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In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when western advertisers used women as bait for the male smoker, Russian manufacturers displayed a more relaxed attitude toward policing gender boundaries than in western democracies, and offered images of empowered female consumers who made rational choices in the marketplace. Advertising images of women smoking in Russia were distinctive in their subject, number, and early appearance. The examination of Russian tobacco advertisements complicates scholarly studies of the Russian business community and advertising that emphasizes the conservative tendencies of these industries, and counters studies of global tobacco culture that tie smoking to liberal male political identity in the period before 1914. Russian women's smoking, like Russian women's early suffrage, does not fit the established paradigms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study that utilized ecological momentary assessment to examine the moderating role of social context in the relationship between college students' exposure to pro-smoking media and their self-efficacy for smoking refusal and intention to smoke. It states that when participants were with friends, pro-smoking media exposures were associated with stronger smoking intentions and states that the study explored the role of peers in the development of youth smoking.

The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act of 2009 requires the display of graphic health warnings on cigarette advertising and packaging in the United States.Debates over the permissibility of these newmandated healthwarnings under the unusually broad Free Speech Clause of the United States Constitution have paid insufficient attention to empirical evidence --- to be presented in this article --- of the warnings' salutary effects in reducing consumers' factual misperceptions about smoking risks. Although such empirical evidence does not, by itself, settle the First Amendment debate, this evidence warrants more attention in that debate than it has received to date [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Nexus (1900-9909) is the property of Universidad del Valle and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The “More doctors smoke camels” advertising campaign ran from 1946 until 1954. The campaign featured a series of advertisements centered around and celebrating the physician in American life. Neatly bookending the demise of the physician was the appearance, in 1955, of the Marlboro Man. The dominant figure in the Marlboro Man campaign was the cowboy. This shift away from the physician to the cowboy will be situated in the context of 1950s fears about smoking and health. The similarities and differences in the masculine virtues of the physician and the cowboy will be analyzed in terms of the relationship between men and health in mid-century America. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Aims: We aimed to explain the association between exposure to a cigarette advertisement and favorable attitudes towards the advertisement. Methods: We used data from an observational cross-sectional study with a sample of 3,415 German schoolchildren aged 10-17 years. Cigarette advertising exposure was assessed with an image of a Marlboro ad, asking for contact frequency (number of times seen the ad) and brand name. Liking of the ad was measured with two items (alpha = 0.78). Results: We found a positive linear association between exposure to the Marlboro ad and liking it. This association remained significant (standardized β = 0.09; p < 0.001) even after statistical control for smoking status, smoking of friends and parents, attitudes towards smoking in general, cigarette advertising receptivity (having a favorite cigarette ad), exposure to other advertisings, age, sex, socioeconomic status, rebelliousness and sensation seeking, self-reported school performance, and study region. Conclusions: The association between exposure to an advertisement and liking it was robust and could not be fully explained without referring to either unmeasured confounding or implicit advertising effects (e.g. mere exposure). Implicit effects have implications for prevention strategies as it may be very difficult to counteract unconscious advertising effects. Copyright © 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the U.S. Supreme Court cases regarding graphic images and textual warnings on tobacco packages including Wooley v. Maynard, Zauderer v. Office of Disciplinary Counsel, and Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission. It discusses the impact of the U.S. Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act and First Amendment in this regard. It informs that import of cigarettes and tobacco packages without appropriate label in the U.S. is unlawful.

The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence and identify correlates of current cigarette use among 8470 school-going adolescents (aged 11 to 18 years) in South Africa. A cross-sectional study was carried out in 2008 in South Africa within the framework of the Global Youth Tobacco Survey. Overall prevalence of current cigarette smoking was 16.5%. Significantly, more male students (22.8%) than female students (10.5%) were current smokers (p < 0.001). Among boys and girls, cigarette smoking was positively associated with (a) being male, (b) parental and/or peer smoking, and (c) the perception of risks. Among girls, cigarette smoking was positively associated with attitudes variables (i.e., having more friends among girls, attractiveness among boys and weight change) and various higher exposures to smoking advertising and promotion activities. However, anti-smoking advertising and community and family education were positively associated with current smoking, while only having school or community special groups or classes for students who want to stop smoking was protective of smoking. Cigarette smoking and other tobacco use is a significant public health problem in South Africa. Public health efforts aimed to prevent adolescent cigarette/tobacco use should incorporate knowledge on the associated factors related to smoking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Family Smoking Prevention and Control Act gave the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) legal authority to mandate graphic warning labels on cigarette advertising and packaging. The FDA requires that these graphic warning labels be embedded into cigarette advertising and packaging by September 2012. Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine differences in recall and viewing patterns of text-only versus graphic cigarette warning labels and the association between viewing patterns and recall. Methods: Participants (current daily smokers; N=200) were randomized to view a cigarette advertisement with either text-only or graphic warning labels. Viewing patterns were measured using eye-tracking, and recall was later assessed. Sessions were conducted between November 2008 and November 2009. Data analysis was conducted between March 2011 and July 2011. Results: There was a significant difference in percentage correct recall of the warning label between those in the text-only versus graphic warning label condition, 50% vs 83% (χ2=23.74, p=0.0001). Time to first viewing of the graphic warning label text and dwell time duration (i.e., time spent looking) on the graphic image were significantly associated with correct recall. Warning labels that drew attention more quickly and resulted in longer dwell times were associated with better recall. Conclusions: Graphic warning labels improve smokers'' recall of warning and health risks; these labels do so by drawing and holding attention. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Exposure to tobacco advertisement is associated with smoking initiation among the youth, its elimination is a key objective to effectively curb the tobacco epidemic. Historically, the tobacco industry has pioneered the use of new communication technologies to keep and expand their market. Nowadays, Internet and video games have transcended the entertainment sphere, becoming significant media for massive communication and providing new opportunities for advertisement. The present essay reviews the existing literature on tobacco presence in the Internet and video games to define research and policy tasks required to develop effective means for tobacco advertisement regulation and control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An essay is presented on the histories of advertising campaigns and the richness and strategies of critique in composing histories through objects. It shows that the campaign of New York brand cigarettes hinges on its conservative orientation and fleeting existence, while Daqianmen and White Gold Dragon brand cigarettes endorse the modern idea of social development and opportunity. The author discusses Walter Benjamin's angel of history and advertising in the modern urban Chinese object world.

Objective: The Turkish anti-tobacco law was accepted and effectuated in 1996. All forms of cigarette advertising, the sale of tobacco products to persons under the age of 18 and smoking in public institutions were all restricted. In this paper, we aimed to evaluate the influence of the Turkish antitobacco law on children for the periods before the law, after three years and after 10 years. Material and Methods: A self-completed questionnaire was distributed among primary school children. This included questions about the children's smoking habits, their opinions of parents' and teachers' smoking habits, tobacco use in public places and the recognition rate of 16 food, drink, cigarette and toothpaste logos and brand names. The first, second and third applications of the questionnaire were performed with students who attended the same classes in the same primary schools, accounting for 772 children in June 1996, 1,157 children in February 1999 and 719 children in June 2006. Results: When these three periods were evaluated, it could be seen that the prevalence of having smoked significantly decreased (13.9%, 4%, 2.2%, p<0.001), as did the rate of purchasing cigarettes within the past week (36.6%, 29.1%, 15.8%, p<0.001). The disagreement with parents' and teachers' smoking habits and tobacco usage in public places increased significantly (p<0.001), while the recognition rates of some cigarette brand names and logos significantly decreased, specifically with regards to Marlboro, Camel and Samsun (p<0.001). Conclusion: The Turkish anti-tobacco law has had a positive effect on primary school children in Edirne, and therefore could be a model for other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined Philadelphia Puerto Ricans' interpretations of the Surgeon General's warnings that appear on cigarette packaging and in advertisements. In-home family focus groups in which participants were asked to comment on magazine cigarette advertisements showed a great variety of interpretations of the legally mandated warning labels. These findings (a) corroborate and add to research in public health and communications regarding the possibility of wide variations in message interpretations and (b) support the call for public health messages to be carefully tested for effectiveness among different social groups. The article's focus on Puerto Ricans addresses the problem of misleading conclusions that can arise from aggregating all Latino subpopulations into one group. The use of a naturalistic setting to examine interpretations of messages about smoking departs from the experimental methods typically used for such research and provides new evidence that even a seemingly straightforward message can be interpreted in multiple ways. Understanding and addressing differences in message interpretation can guide public health campaigns aimed at reducing health disparities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article uses state-level US panel data to examine the effects of cigarette advertising on smoking. We disaggregate cigarette advertising into (1) print, (2) outdoor, (3) entertainment and (4) store. How does advertising persist over time across advertising media? Are there differences in effectiveness of advertising across different smoking rates? Results show that the price elasticity of cigarette demand is negative and within the range of recent estimates, whereas border price elasticities and income elasticities are positive. All elasticities, however, are uniquely sensitive to smoking rates, as is the effectiveness of the Master Settlement Agreement. Current aggregate advertising increases cigarette demand, whereas accompanying negative advertising takes hold in the third year. Upon disaggregation, current store advertising increases smoking in most cases. However, store advertising has a negative effect by the third year, especially in states with smoking rates at or above the median. Other advertising media have weak or no effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: How youth perceive marketing messages in sports is poorly understood. We evaluated whether youth perceive that the imagery of a specific sports marketing advertisement contained smoking-related messages. Methods: Twenty grade 7 to 11 classes (397 students) from two high schools in Montréal, Canada were recruited to participate in a cluster randomised single-blind controlled trial. Classes were randomly allocated to either a NIKE advertisement containing the phrase 'LIGHT IT UP' (n = 205) or to a neutral advertisement with smoking imagery reduced and the phrase replaced by 'GO FOR IT' (n = 192). The NIKE logo was removed from both advertisements. Students responded in class to a questionnaire asking open-ended questions about their perception of the messages in the ad. Reports relating to the appearance and text of the ad, and the product being promoted were evaluated. Results: Relative to the neutral ad, more students reported that the phrase 'LIGHT IT UP' was smoking-related (37.6% vs. 0.5%) and that other parts of the ad resembled smoking-related products (50.7% vs. 10.4%). The relative risk of students reporting that the NIKE ad promoted cigarettes was 4.41 (95% confidence interval: 2.64-7.36; P < 0.001). Conclusions: The unbranded imagery of an advertisement in a specific campaign aimed at promoting NIKE hockey products appears to have contained smoking-related messages. This particular marketing campaign may have promoted smoking. This suggests that the regulation of marketing to youth may need to be more tightly controlled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this case study was to experimentally manipulate the impact on arousal and recall of two characteristics frequently occurring in gruesome depictions of body parts in smoking cessation advertisements: the presence or absence of an external physical insult to the body part depicted; whether or not the image contains a clear figure/ground demarcation. Three hundred participants (46% male, 54% female; mean age 27.3 years, SD = 11.4) participated in a two-stage online study wherein they viewed and responded to a series of gruesome 4-s video images. Seventy-two video clips were created to provide a sample of images across the two conditions: physical insult versus no insult and clear figure/ground demarcation versus merged or no clear figure/ground demarcation. In stage one, participants viewed a randomly ordered series of 36 video clips and rated how 'confronting' they considered each to be. Seven days later (stage two), to test recall of each video image, participants viewed all 72 clips and were asked to identify those they had seen previously. Images containing a physical insult were consistently rated more confronting and were remembered more accurately than images with no physical insult. Images with a clear figure/ground demarcation were rated as no more confronting but were consistently recalled with greater accuracy than those with unclear figure/ground demarcation. Makers of gruesome health warning television advertisements should incorporate some form of physical insult and use a clear figure/ground demarcation to maximize image recall and subsequent potential advertising effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines how the sexual imagery in cigarette magazine advertisements changed as a result of the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement (MSA). After conducting a content analysis of 657 unduplicated cigarette ads from 1994 to 2003, our results revealed that cigarette advertisements featuring suggestive/partially clad female models increased significantly from the pre-MSA period (16.0%) to the post-MSA period (24.9%). In addition, we provide empirical evidence that there was an overall increase in sexually explicit cigarette advertising after the MSA. Several implications for policymakers are discussed in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tobacco studies indicate that health-related information in cigarette advertising leads consumers to underestimate the detrimental health effects of smoking and contributes to their smoking-related perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes. This study examined the frequencies and kinds of implicit health information in cigarette advertising across five distinct smoking eras covering the years 1954-2003. Analysis of 1,135 cigarette advertisements collected through multistage probability sampling of three popular consumer magazines found that the level of implicit health information (i.e., 'light' cigarette, cigarette pack color, verbal and visual health cues, cigarette portrayals, and human model-cigarette interaction) in post-Master Settlement Agreement [MSA] era ads is similar to the level in ads from early smoking eras. Specifically, 'light' cigarettes were frequently promoted, and presence of light colors in cigarette packs seemed dominant after the probroadcast ban era. Impressionistic verbal health cues (e.g., soft, mild, and refreshing) appeared more frequently in post-MSA era ads than in pre-MSA era ads. Most notably, a majority of the cigarette ads portrayed models smoking, lighting, or offering a cigarette to others. The potential impact of implicit health information is discussed in the contexts of social cognition and Social Cognitive Theory. Policy implications regarding our findings are also detailed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined a proposed mechanism by which exposure to cigarette advertising may mediate the subsequent smoking of youth. We hypothesized that children's exposure to cigarette advertising leads them to overestimate the prevalence of smoking, and that these distorted perceptions, in turn, lead to increased intentions to smoke. Children in Finland, where there has been a total tobacco advertising ban since 1978, were compared with children in the United States at a time when tobacco advertising was ubiquitous. Samples of 477 8- to 14-year-old Helsinki students and 453 8- to 14-year-old Los Angeles students whose lifetime cigarette use consisted of no more than a puff of a cigarette were administered questionnaires in their classrooms. The primary hypothesis was confirmed. Los Angeles youth were significantly more likely than Helsinki youth to overestimate the prevalence of adult smoking, in spite of the fact that actual adult smoking prevalence in Helsinki was almost twice that of Los Angeles adults. A similar, significant pattern for perceived peer smoking was obtained, with Los Angeles youth being more likely than Helsinki youth to overestimate prevalence, in spite of the actual greater prevalence of youth smoking in Helsinki. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims To assess the effect of an antismoking advertisement under real-world conditions. Design Quasi-experimental study. Setting/participants Multiplex cinema in Kiel, Germany; 4073 patrons were surveyed after having viewed a movie. Some 4005 patrons were ≥10 years old (28.7% between 10 and 17 years). A total of 654 subjects (16.3%) were smokers. Intervention In the intervention condition (weeks 1 and 3), a 30-second antismoking advertisement—accentuating long-term health consequences of smoking and promoting cessation—was shown prior to all movies; in the control condition (weeks 2 and 4) no such spot was shown. Main outcome measures (i) Awareness of smoking in the movie, (ii) approval of smoking in the movie, (iii) attitude towards smoking, (iv) intention to smoke in the future and (v) desire to smoke among smokers. Findings Patrons who were exposed to the antismoking advertisement were more likely to be female, but did not differ with respect to smoking status. After controlling for gender differences, patrons exposed to the antismoking advertisement had (i) higher awareness of smoking in the movies, (ii) lower levels of approval of smoking in the movies, and (iii) a more negative attitude towards smoking in general compared with those not exposed. Among smokers, smoking in the movies increased urge to smoke, but there was no interaction between smoking in the movies and experimental condition. Conclusions Study results suggest that placing an antismoking advertisement before movies can affect attitudes towards smoking, bolstering evidence in support of such policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Comunicação, Mídia e Consumo is the property of Escola Superior de Propaganda e Marketing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background: Although most agree that the association between tobacco marketing and youth smoking is causal, few studies have assessed the specificity of this association. Purpose: This study aims to examine the specificity of the association between cigarette advertising and teen smoking. Methods: A cross-sectional survey of 3415 German schoolchildren aged 10–17 years was conducted using masked images of six cigarette brands and eight other commercial products in 2008. The exposure variable was a combination of contact frequency (recognition) and brand names (cued recall). Sample quartile (Q) exposure to advertisement exposure was calculated in 2009. Outcome variables were ever tried and current (monthly) smoking, and susceptibility to smoking among never smokers. Results: The prevalence of ever smoking was 31.1% and that of current smoking was 7.4%, and 35.3% of never smokers were susceptible to smoking. Ad recognition rates ranged from 15% for a regionally advertised cigarette brand to 99% for a sweet. Lucky Strike and Marlboro were the most highly recognized cigarette brands (with ad recognition rates of 55% and 34%, respectively). After controlling for a range of established influences on smoking behaviors, the adjusted ORs for having tried smoking were 1.97 (95% CI=1.40, 2.77) for Q4 exposure to cigarette ads compared with adolescents in Q1, 2.90 (95% CI=1.48, 5.66) for current smoking, and 1.79 (95% CI=1.32, 2.43) for susceptibility to smoking among never smokers. Exposure to ads for commercial products other than cigarettes was significantly associated with smoking in crude but not multivariate models. Conclusions: This study underlines the specificity of the relationship between tobacco marketing and youth smoking, with exposure to cigarette ads, but not other ads, being associated with smoking behavior and intentions to smoke. This finding suggests a content-related effect of tobacco advertisements. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

CONTEXT: The 1998 Master Settlement Agreement (MSA) restricted tobacco industry advertising practices that targeted teens. OBJECTIVE: To assess whether cigarette-advertising campaigns conducted after the MSA continue to influence smoking among adolescents. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Participants were a national longitudinal cohort of 1036 adolescents (baseline age: 10-13 years) enrolled in a parenting study. Between 2003 and 2008, 5 sequential telephone interviews were conducted, including the participant's report of brand of "favorite" cigarette advertisement. The fifth interview was conducted after the start of RJ Reynolds' innovative "Camel No. 9" advertising campaign in 2007. Smoking outcome reported from the fifth survey. RESULTS: The response rate through the fifth survey was 71.8%. Teenagers who reported any favorite cigarette ad at baseline (mean age: 11.7 years) were 50% more likely to have smoked by the fifth interview (adjusted odds ratio: 1.5 [95% confidence interval: 1.0-2.31). For boys, the proportion with a favorite ad was stable across all 5 surveys, as it was for girls across the first 4 surveys. However, after the start of the Camel No.9 advertising campaign,the proportion of girls who reported a favorite ad increased by 10 percentage points, to 44%. The Camel brand accounted almost entirely for this increase, and the proportion of each genderthat nominated the Marlboro brand remained relatively stable. CONCLUSIONS: After the MSA, adolescents continued to be responsive to cigarette advertising, and those who were responsive were more likely to start smoking. Recent RJ Reynolds advertising may be effectively targeting adolescent girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Increased exposure to cigarette advertisements is associated with increases in adolescent smoking but the reasons for this association are not well established. This study evaluated whether self-concept development (operationalized as level of self-conflict) and identifying with the models used in cigarette print advertising contributed to smoking intentions among adolescents. Ninety-five adolescents (ages 11–17) participated in this two session study. In session 1, they rated the extent to which they identified with the models used in 10 current cigarette print ads (the models were isolated digitally from the cigarette advertisements) and their level of self-conflict was assessed. In session 2, participants viewed each of the 10 cigarette advertisements from which the models were drawn and rated their intentions to smoke following exposure to each ad. Model identification was associated with similar levels of post ad exposure smoking intentions for both younger and older adolescents when they also exhibited no self-conflict. A contrasting set of findings emerged for younger and older adolescents when they exhibited high levels of self-conflict: Young adolescents who strongly identified with the models used in cigarette advertisements had higher post ad exposure smoking intentions compared to younger adolescents who weakly identified with the models used in the advertisements; in contrast, older adolescents who weakly identified with the models used in cigarette advertisements had stronger post ad exposure smoking intentions compared to older adolescents who strongly identified with the models used in the advertisements. These results point to the importance of examining developmentally-relevant moderators for the effects of cigarette advertising exposure. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study tests the extent to which people’s different conceptions of peers have differential effects on college students’ smoking intention. These prominent peer perceptions (i.e., descriptive and injunctive norms, perceived positive and negative media influence on peers) are drawn from normative theories in social psychology and communication literature. Analysis of a cross-sectional survey among current nonsmokers (N = 519) suggests that injunctive norms and perceived influence of cigarette ads on peers seem to be significant predictors of college students’ smoking intention. In addition, the roles of peer perceptions appear significant only for those who thought about ‘‘close peers,’’ which supports the peer proximity hypothesis. Respondents’ self-reported exposure to cigarette ads (but not antismoking campaigns) appears to have indirect effects on their smoking intention by forming perceptions that their peers are influenced by cigarette ads. Theoretical, methodological, and practical implications are further discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Although the use of a geographical information systems (GIS) approach is usually applied to epidemiological disease outbreaks and environmental exposure mapping, it has significant potential as a tobacco control research tool in monitoring point-of-purchase (POP) tobacco advertising. DESIGN: An ecological study design approach was applied so as to primarily evaluate and interpret the spatial density and intensity of POP and tobacco industry advertisements within <300 m to high schools in Greece with the application of GIS methodology combining mapping, photographing and global positioning data. RESULTS: The GIS approach identified 133 POP and 44 billboards within 300 m of the school gates of Heraklion schools. On average 13 POP (range 4–21) and 4.4 billboards (range 1–9) were located per school, and all had at least 1 POP within 20 m of the school gate. On average (SD) 9 (6) tobacco advertisements per POP (range 0–25) were noted, and 80% of them were below child height. The GIS protocol identified that kiosks, that were excepted from the Greek ban on tobacco advertising, in comparison to other POP, were found not only to be closer and visible from the school gates (44.1% vs 10.8%, p<0.001) but were also found to have more external advertisements (8 (5) vs 5 (3), p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the effectiveness of a GIS system in monitoring tobacco industry advertising on a large population-based scale and implies its use as a standardised method for monitoring tobacco industry strategies and tobacco control efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: To assess the influence of point-of-sale (POS) cigarette displays on unplanned purchases. METHODS: Intercept interviews were conducted with customers observed purchasing cigarettes from retail outlets featuring POS cigarette displays. Measures included intention to purchase cigarettes prior to entering the store, unprompted and prompted salience of POS tobacco displays, urge to buy cigarettes as a result of seeing the POS display, brand switching and support for a ban on POS cigarette displays. RESULTS: In total, 206 daily smokers aged 18–76 years (90 male, 116 female) were interviewed. Unplanned cigarette purchases were made by 22% of participants. POS displays influenced nearly four times as many unplanned purchases as planned purchases (47% vs 12%, p<0.01). Brand switching was reported among 5% of participants, half of whom were influenced by POS displays. Four times as many smokers were supportive of a ban on POS tobacco displays than unsupportive (49% vs 12%), and 28% agreed that such a ban would make it easier to quit. CONCLUSIONS: POS tobacco displays act as a form of advertising even in the absence of advertising materials. They stimulate unplanned cigarette purchases, play an important role in brand selection and tempt smokers trying to quit. This justifies removing POS tobacco displays from line of sight—something that very few smokers in our sample would object to. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: African countries are a major potential market for the tobacco industry, and the smoking epidemic is at various stages of evolution across the continent. Ghana is an African country with a low prevalence of smoking despite an active tobacco industry presence for over 50 years. This study explores potential reasons for this apparent lack of industry success. OBJECTIVE: To explore the history of tobacco industry activity in Ghana and to identify potential reasons for the current low prevalence of smoking. METHODS: A search was made of tobacco industry archives and other local sources to obtain data relevant to marketing and consumption of tobacco in Ghana. FINDINGS: British American Tobacco, and latterly the International Tobacco Company and its successor the Meridian Tobacco Company, have been manufacturing cigarettes in Ghana since 1954. After an initial sales boom in the two decades after independence in 1957, the sustained further increases in consumption typical of the tobacco epidemic in most countries did not occur. Possible key reasons include the taking of tobacco companies into state ownership and a lack of foreign exchange to fund tobacco leaf importation in the 1970s, both of which may have inhibited growth at a key stage of development, and the introduction of an advertising ban in 1982. BAT ceased manufacturing cigarettes in Ghana in 2006. CONCLUSION: The tobacco industry has been active in Ghana for over 50 years but with variable success. The combination of an early advertising ban and periods of unfavourable economic conditions, which may have restricted industry growth, are likely to have contributed to the sustained low levels of tobacco consumption in Ghana to date. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: The international trend towards comprehensive bans on tobacco advertising has seen the tobacco industry become increasingly innovative in its approach to marketing. Further fuelling this innovation is the rapid evolution and accessibility of web-based technology. The internet, as a relatively unregulated marketing environment, provides many opportunities for tobacco companies to pursue their promotional ambitions. METHODS: In this paper, "open source marketing" is considered as a vehicle that has been appropriated by the tobacco industry, through a case study of efforts to design the packaging for the Camel Signature Blends range of cigarettes. Four sources are used to explore this case study including a marketing literature search, a web-based content search via the Google search engine, interviews with advertising trade informants and an analysis of the Camel brand website. RESULTS: RJ Reynolds (RJR) has proven to be particularly innovative in designing cigarette packaging. RJR engaged with thousands of consumers through their Camel brand website to design four new cigarette flavours and packages. While the Camel Signature Blends packaging designs were subsequently modified for the retail market due to problems arising with their cartoon-like imagery, important lessons arise on how the internet blurs the line between marketing and market research. CONCLUSIONS: Open source marketing has the potential to exploit advertising ban loopholes and stretch legal definitions in order to generate positive word of mouth about tobacco products. There are also lessons in the open source marketing movement for more effective tobacco control measures including interactive social marketing campaigns and requiring plain packaging of tobacco products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: China currently does not have comprehensive laws or regulations on tobacco advertising and promotion, although it ratified the World Health Organization (WHO) Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) in October 2005 and promised to ban all tobacco advertising by January 2011. Much effort is needed to monitor the current situation of tobacco advertising and promotion in China. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to examine levels of awareness of tobacco advertising and promotion among smokers in China as compared to other countries with different levels of restrictions. METHODS: One developing country (Thailand) and two developed countries (Australia and the USA) were selected for comparison. All four countries are part of the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Policy Evaluation Survey project. Between 2005 and 2006, parallel ITC surveys were conducted among adult smokers (at least smoked weekly) in China (n = 4763), Thailand (n = 2000), Australia (n = 1767) and the USA (n = 1780). Unprompted and prompted recall of noticing tobacco advertising and promotion were measured. RESULTS: Chinese respondents reported noticing tobacco advertisements in a range of channels and venues, with highest exposure levels on television (34.5%), billboards (33.4%) and in stores (29.2%). A quarter of respondents noticed tobacco sponsorships, and a high level of awareness of promotion was reported. Cross-country comparison reveals that overall reported awareness was significantly higher in China than in Thailand (particularly) and Australia, but lower than in the USA. CONCLUSIONS: There is a big gap between China and the better-performing countries such as Thailand and Australia regarding tobacco promotion restrictions. China needs to do more, including enhanced policy and more robust enforcement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This experiment investigated three levels of threat in cigarette warning labels: no warning/text warning only/text + graphic warning. Teenagers in Canada and the US were exposed to one of these labels in a web-surfing environment. Participants surfed a website sponsored by a familiar cigarette brand or an unfamiliar cigarette brand. After surfing, three dependent measures were assessed: brand attitude, website attitude, and smoking intent. Results indicated that the graphic label was the most effective for Canadian participants, leading to negative attitudes and lower smoking intentions, but the graphic label was least effective at lowering smoking intentions for US participants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The effect of advertising on cigarette demand has been widely studied. Yet the demand-advertising nexus is not completely understood and there is little consensus in the literature. This paper sheds new light on the issue by examining the relationship using state-level data for the United States over three decades. Additional contributions include examining the effects of the Master Settlement Agreement, and studying the dynamic effects of advertising and smoking. Findings show that U.S. cigarette demand is inelastic, the income effects are mixed, advertising elasticities are relatively small, post-MSA advertising seems smoking-reducing and that the full effects of the MSA are probably still unfolding. Smoking habits tend to linger, while the effects of antismoking messages accompanying cigarette advertisements take time to be effective. Policy implications are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

BACKGROUND: Tobacco advertising in Indonesia is among the most aggressive and innovative in the world, and tobacco advertisements saturate the environment. Tobacco companies are politically and financially powerful in the country because they are one of the largest sources of government revenue. As a result, there are few restrictions on tobacco marketing and advertising. National surveys reveal that 62% of men and 1% to 3% of women are smokers. Over 90% of smokers smoke clove cigarettes (kretek). This paper examines the social and cultural reasons for smoking in Indonesia and discusses how the tobacco industry reads, reproduces and works with culture as a means of selling cigarettes. An analysis is provided of how kretek tobacco companies represent themselves as supporters of Indonesian national identity. This analysis is used to identify strategies to break the chains of positive association that currently support widespread smoking. METHODS: Between November 2001 and March 2007, tobacco advertisements were collected from a variety of sources, including newspapers and magazines. Frequent photographic documentation was made of adverts on billboards and in magazines. Advertisements were segmented into thematic units to facilitate analysis. In all, 30 interviews were conducted with smokers to explore benefits and risks of smoking, perceptions of advertisements and brand preferences. Focus groups (n = 12) were conducted to explore and pretest counter advertisements. RESULTS: Key themes were identified in tobacco advertisements including control of emotions, smoking to enhance masculinity and smoking as a means to uphold traditional values while simultaneously emphasising modernity and globalisation. Some kretek advertisements are comprised of indirect commentaries inviting the viewer to reflect on the political situation and one’s position in society. CONCLUSIONS: After identifying key cultural themes in cigarette advertisements, our research group is attempting to engage the tobacco industry on "cultural ground" to reduce consumption and social acceptability. To do this, we need to take back social spaces that the tobacco industry has laid claim to through advertising. Active monitoring and surveillance of tobacco advertising strategies is necessary and legislation and enforcement to curb the industry should be put in place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on the impact of antismoking advertisements in countermarketing cigarette advertising is equivocal. Although many studies examined how different message appeal types influence people's attitudes and behavior, there have been few studies that have explored the mechanism of how individuals attend to and remember antismoking information. This study examined how message attributes of antismoking TV ads (frame, appeal type, and outcome extremity) interacted to influence people's attention (secondary task reaction time) and memory (recognition). Antismoking public service announcements were chosen that were either loss- or gain-framed, had either a health or social appeal, or had either a more or less extreme outcome described in the message. Among the key findings were that loss-framed messages with more extreme outcomes required the most processing resources (i.e., had the slowest secondary task reaction times) and were the best remembered (i.e., were best recognized). These findings indicate ways that different message attributes affect individuals' cognitive processing, and they are discussed in light of prior framing and persuasion research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVES: To examine the concurrent effects of exposure to movie smoking and tobacco marketing receptivity on adolescent smoking onset and progression. METHODS: Cross-sectional study of 4524 northern New England adolescents aged 10–14 in 1999 with longitudinal follow-up of 2603 baseline never-smokers. Cross-sectional outcomes included ever tried smoking and higher level of lifetime smoking among 784 experimenters. The longitudinal outcome was onset of smoking among baseline never-smokers two years later. Movie smoking exposure was modelled as four population quartiles, tobacco marketing receptivity included two levels—having a favourite tobacco advert and wanting/owning tobacco promotional items. All analyses controlled for sociodemographics, other social influences, personality characteristics of the adolescent and parenting style. RESULTS: In the full cross-sectional sample, 17.5% had tried smoking; both exposure to movie smoking and receptivity to tobacco marketing were associated with having tried smoking. Among experimental smokers, the majority (64%) were receptive to tobacco marketing, which had a multivariate association with higher level of lifetime smoking (movie smoking did not). In the longitudinal study 9.5% of baseline never-smokers tried smoking at follow-up. Fewer never-smokers (18.5%) were receptive to tobacco marketing. Movie smoking had a multivariate association with trying smoking (receptivity to tobacco marketing did not). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest separate roles for entertainment media and tobacco marketing on adolescent smoking. Both exposures deserve equal emphasis from a policy standpoint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study addresses two questions: (1) when youths are exposed to advertisements for cigarettes, do they primarily see advertisements for brands or products, and (2) is there a relationship between youths'' understandings of cigarette advertisements and their susceptibility to smoking? A sample of 271 participants ranging in age from 7 to 12 viewed a series of print advertisements that included cigarette and non-tobacco-related ads. While viewing each ad, participants were asked to indicate what they thought the advertisement was trying to sell. Responses were coded into one of three categories reflecting important differences in participants'' comprehension of each advertisement — no understanding, product category understanding, or brand understanding. Results show that youths typically understand the type of product an advertisement is promoting; however, the levels of brand understanding observed for cigarette advertisements were low in an absolute sense, and significantly lower than brand understanding of non-tobacco-related advertisements. Results also show that understanding cigarette ads as promoting specific brands of cigarettes is positively related to susceptibility to smoking. Taken together, these findings provide a glimpse of the psychological mechanisms that may underlie the well established link between exposure to cigarette advertising and youth smoking. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: To examine the quantity (density) and location (proximity) of tobacco outlets and retail cigarette advertising in high school neighborhoods and their association with school smoking prevalence. Methods: Data from the 135 high schools that participated in the 2005–2006 California Student Tobacco Survey were combined with retailer licensing data about the location of tobacco outlets within walking distance (1/2 mi or 805 m) of the schools and with observations about the quantity of cigarette advertising in a random sample of those stores (n =384). Multiple regressions, adjusting for school and neighborhood demographics, tested the associations of high school smoking prevalence with the density of tobacco outlets and retail cigarette advertising and with the proximity of tobacco outlets to schools. Results: The prevalence of current smoking was 3.2 percentage points higher at schools in neighborhoods with the highest tobacco outlet density (>5 outlets) than in neighborhoods without any tobacco outlets. The density of retail cigarette advertising in school neighborhoods was similarly associated with high school smoking prevalence. However, neither the presence of a tobacco outlet within 1000 ft of a high school nor the distance to the nearest tobacco outlet from school was associated with smoking prevalence. Conclusions: Policy efforts to reduce adolescent smoking should aim to reduce the density of tobacco outlets and retail cigarette advertising in school neighborhoods. This may be achieved through local zoning ordinances, including limiting the proximity of tobacco outlets to schools. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• This study investigates the continuing effects of tobacco marketing communications in a post advertising era, focusing on the constructs of brand awareness, brand image, attitude formation and intention to smoke by adolescents. • A conceptual model is presented, based on 926 respondents from a UK wide study, to assess brand-related interrelationships and influences of peers on adolescents' attitudes toward smoking and intention to smoke. • Results show the strong influence of branding on both attitude and intention, and have implications for government anti-smoking policies specifically in regard to generic packaging and point of sale displays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement (MSA) between tobacco companies and forty-six states banned targeting youth through advertising and promotions, it did not designate specific visual imagery restrictions for magazine advertisements. While several studies have examined the MSA's effect on cigarette advertising expenditures in magazines and exposure of youth to such advertisements, this study provides a descriptive account of changes in the visually oriented content of cigarette advertisements in two popular youth magazines before and after the MSA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reviews the history of the introduction and use of light and mild labeled cigarettes in Japan, the “lightest” market in the world. Systematic keyword and opportunistic Web site searches were conducted on tobacco industry internal documents relevant to Japan, supplemented with relevant material from the tobacco trade and sociological literatures. Certain “market quirks” of the Japanese society benefited the tobacco industry in promoting its light and mild cigarettes. Japan's is a trend-conscious society with a penchant for new fashion and products. The Japanese are innovative, with the propensity to transform concepts into something characteristically their own marked by a distinct cultural style, such as the concept of keihaku tansho (“light-thin-short-small”). With big-budget sophisticated advertising, tobacco companies developed a lucrative market for mild, light, and ultra-low-tar cigarettes. Smokers had a preference for charcoal filters, which they believed protected them. Tar numbers meant little to smokers. The transnational tobacco companies capitalized on consumer concerns about the health hazards of smoking to promote low-tar cigarettes as a safer alternative. This may be one factor that explains why smoking prevalence in Japan remains high. Light and mild cigarettes are popular in Japan because Japanese smokers believe low tar/nicotine cigarette with charcoal filters protect them and help mollify their health concerns about smoking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To explore young adult smokers' construction of meaning and identity in accounts of cigarette brands and cigarette package design, and the processes by which positive associations with a brand may be reinforced and sustained. Methods: Qualitative in-depth interviews with 21 smokers aged 18-23 in Norway, where advertising for tobacco has been banned since 1975. Results: Cigarette brand and cigarette package design appear as an integrated part of young smokers' constructions of smoker identities, enabling the communication of personal characteristics, social identity and positions in hierarchies of status. Conclusion: Through branding and package design tobacco companies appear to be able to promote their products in a country where advertising is banned, by means of similar principles that make advertising effective: by creating preferences, differentiation and identification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cigarette companies spend more of their marketing dollars in stores than in any other venue. In 2005, they spent 88% of a total of $13.1 billion to advertise and promote product sales in stores. Aim: The purposes of this study were to identify how the amount and types of cigarette advertising and sales promotions have changed in stores in California between 2002 and 2005, and to assess neighbourhood influences on cigarette marketing in stores. Methods: Four observational assessments of cigarette advertising were conducted in approximately 600 California stores that sold cigarettes from 2002 to 2005. Trained observers collected data on the amount and type of cigarette advertising, including signs, product shelving and displays and functional items, and presence of sales promotions on these items. Longitudinal analyses were performed to estimate trends over time and identify correlates of change in the amount and type of tobacco advertising. Results: The mean number of cigarette advertisements per store increased over time from 22.7 to 24.9. The percentage of stores with at least one advert for a sales promotion increased from 68% to 80%. The amount of advertising and proportion of stores with sales promotions increased more rapidly in stores situated in neighbourhoods with a higher proportion of African--Americans. Conclusion: The results indicate increasing use of stores to market and promote cigarette sales. Further, these increases are disproportionately accelerating in neighbourhoods with more African--Americans. Legislative strategies should be pursued to control the marketing of tobacco products and promotional strategies used to reduce prices in stores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. In 2002, the First Conference on Menthol Cigarettes brought together researchers from diverse backgrounds to summarize what is known about menthol cigarettes and the people who smoke them, and to identify areas of needed research on menthol cigarettes. Since the conference, PubMed reports 24 articles, including the conference proceedings, on menthol cigarettes and African Americans. Many of the articles address epidemiological or biomedical topics. While there has been some focus on social influences and marketing issues, more research and a greater focus on this topic are needed. Design. To stimulate research on a population disproportionately burdened by the health effects of smoking, we conducted small-group discussions in 2005 with adult African American smokers in Atlanta, Georgia. Each group discussion focused on a different topic: smoking behavior and preferences, perceptions of social influences, health effects and perceived harmfulness of menthol, quitting menthol cigarette smoking, or the influence of marketing and advertising of menthol cigarettes. Results. Themes emerged from the discussions: (1) emulation of black culture by white youth and racial integration of neighborhoods and communities may have modified the perception that African Americans smoke menthol cigarettes and whites smoke non-menthol cigarettes; (2) non-menthol cigarette smokers were thought to be 'hardcore' smokers with less interest in quitting; (3) switching to non-menthol cigarettes was discussed as a way of quitting cigarettes for habitual menthol smokers; and, (4) smoking menthol cigarettes was thought to lead to fewer negative health effects. Conclusion. Some topics suggested by the participants warrant further investigation. More research is needed to assess the pervasiveness of these beliefs and their potential utility for smoking cessation interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand adolescents' smoking behavior by analyzing retrospective sell'- ratings of the reasons encouraging them to take up smoking. Method: Participating in the study were 883 students (373 boys) of elementary and secondary schools in Kosice, Slovak Republic (74.9% of adolescents in the sample reported having experience with smoking). Smoking status and reasons for taking up smoking were measured using questionnaires. Results: Boys and girls ranked as the most important reasons for taking up smoking novelty, curiosity, peer influence and enjoyment seeking. Significant effect of grade was found in boys' ratings of peer influence, parental influence, relaxation in social situation, older siblings' influence and media advertising, but no significant effect of grade was found in girls' ratings with the exception of media advertising. Significant effect of smoking status was found in boys' ratings of every reason for taking up smoking, and for girls' ratings of every reason except curiosity, parental influence and rebelliousness. Effective prevention strategies encouraging non-smokers to fulfill such urges as curiosity, novelty- and enjoyment-seeking in ways other than by smoking, need to be developed and implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reliably identifying the causal factors underlying youth smoking initiation is an important part of developing effective smoking prevention programs and shaping other types of smoking-related policies. The establishment of reliable scientific evidence in support of a causal link between cigarette advertising and youth smoking initiation depends on both rich longitudinal data as well as careful empirical applications. We examine basic principles of empirical scientific investigation of potential causal relationships, discuss findings of recent research on causal factors of youth smoking, and evaluate evidence from the public health literature regarding the effects of cigarette advertising on youth smoking. ( JEL I18, C5) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the impact of cigarette ads on under age youth. The objective of the study is analyze the perception of tobacco brands as influenced by the publicity that it produces. The researchers first undertook a study to compare the brands that were most recognized by adolescents with the most popular ones that they purchased. The study found that young smokers tended to identify with the so-called ideology of the brand that they tended to buy most often and has shown that identification is an integral part in cigarette advertising campaigns.

Objective: To describe adult smokers' reactions to PREP print advertisements and promotional materials. Methods: Focus groups with adult smokers. Participants reacted to print advertisements and promotional materials for Omni®, Accord®, Advance Lights®, Ariva®, and Eclipse®. Results: Images and text in PREP product advertising and promotional materials influence participants' decision to try PREPs. Participants believed the PREP ads target smokers who are trying to quit or smokers who are health conscious. Conclusion: Tracking and monitoring the reactions of smokers to novel products, their perceptions about them, and their use of these products are necessary for the design of effective health communication strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Federal District Judge Gladys Kessler found that the major American tobacco companies violated the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, defrauding the public by deceptively marketing "light" cigarettes. Judge Kessler's ruling prohibits the defendant tobacco companies from implying health benefits through using misleading terms such as "light", "mild" or "low-tar", or through other indirect means. This ruling could be interpreted narrowly as simply prohibiting certain words, or could be interpreted broadly as prohibiting implying health benefits by any other means, including colour, numbers or images. It is important to include indirect communications, as tobacco companies easily circumvent narrow advertising bans. A narrow interpretation would be inconsistent with the court's comprehensive factual findings of fraudulent intent by the industry. A broad interpretation of the Order, including existing brands, line extensions and new tobacco products such as potential reduced exposure products that are marketed as "cigarettes", Judge Kessler's order could make a substantial contribution to protecting health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]