recovered. Extensive environmental efforts currently are underway to re-create a viable, sustainable population. Brazilin is structurally similar to the better known hematoxylin, thus is readily oxidized to a colored dye, brazilein, which behaves like hematein. Attachment of the dye to fabric is by hydrogen bonding or in conjunction with certain metallic mordants by coordinative bonding. For histology, most staining procedures involve aluminum (brazalum) for staining nuclei. In addition to textile dyeing and histological staining, brazilin and brazilein have been and still are used extensively in Asian folk medicine to treat a wide variety of disorders. Recent pharmacological studies for the most part have established a scientific basis for these uses and in many cases have elucidated the biochemical pathways involved. The principal use of brazilwood today is for the manufacture of bows for violins and other stringed musical instruments. The dye and other physical properties of the wood combine to produce bows of unsurpassed tonal quality.

Molecules with diterpene skeletons often possess valuable medicinal properties. Two new diterpenes 1α,6α,7β-triacetoxy-5α-hydroxy-14β-ethyl-O-vouacapane (1) and 2α-acetoxy-14,15-cyclopimara-7β,16-diol (2) were isolated from the seeds of Caesalpinia minax Hance. Their structures were established on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analyses, including HR-ESI-MS, UV, IR, 1D, and 2D NMR (HSQC, HMBC, NOESY) methods. The stereochemical structure of 1 was confirmed via the circular dichroism spectrum and calculated ECD experiment. The inhibitory activity of nitric oxide production of RAW264.7 macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide of compounds 1 and 2 was evaluated, and compound 1 was found to show significant inhibitory effect.

Context: Natural polymers have attracted a great deal of attention for use as potential carriers in site-specific delivery over past decades. Mucoadhesive microspheres are useful tools for nasal drug delivery., Objectives: To prepare and evaluate mucoadhesive microspheres as mode for nasal delivery of ondansetron using Caesalpinia pulcherrima galactomannan (CPG)., Materials and Methods: Conventional spray-dried CPG nasal microspheres loaded with ondansetron for intranasal drug delivery in order to avoid the first pass metabolism with improved therapeutic efficiency in treatment of nausea and vomiting as an alternative therapy to parenterals. Developed microspheres were evaluated for characteristics like particle size, entrapment efficiency, zeta potential, swelling ability, in-vitro mucoadhesion, in-vitro drug release, DSC, XRD study and histopathological evaluation of tissue. CPG-based ondansetron microspheres were studied in rabbits for screening nasal absorption potential of nasal formulation., Results: Developed nasal microspheres possess entrapment efficiency of 80-89%, higher mucoadhesion of 72-84% across goat nasal mucosa. In-vivo study showed that microspheres based on mucoadhesive polymer were able to promote quick drug absorption as well as enhanced bioavailability of drug., Discussion: Histopathological studies evaluated biocompatible and nontoxic nature of CPG in nasal cavity. Developed mucoadhesive microspheres by nasal route showed enhancement of bioavailability as compared to oral route in rabbits., Conclusion: CPG-based mucoadhesive microspheres can successfully deliver ondansetron intranasally, sustain its effect, avoid first pass effect, an alternative route of administration to injection and thus enhance systemic bioavailability of ondansetron hydrochloride.

Context: Brazilin is a major active principle of Caesalpinia sappan L. (Leguminosae or Fabaceae). For industry aspects, brazilin-rich extract (BRE) has been prepared and standardized to contain 39% w/w brazilin. BRE may have more advantages than brazilin in term of a lower-cost production process., Objectives: To investigate the antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory activities of BRE., Material and Methods: BRE was prepared by a simple one-step purification of the crude ethanol extract of C. sappan heartwood (CSE) using a Diaion® HP-20 column. The antioxidant activities were determined using three methods, including DPPH radical scavenging, reducing power, and β-carotene bleaching assays, at concentration ranges of 1-10, 10-100, and 10-100 µg/mL, respectively. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of BRE (15.6-1000 µg/mL) against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria were determined by the broth microdilution method. Anti-inflammatory activity of BRE (0.1-5 µg/mL) was evaluated as anti-denaturation activity using bovine serum albumin as a substrate., Results and Discussion: On the basis of β-carotene bleaching assay, BRE showed antioxidant activity with an EC50 value of 60.5 µg/mL, which was almost equal to that of pure brazilin (52.1 µg/mL). Gram-positive bacteria were more sensitive to all tested samples than Gram-negative bacteria. BRE possessed higher antibacterial activities than CSE, but lower than brazilin. MIC/MBC values of 62.5-125/125 and 250-500/250-500 µg/mL were obtained for BRE against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, respectively. A low concentration (0.1 µg/mL) of brazilin, BRE, and CSE showed anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting protein denaturation up to 46.8, 54.1, and 61.9%, respectively.

Two new cassane-type diterpenes, phangininoxys D and E (1 and 2), together with five known compounds were isolated from the seeds of Caesalpinia crista Linn. The structures of these compounds were elucidated by means of various spectroscopic analyses. All the isolated compounds were evaluated for cytotoxicity activities against HeLa, HT-29 and KB cell lines, and compound 7 showed moderate selective activities against KB cell line with an IC50 value of 17.1 μM.

To date, many anticancer drugs have been developed by directly or indirectly targeting microtubules, which are involved in cell division. Although this approach has yielded many anticancer drugs, these drugs produce undesirable side effects. An alternative strategy is needed, and targeting mitotic exit may be one alternative approach. Localization of phosphorylated barrier-to-autointegration factor (BAF) to the chromosomal core region is essential for nuclear envelope compartment relocalization. In this study, we isolated brazilin from Caesalpinia sappan Leguminosae and demonstrated that it inhibited BAF phosphorylation in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we demonstrated direct binding between brazilin and BAF. The inhibition of BAF phosphorylation induced abnormal nuclear envelope reassembly and cell death, indicating that perturbation of nuclear envelope reassembly could be a novel approach to anticancer therapy. We propose that brazilin isolated from C. sappan may be a new anticancer drug candidate that induces cell death by inhibiting vaccinia-related kinase 1-mediated BAF phosphorylation., (Copyright © 2014 by The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics.)

Multidrug resistance (MDR) caused by human ABCB1 (P-glycoprotein/MDR1) is one of the major obstacles in chemotherapy. To understand the mechanism of MDR by ABCB1 and circumvent the MDR, in the present study, we established human ABCB1-expressing cells (Flp-In-293/ABCB1 cells) and examined the cytotoxic effects of four guanidine alkaloids from Pterogyne nitens (galegine, nitensidine A, pterogynidine and pterogynine) using Flp-In-293/Mock and Flp-In-293/ABCB1 cells. The activity of ABCB1 in Flp-In-293/ABCB1 cells were confirmed by typical substrates for ABCB1 (taxol and vinblastine) in MTT assay. Flp-In-293/ABCB1 cells were also resistant to the four guanidine alkaloids as well as taxol and vinblastine compared to Flp-In-293/Mock cells although the four guanidine alkaloids exhibited cytotoxicity against the two Flp-In-293 cells. Furthermore, the four guanidine alkaloids were also found to stimulate the ATPase activity of ABCB1 in ATPase assays. These results suggest that ABCB1 can confer the resistance to the cytotoxic guanidine alkaloids by transporting them.

Caesalpinia ferrea Martius has traditionally been used in Brazil for many medicinal purposes, such as the treatment of bronchitis, diabetes and wounds. Despite its use as a medicinal plant, there is still no data regarding the genotoxic effect of the stem bark. This present work aims to assess the qualitative and quantitative profiles of the ethanolic extract from the stem bark of C. ferrea and to evaluate its mutagenic activity, using a Salmonella/microsome assay for this species. As a result, a total of twenty compounds were identified by Flow Injection Analysis Electrospray Ionization Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry (FIA-ESI-IT-MS/MSn) in the ethanolic extract from the stem bark of C. ferrea. Hydrolyzable tannins predominated, principally gallic acid derivatives. The HPLC-DAD method was developed for rapid quantification of six gallic acid compounds and ellagic acid derivatives. C. ferrea is widely used in Brazil, and the absence of any mutagenic effect in the Salmonella/microsome assay is important for pharmacological purposes and the safe use of this plant.

Dengue fever, currently the most important arbovirus, is transmitted by the bite of the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Given the absence of a prophylactic vaccine, the disease can only be controlled by combating the vector insect. However, increasing reports of resistance and environmental damage caused by insecticides have led to the urgent search for new safer alternatives. In this regard, plants stand out as a source of easy-to-obtain biodegradable insecticide molecules. Twenty (20) plant seed extracts from the Caatinga, an exclusively Brazilian biome, were prepared. Sodium phosphate (50 mM, pH 8.0) was used as extractor. The extracts were used in bioassays and submitted to partial characterisation. A Probit analysis of insecticides was carried out, and intergroup differences were verified by the Student's t test and ANOVA. All the extracts exhibited larvicidal and ovipositional deterrence activity. The extracts of Amburana cearenses, Piptadenia viridiflora, Erythrina velutina, Myracrodruon urundeuva and Schinopsis brasiliensis were also pupicides, while the extracts of P. viridiflora, E. velutina, A. cearenses, Anadenanthera colubrina, Diocleia grandiflora, Bauhinia cheilantha, Senna spectabilis, Caesalpinia pyramidalis, Mimosa regnelli and Genipa americana displayed adulticidal activity. Egg laying was compromised when females were fed extracts of Ricinus communis, Croton sonderianus and S. brasiliensis. At least two proteins with insecticidal activity were found in all the extracts. Phenol compounds were identified in all the extracts and flavonoids, triterpenes or alkaloids in 14 of them. The results show the potential of plant seed extracts from the Caatinga as a source of active molecules against A. aegypti mosquitos.

Three novel furanoditerpenoids, norcaesalpinin J (1) featuring an unusual 20-norcassane hydroperoxide and phangininoxys B (2) and C (3) possessing cassane hemiketal skeletons, were isolated from the seeds of Caesalpinia sappan. Their structures were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic methods. All isolates were evaluated for the cytotoxic activities on three human cancer cell lines., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Three hitherto unknown di-O-xylosyl-C-glycosyl flavones were isolated from the leaves of Caesalpinia ferrea. The structures of all isolated compounds were elucidated by conventional methods and spectroscopic analysis, including 1D and 2D NMR, as well as by HRESIMS.

Context: Caesalpinia sappan L. (Leguminosae or Fabaceae) heartwood has been used as a coloring agent, with antibacterial activity in food, beverages, cosmetics, and garments., Objectives: To purify brazilin from C. sappan heartwood and use it as a standard marker for the preparation and standardization of an active constituent-rich extract., Material and Methods: Crude ethanol extracts of C. sappan heartwood (CSE) were fractionated to isolate brazilin by an anti-P. acnes assay-guided isolation. Quantitative analysis was performed by HPLC. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) were determined by the broth microdilution method., Results and Discussion: Brazilin isolated from CSE possessed antibacterial activity against P. acnes with MIC and MBC values of 15.6 and 31.2 µg/mL, respectively. Brazilin was, therefore, used as a standard marker for standardization and preparation of a brazilin rich extract (BRE). BRE was prepared from CSE using a simple one-step purification using a macroporous resin column eluted with 35% v/v ethanol. This method increased the brazilin content in the BRE up to 39.9% w/w. The antibacterial activity of the standardized BRE against acne involved bacteria was higher than for the CSE but lower than brazilin. However, for industrial applications, a large-scale one-step preparation of BRE has more advantages than the use of pure brazilin in terms of convenience and a low-cost production process. Therefore, BRE is considered as a potential coloring agent with antibacterial activity which is used for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and nutraceutical applications.

Gallotannins obtained from tara pod extracts (EE) and from the products of acid hydrolysis for 4 and 9h (HE-4 and HE-9) were characterised for their composition, antioxidant activity, antimicrobial activity (AA) and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). Results of AA and MIC showed that EE exerted the highest inhibitory activity against Staphylococcus aureus, followed by Pseudomonas fluorescens; and among these bacteria, the antibacterial potency was enhanced after EE hydrolysis only against S. aureus. The lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value (0.13mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/ml) was exerted by HE-4 against S. aureus. These results indicate that tara gallotannins have the potential to inhibit pathogenic bacteria with potential application in foods as antimicrobials and their AA can be enhanced by acid hydrolysis., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The ligation of interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) or tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) induces the recruitment of adaptor proteins and their concomitant ubiquitination to the proximal receptor signaling complex, respectively. Such are upstream signaling events of IKK that play essential roles in NF-κB activation. Thus, the discovery of a substance that would modulate the recruitment of key proximal signaling elements at the upstream level of IKK has been impending in this field of study. Here, we propose that brazilin, an active compound of Caesalpinia sappan L. (Leguminosae), is a potent NF-κB inhibitor that selectively disrupts the formation of the upstream IL-1R signaling complex. Analysis of upstream signaling events revealed that brazilin markedly abolished the IL-1β-induced polyubiquitination of IRAK1 and its interaction with IKK-γ counterpart. Notably, pretreatment of brazilin drastically interfered the recruitment of the receptor-proximal signaling components including IRAK1/4 and TRAF6 onto MyD88 in IL-1R-triggerd NF-κB activation. Interestingly, brazilin did not affect the TNF-induced RIP1 ubiquitination and the recruitment of RIP1 and TRAF2 to TNFR1, suggesting that brazilin is effective in selectively suppressing the proximal signaling complex formation of IL-1R, but not that of TNFR1. Moreover, our findings suggest that such a disruption of IL-1R-proximal complex formation by brazilin is not mediated by affecting the heterodimerization of IL-1R and IL-1RAcP. Taken together, the results suggest that the anti-IKK activity of brazilin is induced by targeting IKK upstream signaling components and subsequently disrupting proximal IL-1 receptor signaling complex formation., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The in vitro antimicrobial activities of three 3-Benzylchroman derivatives, i.e. Brazilin (1), Brazilein (2) and Sappanone B (3) from Caesalpinia sappan L. (Leguminosae) were assayed, which mainly dealt with synergistic evaluation of aminoglycoside and other type of antibiotics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) by the three compounds through the Chequerboard and Time-kill curve methods. The results showed that Compounds 1-3 alone exhibited moderate to weak activity against methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) and other standard strains by MICs/MBCs ranged from 32/64 to >1024/>1024 μg/ml, with the order of activity as 1>2>3. Chequerboard method showed significant anti-MRSA synergy of 1/Aminoglycosides (Gentamicin, Amikacin, Etimicin and Streptomycin) combinations with (FICIs)50 at 0.375-0.5. The combined (MICs)50 values (μg/ml) reduced from 32-128/16-64 to 4-8/4-16, respectively. The percent of reduction by MICs ranged from 50% to 87.5%, with a maximum of 93.8% (1/16 of the alone MIC). Combinations of 2 and 3 with Aminoglycosides and the other antibiotics showed less potency of synergy. The dynamic Time-killing experiment further demonstrated that the combinations of 1/aminoglycoside were synergistically bactericidal against MRSA. The anti-MRSA synergy results of the bacteriostatic (Chequerboard method) and bactericidal (time-kill method) efficiencies of 1/Aminoglycoside combinations was in good consistency, which made the resistance reversed by CLSI guidelines. We concluded that the 3-Benzylchroman derivative Brazilin (1) showed in vitro synergy of bactericidal activities against MRSA when combined with Aminoglycosides, which might be beneficial for combinatory therapy of MRSA infection., (Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier GmbH.)

Two new diterpene alkaloids, caesalminines A (1) and B (2), possessing a tetracyclic cassane-type furanoditerpenoid skeleton with γ-lactam ring, were isolated from the seeds of Caesalpinia minax. Their structures were determined by different spectroscopic methods and ECD calculation. The plausible biosynthetic pathway of caesalminines A and B was proposed. The anti-malarial activity of compounds 1 and 2 is presented with IC50 values of 0.42 and 0.79 μM, respectively., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: This study evaluated the cytotoxic activity of extracts from Caesalpinia sappan heartwood against multiple cancer cell lines using an MTT cell viability assay. The cell death though induction of apoptosis was as indicated by DNA fragmentation and caspase-3 enzyme activation., Results: A methanol extract from C. sappan (MECS) showed cytotoxic activity against several of the cancer cell lines. The most potent activity exhibited by the MECS was against HeLa cells with an IC50 value of 26.5 ± 3.2 μg/mL. Treatment of HeLa cells with various MECS concentrations resulted in growth inhibition and induction of apoptosis, as indicated by DNA fragmentation and caspase-3 enzyme activation., Conclusion: This study is the first report of the anticancer properties of the heartwood of C. sappan native to Vietnam. Our findings demonstrate that C. sappan heartwood may have beneficial applications in the field of anticancer drug discovery.

Two novel diterpenes, norcaesalpinin I (1) featuring an unusual ring C-contracted dinorcassane and caesalpinin U (2) possessing a highly oxygenated furanocassane skeleton were isolated from the seeds of Caesalpinia minax. Their structures were determined by different spectroscopic methods. A plausible biosynthetic pathway of 1 was proposed. The cytotoxic activity of compounds 1 and 2 against HepG2 and HeLa human tumor cell lines was evaluated., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: The successful replacement of some synthetic food antioxidants by safe natural antioxidants has fostered intensive search for new vegetable sources of antioxidants. In our study the phenol and flavonoid content of extracts of tara pods was determined. The antioxidant activity was also studied by three different analytical assays: the measurement of scavenging capacity against a radical ABTS⁺ , the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)., Results: All analyzed samples showed a good antioxidant capacity, but the use of a solution of ethanol 75% in a 1 h ultrasonic process allowed achieving the greatest quantity of phenolics (0.464 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE) g⁻¹ dry weight (DW) ) and the highest antioxidant activity measured by the ABTS⁺ and ORAC methods (10.17 and 4.29 mmol L⁻¹ Trolox equivalents (TE) g⁻¹ DW, respectively). The best method for efficient extraction of flavonoids (3.08 mg catechin equivalent (CE) g⁻¹ DW) was a 24 h maceration in cold water. Two extracts obtained with ethanol 75% and water were added to a model food system (oil-in-water emulsion) and the oxidative stability was studied during storage at 38 °C. Oxidation was monitored by determination of the peroxide value. The addition of 48 µg mL⁻¹ ethanol extract to the emulsion delayed oxidation to the same extent as 17.8 µg mL⁻¹ of Trolox, while water extract was only effective in the early stages of the oxidation process., Conclusion: The results of this study indicate that ethanolic tara extracts may be suitable for use in food, cosmetic and nutraceutical applications., (© 2013 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Seven new cassane diterpenoids (1-7), along with three known compounds (8-10), were isolated from the seed kernels of Caesalpinia bonduc. The structures were elucidated by extensive 1D and 2D NMR (HSQC, HMBC and ROESY) and mass (HRESIMS) spectroscopic data analyses. The structure and absolute configuration of compound 1 were confirmed by a single-crystal X-ray diffraction experiment. All isolates were tested for their cytotoxicity against HepG-2, MCF-7 and MG-63 cells, and 8-10 showed weak inhibitory activities., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Seven new cassane-type diterpenoids, echinalides A-G (1-7), were isolated from the stem of Caesalpinia echinata LAM. (Leguminosae). The structures were established on the basis of their chemical properties and spectroscopic evidence, including two dimensional (2D)-NMR analysis. These compounds were assessed for inhibitory activity against nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). Echinalides C and D, in particular, significantly inhibited NF-κB-responsive reporter gene expression at 5.0 µM, an effect almost equivalent to that of parthenolide, a known potent inhibitor of NF-κB.

A bioassay-guided study led to the isolation of seven new cassane furanoditerpenes, designated as spirocaesalmin B (1), caesalpinin M1 (2), caesalpinin M2 (3), caesalmin E1 (4), caesalmin E2 (5), caesalmin E3 (6), caesalpinin F1 (7) and three known compounds neocaesalpin A(8), neocaesalpin L(9), neocaesalpin L1(10) from the seeds of Caesalpinia minax Hance. Compound structures were determined on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analyses, including X-ray crystallographic analysis, HRESI-MS, UV, IR, 1D and 2D NMR (HSQC, HMBC, NOESY) methods. Some absolute configurations were confirmed via the circular dichroism (CD) spectra. Compound 1 is the first example of an A-seco-rearranged cassane furanoditerpene with an unusual skeleton isolated from the genus Caesalpinia. All compound inhibitory effects on influenza virus neuraminidase (NA) in vitro were valued for the first time. Compared with the positive control (Zanamivir), new compounds were found to show moderate inhibitory activity., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Phytochemical study on the methanolic extract of Caesalpinia crista afforded two novel compounds, 2-hydroxytrideca-3,6-dienyl-pentanoate and octacosa-12,15-diene along with known compounds 3-O-methylellagic acid 3'O-α-rhamnopyranoside, β-sitosterol and sucrose. Compound 3-O-methylellagic acid 3'O-α-rhamnopyranoside is reported for the first time from the plant. Molecular structures, of isolated compounds, were elucidated by using the NMR spectroscopy in combination with IR and mass spectral data. All isolated compounds, extract and fractions were evaluated for in vitro antibacterial activity against various Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains and found to be significantly active against Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (minimum inhibitory concentration: 64-512 μg mL(- 1)).

Homoisoflavonoid is a special type of flavonoid with the perspectives of both chemical diversity and significant biological activities. During our ongoing studies on the discovery of novel homoisoflavonoids from traditional Chinese medicines, a new minor 3,4-di-O-substituted homoisoflavonoid, 3',4-di-O-methylepisappanol (1), was isolated from Caesalpinia sappan, and its structure was determined to be (3R,4R)-3,7-dihydroxy-3-(3'-methoxy-4'-hydroxybenzyl)-4-methoxychroman by various spectroscopic analyses. Meanwhile, a known xanthone derivate, 2-methoxy-3-hydroxyxanthone (2) was also isolated, which is the first example from the genus Caesalpinia.

Cassane-type diterpenes are main bioactive constituents of Caesalpinia minax HANCE. As a part of our ongoing chemical investigation of C. minax, two new degradative cassane-type diterpenes, named caesalpins I (1) and J (2), were isolated from the EtOAc extract of the seeds of C. minax. The structures were elucidated by means of spectroscopic analysis.

Libidibia ferrea (LF) is a medicinal plant that holds many pharmacological properties. We evaluated the antinociceptive effect in the LF aqueous seed extract and Lipidic Portion of Libidibia ferrea (LPLF), partially elucidating their mechanisms. Histochemical tests and Gas chromatography of the LPLF were performed to characterize its fatty acids. Acetic acid-induced abdominal constriction, formalin-induced pain, and hot-plate test in mice were employed in the study. In all experiments, aqueous extract or LPLF was administered systemically at the doses of 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg. LF aqueous seed extract and LPLF demonstrated a dose-dependent antinociceptive effect in all tests indicating both peripheral anti-inflammatory and central analgesia properties. Also, the use of atropine (5 mg/kg), naloxone (5 mg/kg) in the abdominal writhing test was able to reverse the antinociceptive effect of the LPLF, indicating that at least one of LF lipids components is responsible for the dose related antinociceptive action in chemical and thermal models of nociception in mice. Together, the present results suggested that Libidibia ferrea induced antinociceptive activity is possibly related to its ability to inhibit opioid, cholinergic receptors, and cyclooxygenase-2 pathway, since its main component, linoleic acid, has been demonstrated to produce such effect in previous studies.

Two novel protosappanins, named Caesappin A (1) and B (2), along with three known protosappanins were isolated from Caesalpinia sappan L. Caesappin A is a new type protosappanin with a seven-membered ring fusing an acetal-type section. Compound 4 was isolated from the genus Caesalpinia for the first time. The structures were elucidated on the basis of spectral analysis and the absolute configuration was determined by the ECD experiment coupled with calculated ECD spectra. Their cytotoxic activities were evaluated using MTT assay., (Crown Copyright © 2013. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Six new cassane diterpenoids, named caesalls H-M (1-6), were isolated from the seed kernels of Caesalpinia bonduc. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic analysis, mainly NMR and MS. The absolute configurations of compounds 1 and 3 were determined by a single-crystal X-ray study using a mirror CuKα radiation and circular dichroism (CD) spectra, respectively. None of the compounds were cytotoxic against HepG-2, MCF-7 and MG-63 cells.

Fourteen new cassane diterpenoids, caesalminaxins A-L (1-14), and three known compounds were isolated from the seeds of Caesalpinia minax. Among the new diterpenoids, compounds 3 and 4 possess a rare spiro C/D ring system. The C-16 epimeric mixture 1/2 has an unprecedented carbon skeleton, presumably derived from 3 by cleavage of the C-13-C-14 bond. Compound 5 is the first example of a cassane diterpenoid with a spiro A/B ring system. The structures of the compounds were elucidated on the basis of 1D and 2D NMR analysis, and the absolute configurations of 3, 4, 9, and 11 were determined by single-crystal X-ray crystallography. Biosynthesis pathways for 1/2, 3, and 5 are postulated. Compounds 4, 8, and the known bonducellpin D exhibited moderate activity against four tested human cancer cell lines, HepG-2, K562, HeLa, and Du145.

Two new phenolic compounds, epicaesalpin J and 7,10,11-trihydroxydracaenone, were isolated from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan L. Their structures were identified by spectroscopic analysis methods, such as 1D and 2D NMR, along with the high resolution mass spectral data. The NO inhibition activities of two new compounds and six known compounds were tested.

Bioassay-directed fractionation of the leaf and root extracts of the antiproliferative Madagascar plant Stuhlmannia moavi afforded 6-acetyl-5,8-dihydroxy-2-methoxy-7-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (stuhlmoavin, 1) as the most active compound, with an IC50 value of 8.1 μM against the A2780 human ovarian cancer cell line, as well as the known homoisoflavonoid bonducellin (2) and the stilbenoids 3,4,5'-trihydroxy-3'-methoxy-trans-stilbene (3), piceatannol (4), resveratrol (5), rhapontigenin (6), and isorhapontigenin (7). The structure elucidation of all compounds was based on NMR and mass spectroscopic data, and the structure of 1 was confirmed by a single crystal X-ray analysis. Compounds 2-5 showed weak A2780 activities, with IC50 values of 10.6, 54.0, 41.0, and 74.0 μM, respectively. Compounds 1-3 also showed weak antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum with IC50 values of 23, 26, and 27 μM, respectively., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Acute lung injury (ALI) is characterized by neutrophil infiltration and the release of proteases, mainly elastase (NE), cathepsin G (Cat G) and proteinase 3 (PR3), which can be controlled by specific endogenous inhibitors. However, inhibitors of these proteases have been isolated from different sources, including plants. For this study, CeEI, or Caesalpinia echinata elastase inhibitor, was purified from C. echinata (Brazil-wood) seeds after acetone fractionation, followed by ion exchange and reversed phase chromatographic steps. Characterization with SDS-PAGE, stability assays, amino acid sequencing and alignment with other protein sequences confirmed that CeEI is a member of the soybean Kunitz trypsin inhibitor family. Like other members of this family, CeEI is a 20 kDa monomeric protein; it is stable within a large pH and temperature range, with four cysteine residues forming two disulfide bridges, conserved amino acid residues and leucine-isoleucine residues in the reactive site. CeEI was able to inhibit NE and Cat G at a nanomolar range (with K(i)s of 1.9 and 3.6 nM, respectively) and inhibited PR3 within a micromolar range (K(i) 3.7 μM), leading to hydrolysis of specific synthetic substrates. In a lung edema model, CeEI reduced the lung weight and pulmonary artery pressure until 180 min after the injection of zymosan-activated polymorphonuclear neutrophils. In experiments performed in the presence of a Cat G and PR3, but not an NE inhibitor, lung edema was reduced only until 150 min and pulmonary artery pressure was similar to that of the control. These results confirm that NE action is crucial to edema establishment and progression. Additionally, CeEI appears to be a useful tool for studying the physiology of pulmonary edema and provides a template for molecular engineering and drug design for ALI therapy., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A method was developed to determine brazilin and protosappanin B in natural products by CE after acid barrage stacking. The optimum conditions were as follows: a BGE of 20 mM sodium tetraborate (pH 9.2) containing 6% v/v of methanol, hydrodynamic injection (0.5 psi, 65 s) followed by hydrodynamic injection of 150 mM citric acid (pH 2.3; 0.5 psi, 22 s), and separated with +25 kV. Under these conditions, brazilin and protosappanin B were separated with a sample-to-sample time less than 13 min and detection limits of 0.28 μg/mL and 0.15 μg/mL, respectively. The applicability of the developed method was demonstrated by the detection of brazilin and protosappanin in methanol extract of sappan lignum., (© 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

Three new cleistanthane diterpenes named tomocinon (1), tomocinol A (2), and tomocinol B (3), were isolated from the EtOAc extract of the seed of Caesalpinia sappan. Their structures were determined by extensive NMR spectroscopic analysis. The absolute stereochemistry of tomocinon (1) has been established by CD spectroscopic analysis. Cleistanthane diterpenes (1-3) represents the novel class of antiausterity agents having preferential cytotoxicity against PANC-1 human pancreatic cancer cell line under nutrient deprived condition with PC50 value of 34.7 μM, 42.4 μM and 39.4 μM, respectively., (© 2013.)

The dichloromethane extract from the leaves of Caesalpinia platyloba provided cassane diterpenes whose structures were determined as (-)-(5S,6R,8S,9S,10R,14R)-6-acetoxyvouacapane (1), (-)-(5S,6R,8S,9S,10R,12Z,14R)-6-acetoxycassa-12,15-diene (3), and (-)-(5S,6R,8S,9S,10R,13E)-6-acetoxycassa-13,15-diene (4). Compound 1 was chemically correlated with (-)-(5S,6R,8S,9S,10R,14R)-6-hydroxyvouacapane (2), (+)-(5S,8S,9S,10R,14R)-6-oxovouacapane (5), and (+)-(5S,6S,8S,9S,10R,14R)-6-acetoxyvouacapane (6), the last one previously isolated from Dipteryx lacunifera. The absolute configurations of all six diterpenes 1-6 were established by comparison of DFT calculated vibrational circular dicroism spectra of 1, 2 and 5 with those obtained experimentally. In addition, several reported chemical shifts for 2 and 5 were reassigned based on two-dimensional NMR measurements., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Hemorrhagic cystitis (HC) is a common side effect of cyclophosphamide therapy, which deserves new therapeutic strategies, such as those based on natural products. The ethanol extract of the inner bark of Caesalpinia pyramidalis (Tul.) (EECp) possesses anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and antioxidant activities as previously showed by our group. We have investigated the effect of EECp on the cyclophosphamide-induced HC. Cystitis was induced in male Wistar rats by the injection of cyclophosphamide. These animals were pretreated with EECp (100-400 mg/kg), vehicle, or mesna. Myeloperoxidase activity and malondialdehyde formation were measured in urinary bladder and other tissues. Bladder edema and histopathological alterations and serum nitric oxide metabolites concentration NOx- were also evaluated. Treatment with EECp (100-400 mg/kg) or mesna impaired the increase of myeloperoxidase activity in urinary bladder and the serum NOx- induced by cyclophosphamide but did not reduce edema in this tissue, as did mesna. Total histological score was reduced by EECp (100 mg/kg). Lung myeloperoxidase activity, which was increased by cyclophosphamide, was decreased significantly by EECp (400 mg/kg). EECp also diminished the malondialdehyde formation in bladder, lung, and spleen, although these parameters were not affected by cyclophosphamide. These results indicate that EECp reduced urinary bladder damage during cyclophosphamide-induced HC in rats.

Caesalpinia sappan Linn. has long been used in traditional medicine in China. Here, the anticancer activity of brazilein, a compound isolated from C. sappan Linn. was investigated. MTT assay showed that the IC50 value of brazilein against human breast cancer MCF-7 cells was 7.23 ± 0.24 μmol/L. PI staining and flow cytometry analysis indicated that brazilein caused cell cycle arrest in G1 phase. Western blot and RT-PCR assay demonstrated that cyclin D1, a key factor of the G1 to S phase progression, was downregulated in a concentration-dependent manner by brazilein treatment. Further Western blot and RNA interference assay showed that brazilein treatment activated GSK-3β and following reduced β-Catenin protein, which accounted for the downregulation of cyclin D1 and blockage of cell cycle at G1 phase. Together, all these results illustrated that brazilein induced growth inhibition of breast cancer cells and downregulation of GSK-3β/β-Catenin pathway was involved in its action mechanism., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Serial antibacterial furanoditerpenes caesanines A-D (1-4), possessing a cassane-type diterpenoid skeleton with an unusual N bridge between C-19/C-20, were identified from a Chinese herb Caesalpinia sappan Linn. In addition, caesanine D (4) showed the first class of dicassane diterpenoid ethers. Their structures were determined by different spectroscopic methods and ECD calculation. Caesanines A and B exhibited strong activities against MRSA suggesting a promising entry point for the development of anti-infective drugs.

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is one of the most regular human pathogens, being a public health problem, and causal agent of several diseases. Poliovirus (PV) is an enteric virus and about 1% of infected individuals develop paralytic poliomyelitis due to viral invasion of the central nervous system and destruction of motor neurons. This work evaluated the activity of a sulfated polysaccharide of Caesalpinia ferrea (SPLCf) in HSV and PV replication. The antiviral effect of SPLCf at varying concentrations was tested by plaque assay under several protocols, such as time-of-addition, adsorption and penetration inhibition and virucidal. Syntheses of viral protein and nucleic acid were also monitored by the immunofluorescence assay and PCR. The SPLCf inhibited virus adsorption and steps after penetration, and inhibited the synthesis of viral protein. Virucidal effect was also shown and nucleic acid synthesis was concurrent with positive results. Our findings suggested that the substance with low toxicity represent a potential viral inhibitor., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: The heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan L. (Leguminosae), a widely used Chinese medicine in folk, has been used for the treatment of traumatic injury, stasis pain, amenorrhea, dysmenorrheal, as well as stabbing pain in the chest, abdomen and so on. Protosappanin B and brazilin, as the major bioactive homoisoflavones of Sappan Lignum, are used as the marker components for the quality control of the herb in China Pharmacopoeia., Aim of the Study: To establish a sensitive LC/MS/MS method for investigating the pharmacokinetic properties of protosappanin B and brazilin in rats after oral administration of Sappan Lignum extract, and compare their pharmacokinetics difference between normal and streptozotocin-treated rats., Material and Methods: A rapid, selective and sensitive LC/MS/MS method was developed and validated for the simultaneous quantification of protosappanin B and brazilin in rat plasma. Normal and streptozotocin-treated rats were orally administered with the Sappan Lignum extract at the same dose of 2.83 g extract/kg body weight (equivalent to 35.56 mg/kg of protosappanin B and 52.25 mg/kg of brazilin), respectively., Results: After oral administration of Sappan Lignum extract, a remarkable increase (p<0.05) in the value of AUC0-24h, AUC0-∞, Cmax and T1/2 associated with protosappanin B and brazilin was observed in the streptozotocin-treated group. Compared with the normal rats, elimination of both compounds in the streptozotocin-treated rats was slower., Conclusion: The established method was successfully applied to compare the pharmacokinetic behaviors of protosappanin B and brazilin in rat plasma after oral administration of Sappan Lignum extract between normal and streptozotocin-treated groups; the results might suggest the accumulation of both compounds in diabetic pathologic states and the adverse reaction should be considered when it was used., (Crown Copyright © 2013. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Eight new cassane-type diterpenes, caesalpins A-H (1-8), were isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of Caesalpinia minax. Compound 1 displayed significant antiproliferative activity against HepG-2 (IC50 4.7 μM) and MCF-7 (IC50 2.1 μM) cells, and compounds 2 and 4 exhibited selective cytotoxic activities against MCF-7 (IC50 7.9 μM) and AGS (IC50 6.5 μM) cells.

The present study was designed to investigate the hypoglycemic effect of an aqueous extract of MAC-ST/001 (a new polyherbal formulation) which was given once daily to rats at different doses. The animals were divided into diabetic and nondiabetic control groups. The duration of each experiment lasted from 1 week to 1 month, and the results were compared with that of the standard hypoglycemic drug glibenclamide (10 mg/kg), which was given once daily. In this study, biochemical and histopathological parameters were studied in streptozotacin (STZ) (single intraperitoneal injection of 55 mg/kg)-induced diabetic rats. The diabetic rats showed a significant (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01) decrease in their body weight and serum amylase with marked elevation in blood glucose, serum cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, alkaline phosphatase, and serum transaminases (AST and ALT) after 1 week till the 28th day of diabetes. Cytotoxicity of MAC-ST/001 formulation was also studied on C2C12, 3T3-L1, and HepG2 cells through MTT assay. Histological examination of the liver and pancreas of normal control, diabetic control, and drug-treated rats revealed significant results. Finally, it was concluded that administration of this MAC-ST/001 extract reversed most blood and tissue changes caused by STZ-induced diabetes in rats.

A bioassay guided isolation of potential antimalarial molecules from the stem bark of Caesalpinia volkensii Harms (Fabaceae) achieved three new 11-oxocassane-type diterpenoids named voulkensin C (1), D (2) and E (3) together with one steroid glycoside named 3-O-[β-glucopyranosyl(1→2)-O-β-xylopyranosyl]-stigmasterol (4) and seven other known compounds including stigmasterol (5), β-sitosterol (6), oleanolic acid (7), 3-β-acetoxyolean-12-en-28-methyl ester (8), voucap-5-ol (9), caesadekarin C (10), deoxycaesaldekarin C (11). The structures of the new compounds were determined on the basis of extensive spectroscopic data (IR, MS, (1)H and (13)C NMR and 2D NMR) analyses. The polar extracts revealed moderate to good antiplasmodial activities against chloquine-sensitive (D6) and -resistant strains (W2) of Plasmodium falciparum. Whereas the pure isolates exhibited limited to moderate antiplasmodial activities with compound 4 showing the highest antiplasmodial activities (IC50 values of 4.44±0.88 and 2.74±1.10μM against D6 and W2 strains, respectively). These results suggest a possible contribution of phytochemicals from C. volkensii stem bark towards inhibition of plasmodial parasites' growth hence potential antimalarial., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Caesalpinia paraguariensis (D. Parodi) Burkart stem bark infusion (CPBI) is traditionally used in Argentina because their "vulnerary" properties., Aim of the Study: CPBI was studied throughout bio-guided purification procedures conducted by in vitro biological assays in order to isolate the main bioactive compounds., Material and Methods: Anti-inflammatory activity was assessed by enzyme inhibition assays of Hyaluronidase (Hyal) and inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase (iNOS). The antioxidant properties were evaluated by DPPH free radical scavenging assay, lipid peroxidation inhibition assay on erythrocyte membranes, and a cell-based assay that included the fluorescent probe (DCFH-DA) for indicating reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Bioactive compounds were purified by chromatographic methods and their structures elucidated using spectroscopic methods (ESI-MS and 1D/2D-(1)H/(13)C-NMR)., Results: Four main bioactive compounds were isolated from CPBI: ellagic acid (1), 3-O-methylellagic acid (2), 3,3'-di-O-methylellagic acid (3) and 3,3'-di-O-methylellagic-4-β-D-xylopyranoside (4). These were bioactive at concentrations in which are present in CPBI, being compounds 2 and 3 the best enzyme inhibitors of Hyal and iNOS, reaching the 90% inhibitory concentration (IC90) values ranging from 2.8 to 16.4 μM, that are better than that of the positive controls, aspirin (IC90: no reached) and aminoguanidine (IC90: 20.2 μM) respectively. Compounds 2 and 3 were also better scavengers for lipoperoxides than butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), reaching the 90% effective concentration (EC90) at 1.2-4.5 μg/ml, and for DPPH radical (2.5-7.3 μg/ml); moreover compounds were able to exert its scavenging action on intracellular ROS. Structural features relevant to the biological activities are discussed., Conclusions: This work provides scientific validity to the popular usage of CPBI., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Context: The ethanol extracts and their fractions of three Indian medicinal plants, Ervatamia coronaria (Jacq.) Stapf, (Apocynaceae), Mimosa pudica L. (Mimosaceae) and Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. (Caesalpiniaceae) were tested for their cytotoxic activity in the brine shrimp lethality (BSL) bioassay and in various cancer cell lines. The plants were selected based on their traditional use in the treatment of cancer/tumors., Objectives: To investigate the in vitro cytotoxicity of Ervatamia coronaria, Mimosa pudica and Caesalpinia bonduc., Materials and Methods: Ethanolic extracts and their fractions of E. coronaria, M. pudica and C. bonduc were subjected to cytotoxicity studies using BSL bioassay method with concentrations of 10, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 µg/ml. The alkaloid fraction of E. coronaria with significant cytotoxicity in BSL bioassay was subjected to in vitro cytotoxicity studies with HT-29, A-549, HepG-2, MCF-7 and L-6 cell lines at concentrations of 12.5, 25, 50, 100 and 200 µg/ml and a DNA fragmentation study using the HT-29 cell line., Results: The alkaloid fractions of E. coronaria and M. pudica showed significant cytotoxicity with LC50 values of 65.83 and 85.10 µg/ml in the BSL bioassay, respectively. The purified alkaloid fraction of E. coronaria exhibited highest cytotoxicity in HT-29, A-549 and MCF-7 cell lines with IC50 values of 32.5, 47.5 and 72.5 µg/ml, respectively, and induced DNA fragmentation in the HT-29 cell line at a concentration of 65 µg/ml., Conclusion: The alkaloid fraction of E. coronaria exhibited significant cytotoxicity. Alkaloids such as ervatamine, apparicine and coronaridine that were earlier reported may be responsible for this activity.

The galactomannan from the seeds of Caesalpinia pulcherrima L. was isolated and purified by precipitation method using alcohol to get C. pulcherrima (CP) gum. CP gum was studied for its physicochemical and rheological properties. The composition of CP gum was found to contain mannose:galactose:glucose:xylose in a proportion of 2.8:1:0.1:0.08, with M/G ratio 2.80. The molecular weight (Mw) for CP gum was obtained to be approximately 2.72×10(6) Da by static light scattering measurements and 2.79×10(6) Da using Mark-Houwink relationship. The intrinsic viscosity by Huggins and Kraemer plots using capillary viscometry was obtained as 12-12.5 dl/g. The rheological behavior of aqueous galactomannan solutions was studied at 25°C, using steady-shear and dynamic oscillatory measurements. The various concentrations of CP gum exhibits shear thinning non newtonian behavior at high shear rate and newtonian flow at low shear rate. Experimental data in steady shear has been correlated and found a better fitting with the Cross and Carreau models. A graph of the specific viscosity at zero shear rate (η(sp0)) against coil overlap parameter (C[η]) was plotted and the slope of the lines in dilute and semi-dilute regions were found to be 1.23 and 4.1 respectively. The critical concentration (C*) was found to be about 3.8/[η]. The linear viscoelastic region for CP gum solutions presented nature as that of macromolecular solutions. At all shear rates and frequencies, η(ap) and η* had almost similar magnitudes, which shows its reasonable agreement with the Cox-Merz rule. The present investigation shows the suitability of CP gum as a pharmaceutical aid application like viscosity modifier, release retardants, binders., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)