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Investigations of working memory advantages in bilinguals yield inconsistent findings. Even less is known about how the addition of languages beyond two (multilingualism) may affect working memory. Due to their experience with managing multiple languages, it is possible that multilinguals may be more practised in the use of their working memories. This exploratory study investigated whether multilingualism in three or more languages contributes to working memory ability. Participants were South African multilinguals with good to excellent proficiency in English and two or more African languages. The study investigated the influence of balanced proficiency across the participants' languages, number of languages spoken, age of acquisition of additional languages, percentage exposure to each language, intelligence, gender and socioeconomic status on the components of working memory (verbal STM, verbal processing, visuospatial STM and visuospatial processing). Results suggest that the addition of a third language has a negative effect on visuospatial working memory, that modality (verbal or nonverbal) and type of working memory tests are influential and that nonverbal intelligence exerts the most consistent and largest influence. The results are interpreted within the context of the contention surrounding the existence of bilingual advantages in working memory, and debates concerning working memory structure in adults.

Recent calls encourage teacher education programs to examine how they address equity within educational technology coursework. This study therefore conceptualizes equity specifically related to using digital tools with multilingual learners. Drawing on a technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) framework informed by prior research on (language) teacher education and computer-assisted language learning, this study examines how preservice teachers described their knowledge base specifically related to using digital tools equitably with multilingual learners. Qualitative analysis of 17 preservice teachers' course discussions, assignments, and interviews revealed that preservice teachers purposefully reflected on and selected digital tools to use that would support students' language development and leverage students' interests. They also reflected on structural inequities and advocacy related to technological implementation. This study encourages teacher educators to support preservice teachers in developing technologically savvy practices that are also linguistically responsive and humanizing by centering equity in TPACK.

This study examines L2 speakers' accent attitudes in relation to their linguistic profile and current practices, recruiting 107 multilingual postgraduate students of 34 different nationalities enrolled in leading research universities in Japan. The participants completed a survey regarding their perceptions of different English varieties in English as a lingua franca (ELF) contexts. Interviews were additionally conducted to solicit in-depth perspectives on their accent attitudes and contextual accent variation. Factor analysis of the survey data generally supported the thematic trends observed during the interviews, in which three-quarters of the interviewees expressed a wish to attain native-like English accents. However, those who aspire to native-like pronunciation do not necessarily maintain negative attitudes towards others who speak with foreign accents. Rather, they appear indifferent to others' accents and varieties of World Englishes, and they do not associate their accents with nationhood or cultural identity. Thematic analysis of the interview data revealed that participants' pressing need to sound native-like stems from not only pragmatic considerations such as better intelligibility but also their context specificities, which entail frequent high-stakes ELF interaction and arrangements for professional entry in the imminent future. These observations imply that a linguistic hierarchy still lingers in the World Englishes paradigm.

In light of Chinese language diversity, it is important for Mandarin teachers to demonstrate an accurate understanding of language variation and critical pedagogy, empowering and embracing all emergent bilingual students and incorporating recognition of those learners whose heritage languages are alternative Chinese varieties. While Standard Mandarin is often referred to as 'Chinese', other varieties are usually called 'fangyán' or 'dialects', a misleading translation causing confusion in both public and educational fora. In this study, I investigated pre- and in-service Mandarin Chinese teachers' developing language and teaching ideologies regarding Chinese varieties in the U.S. context. Participants were 30 Chinese natives from a graduate language education programme in the United States. They represented three Mandarin teaching stages: beginning and advanced-stage students, and recent graduates teaching Mandarin in the field. Data came from 60 semi-structured interviews, two with each participant. Framed by constructivist grounded theory and viewed through the lens of critical theory, results revealed participants' complex ideologies and their evolution across the three developmental stages related to sociolinguistic notions regarding Chinese varieties. Participants' views about teaching often reflected the realities of the educational and social cultures in which they participated, revealing the importance of acquiring a strong foundation in sociolinguistics.

This study explored 17 bilingual teacher candidates' (bilingual TCs) representations of their lived experience of language via linguistic portraits. Specifically, attention was paid to the semiotic elements (space, place, time, and the body) these bilingual TCs employed and the ways this assemblage of elements formed raciolinguistic chronotopes. Analysis demonstrates that raciolinguistic chronotopes enabled bilingual TCs to portray their experiences of racialization as Spanish-English bilinguals in the United States. Analysis also shows the ways these TCs often vacillate between adhering to and challenging raciolinguistic ideologies. Findings have implications for how language portraits are utilized as a teacher learning tool in teacher education programs serving bilingual TCs of Latina/o descent.

This qualitative case study examines how one bilingual teacher draws on their critical consciousness to support immigrant students and their families. Drawing on the construct of conscientization, I argue praxis is the embodiment of critical consciousness through acts of responsiveness and actions educators enact to rewrite unjust spaces and practices. Case findings point to the teacher's approach and commitment were rooted in praxis and revealed how the embodiment of their critical consciousness worked to rewrite contexts where anti-immigrant practices took place. Additionally, case findings provide a framework for examining activist literacies as transformative acts in the reimagining and rewriting of unjust spaces.

The present study examines the effectiveness of play therapy (based on the cognitive-behavioural approach) and puppet play therapy in expressive\ receptive language disorders of the studied population. Here, we imported 45 female bilingual preschool children to our research. Their expressive\ receptive language disorders have been approved previously based on our criteria and randomly divided into two experimental and control groups. In the pre-test stages, all participants completed The language development test (TOLD3) to evaluate expressive\ receptive language disorders. During the intervention, the experimental groups received the educational play therapy programme and puppet play therapy, while the control group did not receive any intervention. After the intervention, all groups were examined again in the post-test stages. Our findings demonstrated that cognitive-behavioural play therapy is more significantly effective than puppet play therapy in improving expressive \ receptive language disorders.

The goal of the present study was to investigate the performance of four Filipino--English bilingual kindergarteners with language difficulties on a dynamic assessment of English narratives. Using a multiple case-study design, we examined the children's modifiability by detailing their responsiveness, level of skill transfer, and the amount and type of effort the examiner expended during two mediation sessions. We also assessed the children's narrative skills using the Test of Narrative Language--second edition (TNL-2). During mediation, similarities among the four children included difficulty answering wh-questions, little transfer of the newly learned skills, frequent focus on the story problem, and the need for continual prompting and repetition. However, the children showed individual learning styles, behavior when learning, and learning potential, prompting the examiner to apply different strategies to support their individual abilities. Gains on the TNL-2 were also negligible, consistent with the modifiability findings, apart from one child who showed improvement in comprehension scores. The case studies provide novel information regarding the narrative skills of Filipino bilingual children with language difficulties, an under-researched population. They can help guide expectations of such children during a dynamic assessment and suggest mediation strategies that clinicians could incorporate into their practice with other groups of bilingual children.

Purpose: This study investigated the reading profiles of middle school Spanish-speaking emergent bilinguals (EBs) with significantly below grade level reading comprehension and whether these profiles varied in their reading comprehension performance over time. Method: Latent profile analyses were used to classify Grade 6 and 7 Hispanic EBs (n = 340; 39% female) into subgroups based on their word reading and vocabulary knowledge. Growth models were then fit within each profile to evaluate reading comprehension performance over time. Results: Analyses revealed four latent profiles emerged: (a) very low word reading and low vocabulary (10%), (b) low word reading and low vocabulary (71%), (c) average word reading and low vocabulary (16%), and (d) high word reading and low vocabulary (3%). Subgroups varied in their reading comprehension initially and over one year. Students in the subgroup marked by very low word reading and low vocabulary showed the lowest reading comprehension performance initially; however, they also showed the greatest growth over one year. Conclusion: These findings suggest that there is heterogeneity in the reading skill profiles of Spanish-speaking EBs with reading comprehension difficulties. They also underscore the prevalence of word reading difficulties among these students. These may be important factors to consider when developing interventions to prevent and remediate these difficulties.

The goal of this pilot study was to test a bilingual interactive read-aloud intervention designed to develop the oral language proficiency of three-year-old dual language learners (DLLs). The eight-week intervention--Cultivating Oral Language and Literacy Talent in Students (COLLTS)--was aligned with the Head Start Early Learning Outcomes Framework and consisted of evidence-based instructional methods; resources for teachers and students that supported teachers in enacting these methods; professional development related to the methods and resources; and family literacy activities. Control teachers were given the same books as the treatment teachers to read to their students but were not provided with all of the professional development and any of the other COLLTS resources. The study was implemented in 22 classrooms in seven Head Start centers in a large city in the southern United States. Data were collected to assess students' language outcomes, teacher fidelity, and family participation. Findings indicated gains on a short receptive measure of instructed vocabulary, but no significant differences between treatment and control DLLs on that measure. Findings also indicated significantly greater gains for treatment DLLs compared with control DLLs in semantic knowledge measured by oral narrative retellings coded using language sample analysis; high levels of parent involvement and family satisfaction; and significantly greater gains in student's vocabulary knowledge for more engaged treatment families.

Purpose: This study investigated the longitudinal, cross-linguistic developmental relationships of phonological awareness (PA), letter identification (letter ID), and morphological awareness (MA) in 71 heritage Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) in kindergarten and second grade. Method: Multiple linear regression was used to test if kindergarten Spanish and English PA (sound elision and sound matching) and letter ID significantly predicted later English MA (oral derived word stress judgment, oral derivational morpheme blending, written derived word decomposition, and morphologically complex word spelling) performance in second grade. Results: Cross-linguistically, the PA skill of sound matching in kindergarten was the most reliable predictor of MA in second grade for Spanish-English DLLs. Spanish PA explained the majority of variation in oral MA skills in English. English PA was only uniquely predictive of written MA skills in English. Conclusions: Both the cognitive operation of sound sequence manipulation in PA (elision or matching) and the modality of morpheme representation in MA (oral or written) appear to mediate the transfer of metalinguistic knowledge in Spanish-English DLL development in early elementary school. Results are discussed within the context of classroom practices.

It has been well established that for all students, but particularly second language (L2) English speaking students, academic English speaking skills are key to developing specialist terminology and disciplinary content in an English as a medium of instruction (EMI) context. However, what is less clear in many contexts is the institutional language policy necessary to guide and support both L2 English speaking students and disciplinary tutors. In this paper, we focus on disciplinary tutors' beliefs of language and their roles with respect to language support to surface implicit and covert language policies. We argue that in the absence of explicit policy, showcasing the range of tutor perspectives and practice around language support can provide a way forward in explicating good practice and highlighting an approach in which all stakeholders take responsibility for supporting students' academic speaking skills in an EMI context.

Dual-language books' (DLBs) two-language format could support biliteracy development, but little is known about how children read them. Fifty-four third and fifth graders read aloud DLBs with English or Spanish first on each page to determine DLBs' potential affordances. Although there were no significant differences in oral reading fluency or reading comprehension measures by the language printed first, there was some evidence of holistic bilingual processing. Students' English fluency scores were also significantly higher than their Spanish scores. Findings indicate needs for more research about DLBs and potentially for increased attention to Spanish literacy skills in U.S. dual-language programs.

While previous research has shown that language use in the home is an important factor in bilingual language development, little research has focused on how specific language strategies used by parents relate to bilingual children's language exposure and vocabulary development. Yet, for parents, this information has the potential to inform their day-to-day decisions about language use in their home. The present study aims to contribute to this understanding by applying a Bioecological Systems Model to understand how language use within the community and within the family influenced young children's amount of language exposure and vocabulary abilities. A total of 51 French-English bilingual four-year-old Canadian children participated in the present study. Children's exposure to each language was measured through parent reports, and their vocabulary was assessed in each language. Differences in community context were not a significant predictor of the amount of exposure or vocabulary abilities. Family language strategies predicted vocabulary scores in English but not French, whereas the amount of exposure predicted vocabulary scores in French but not English. These findings suggest that, in the preschool years, family language use strategies and amount of exposure impact vocabulary development and that their role differs based on context.

Deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) students in Hong Kong face great challenges in academic learning since for decades oral language has been the only means of communication in classrooms. The establishment of the Sign Bilingualism and Co-enrollment in Deaf Education (SLCO) Program aims to provide an accessible mainstream environment that supports DHH children's education. This study explores the impact of SLCO education on DHH children's academic performance. A longitudinal study was conducted for four cohorts of DHH students (n = 24) who completed their 6-year primary education at the SLCO school. Data on their academic performance based on standardised assessments in Chinese Language, English Language and Mathematics were collected over the six years of primary education to review their development against normative grade levels and annual growth rates. Results indicate that SLCO-DHH students achieve normative standards in both English Language and Mathematics based on their median grade levels. They do, however, lag behind normative standards by one year in Chinese Language. When their academic development was analysed annually, they were comparable to their hearing peers, with an average growth rate very close to "1" for all three subjects. Additionally, no significant relationships could be found between degrees of hearing loss and speech perception and their academic performance. Instead, early Chinese literacy attainment serves as a strong factor predicting their later academic attainment in both Chinese Language and Mathematics. The SLCO education environment appears to be an education model that effectively reduces barriers to accessing academic content in classrooms and promotes positive academic development.

General spectroscopy is known to be difficult for novice students due to its complex and abstract nature. In this study we used a first-year chemistry Mini Spec laboratory activity to uncover language barriers to student learning in spectroscopy. Analysis revealed that language barriers generated conceptual difficulties for English as Second Language (ESL) students. As well as demonstrating difficulty with understanding of the origin of spectral lines identified in prior research, this work surfaces previously unreported language difficulties which were characterized in terms of technical and non-technical language. These include observations that 'refract' and 'diffract' appeared poorly delineated for students, the teleological animism of 'jump' to describe excited electron transitions towards the ground state, and the non-technical term 'discrete' being difficult for students to understand and construct meaning for. In addition to this, students battled with the symbolic language required to depict the formation of spectral lines. Several solutions to the language difficulty are proposed including the re-sequencing of macroscopic, sub-microscopic and symbolic teaching and reconsidering the usefulness of certain non-technical terms for teaching and learning spectroscopy.

Calls to prepare all teachers to effectively teach multilingual learners are not new. Nevertheless, preservice preparation programs continue to fall short of this goal, despite enormous effort from teacher educators and researchers alike. This commentary leverages this IMRJ special issue on Critical Multilingual Awareness/Critical Consciousness in teacher preparation to both interrogate and consider solutions to this longstanding problem. Building on the featured articles' valuable contributions to the field's understandings about possibilities and challenges surrounding the development of teacher candidates' critical consciousness, the commentary argues the importance of working toward program-level, rather than incremental, change. Grounded in recent, firsthand experience with the redesign of the elementary teacher education program at their own university, the authors offer insights for cultivating program coherence centered on teaching multilingual learners, while also noting necessary areas for growth and raising complex questions about the interplay between institutions of higher education and critical teacher education programs.

This study investigates trajectories of L2 development in writing in two genres over multiple time points in a semester-long ESL writing program. Conceptually replicating previous studies on genre and development, we analyzed 270 argumentative and narrative essays written by 45 ESL students to find developmental and genre differences, using fine-grained indices that tap into multiple dimensions of complexity. We found a genre effect on most complexity features, with significant differences between the genres. We also present evidence of growth in linguistic complexity, reporting linear developmental trajectories for lexical features but not for clausal or phrasal features. In addition, we found evidence of interaction effects between genre and time for some indices that are sensitive to unique combinations of genre and development. We conclude that development in L2 writing involves the nonlinear emergence of linguistic usages over time and that the developmental pattern can be distinct for different genres.

Early childhood is an opportune time to begin teaching STEM, and preschool education provides the opportunity. How children experience and respond to STEM in community-based preschools is our focus. Using the CIRCLE classroom observation system, we examined how frequently and in what contexts preschool teachers provided STEM learning opportunities, and how children responded using quantitative-descriptive methods. Data were collected in 39 low-socioeconomic status (SES), community-based preschool classrooms on a stratified sample of 117 children that included mono-English speaking children, dual language learners, and children with a diagnosed disability. Results indicated that children were exposed to nonacademic content 71% of the observed time. In contrast, STEM instruction occurred only 7% of the time, or about 6 min of our 90 min observation on a given day. When teachers provided STEM content, the probability that children were academically engaged was 0.57 compared with only 0.08 during nonacademic content. There were no statistically significant differences in STEM academic content received between girls and boys, children with versus without an Individualized Education Program (IEP), and English-only speakers versus dual language learners. However, dual language learners were significantly less engaged during STEM than English-only speakers. Implications are discussed.

In this study, we explore how preservice secondary science teachers articulated their agency and structural awareness within racist-nativist policy and schooling environments that limit emergent bilingual students' opportunities to learn science. Our praxis-oriented analysis led us to characterize novice teacher participants' discursive positionings within this structure-agency dialectic--that is, what it means to teach science well with emergent bilingual learners in the context of structural exclusions--as deficit, distancing, or discerning. We then discuss how these preservice teacher positionings were a function of tension management for working within the structure-agency dialectic. In our discussion, we refer to this phenomenon as praxis crisis, that is, the disjuncture between theory and practice that occurs as teachers negotiate the real and perceived constraints of their work. We consider how the concept of praxis crisis that emerged from our work can be a critical dialogic tool for transformative learning in science teacher education research and practice, and how a praxis-oriented methodological approach can support more expansive and nuanced understandings of teacher learning.

Multilingual learners' (MLs') access to a rich arts curriculum is often overshadowed by their need to learn English and "core" content. Yet MLs should have equitable access to arts education alongside their monolingual peers. An important avenue for offering this access is teacher preparedness. This study reports on a pilot survey of preK-12 visual arts teachers regarding their beliefs about and practices with MLs in the arts classroom. Survey items from four different scales measuring culturally and linguistically responsive teaching and beliefs were adopted. The responses of 26 teachers illustrated generally positive beliefs, practices, and confidence, but variation among respondents was high. Patterns in the data point to interesting future steps in the work, including the need to examine why teachers who had undergone training on teaching MLs were less confident in their ability to teach this population.

This study reports bilingual international students' communicative strategies to preempt and resolve English as a lingua franca (ELF) miscommunication in an English-medium virtual learning program offered by an international university in times of the global pandemic. Drawing upon 18 hours of Zoom recordings and supplementary ethnographic data, this study follows a spatial orientation [Canagarajah, S. 2018a. "The Unit and Focus of Analysis in Lingua Franca English Interactions: In Search of a Method." "International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism" 21 (7): 805--824. doi:10.1080/13670050.2018.1474850] to analyze international students' polysemiotic meaning-making practices for virtual communicative effectiveness. Key findings highlight the students' explicitness-raising strategic moves such as indexing and reflexive pointing, repetitive highlighting, visual contrasting mediated by the mouse cursor and screen-based resources while navigating moments of (potential) miscommunication. To remedy and preempt understanding problems, they coordinate and align polysemiotic spatial repertoires across expansive spatiotemporal scales to enhance the clarity of potentially ambiguous referents, communicative topics, and key information. This study advances current understanding of bi/multilinguals' polysemiotic translingual pragmatic ability for communicative success in lingua franca scenarios, and provides implications that help prepare international higher education for effective virtual communication, teaching, and learning in the post-pandemic digital era.

Bilinguals often outperform monolinguals at apprehending the perspectives of others--an apparent consequence of their experiences moving across linguistic and sociocultural contexts. Whether English learners' (ELs') use of such skill in academic writing may be affected by literacy curriculum is the focus of this study. The study explored students' use of social perspective taking (SPT) in writing by examining their responses to a novel argumentative writing task, the iPad--Take A Stand assessment (iTAS). The iTAS was designed to assess the efficacy of the Word Generation curriculum (WG), which provides supports for discussing and deploying multiple perspectives, during its 2012-2014 randomized controlled trial. iTAS essays produced in that study by 4th-7th-grade ELs and their non-EL peers were coded along two dimensions of SPT, acknowledgment and articulation. Analyses revealed a positive impact of WG irrespective of language status on social perspective acknowledgment, the less sophisticated dimension; in contrast, a 'bilingual boost' of the curriculum was detected in students' use of social perspective articulation, the more sophisticated dimension. These findings suggest ELs may draw on their SPT skills when constructing written arguments, at least in the presence of WG's sociocognitive and linguistic supports.

How we talk about bilingualism has an effect on how others think about bilingual individuals, and in turn, how "active bilingual learners/users of English" (ABLE) students are assessed and taught in schools. I use a transdisciplinary approach of bridging social semiotics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics, and cognitive linguistics to explain how code-switching is metaphor, an external perspective of bilingualism as inter-domain linguistic mapping and translanguaging is metonymy, an internal perspective of intra-domain linguistic mapping. By placing translanguaging/metonymy on the syntagmatic axis and code-switching/metaphor on the paradigmatic axis, I demonstrate through example sentences of monolingual and bilingual speech and figures, how accepting the inaccurate metaphor of bilingualism as just code-switching alone, sets in motion countless dichotomies that act to create the bilingualism-as-problem orientation for ABLE students in U.S. schools; most specifically for those at the intersection of bilingualism and disability. A transdisciplinary view of bilingualism includes both an internal perspective (translanguaging, metonymic combination of parts of the whole linguistic repertoire on the syntagmatic axis), plus an external perspective (code-switching, metaphoric alternation of linguistic features from diverse named languages on the paradigmatic axis). I conclude with implications for a more appropriate description of bilingualism and its role in education.

In this paper we identify, name, and operationalize six borders typically found in school settings that include dual language classrooms: bordered languages, knowledge, content areas, bodies, selves, and teachers. We identify these borders as a point of departure to show an example of how a two-way dual language classroom operated through a form of border-crossing pedagogy that respects children and reveals authentic multilingual learning. We use this example to propose that, if dual language classrooms are to truly respect racially and linguistically marginalized students, educators must engage in a practice of protest and refusal toward curricular and social violence.

This study, informed by Chicana Feminist frameworks, explores bilingual Latinx students' resistance testimonios pertaining to instruction and assessment. These testimonios transpired through pláticas [familiar gatherings] between adolescent youth and the author, also their former elementary school teacher. This study is contextualized within historical and current ways white supremacy impacts education for bilingual Latinx students. Reviews of the literature show how standardized testing does not always capture a full narrative of bilingual Latinx students' knowledge. While educators cannot dismantle all the limited ways of assessing students at once, this article adds to the scholarship on how teachers can build long-term relationships to mend these sources of harms. The past relationship, between the students and the author, helped establish plática spaces, where they collectively reflected on the ways instructional and assessment practices hurt or dismissed their communities. In the pláticas, students enriched their sociopolitical consciousness by pushing and pulling each other to share their lives. Assembling their collective testimonios reveals alternatives to understanding what bilingual Latinx students know. Remembering with, listening to, and assembling students' testimonios collectively over time offers how educators might build longer lasting and broader relationships, for a broader, more expansive holistic understanding of Latinx students' experiences in school. Educators must collaborate together, as there is a critical opportunity for reclaiming instructiom and assessment practices.

Although the emergent bilingual status of foreign language (FL) students is often overlooked, that is not to say that students do not, on some level of consciousness, experience changes in their identity as a result of their emergent bilingualism. The continuous process of identity (re)negotiation, that is, the reorganising of one's subject position in relation to contextualised linguistic and social factors, has a significant impact on FL students. The present study takes a multi-theoretical approach to investigate the factors involved in the negotiation of Japanese EFL students' emergent bilingual identities through the use of a questionnaire. The results show that the majority of the participants perceived some level of change in their identity, unrelated to any specific determinants. Furthermore, those with longer EFL learning histories, higher proficiency levels, or those majoring in globally-minded studies were more likely to feel they belong to English-speaking (imagined) communities.

The existing literature on reading motivation primarily focuses on monolingual children and adolescents using quantitative approaches. To date, there is an absence of qualitative studies exploring bilingual college students' reading motivation that can provide details of participants' views, beliefs, and experiences related to reading motivation. To meet this need, this qualitative study used the bioecological model of human development to explore sociocultural impacts on multidimensions of reading motivation in Latinx college students. Twenty-eight Latinx bilingual college students participated in individual and semi-structured interviews and generated written literacy journeys that focused on understanding factors affecting the multidimensionality of their reading motivation and ways to motivate them. Our data suggest Latinx college students' reading motivation was influenced by the three systems of the bioecological model of human development: "microsystem, exosystem," and "macrosystem." Furthermore, we found that reflective, autonomous, and interactive learning environments were effective for enhancing their reading motivation.

Research Findings: As the population of Hispanic children grows within U.S. preschools, it is increasingly important to understand how these classrooms facilitate school readiness, such as positive engagement with teachers, peers, and tasks, for Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners (DLLs). A growing literature base indicates that DLL students' exposure to their native language in the classroom provides deeper access to academic content, and can foster development of essential cognitive, social-emotional, and language skills. Therefore, the current study used an observational measure to examine how teachers' Spanish language use was related to Hispanic DLLs' classroom engagement across the academic preschool year. Separate regression models were run for teacher, peer, task, and negative engagement. As expected, results indicated that teachers' Spanish use was significantly associated with children's positive engagement to peers. Teachers' Spanish use was also significantly associated with children's negative engagement, though the direction of the effect was counterintuitive, as more Spanish use was related to greater negative engagement. Teachers' Spanish use was not significantly associated with children's engagement to teachers or tasks. Practice or Policy: The findings of this study are discussed within the context of identifying a set of best practices for facilitating inclusive early learning environments for language-minority students.

Research Findings: In the context of parent-child book sharing, cultural influences on cognitive distancing language and associations with child executive function (EF) have been understudied. This study examined cultural group similarities/differences in parent and child book-sharing distancing language among preschool-aged dual language learners from low-income Mexican American (MA) and Chinese American (CA) families. We further tested concurrent relations between parent/child distancing language and children's EF. The sample consisted of 88 children (45 MAs, 43 CAs, age = 38-68 months) enrolled in Head Start preschools and their parents. To assess distancing language, utterances were coded for cognitive demand and classified as referential (low demand), behavioral (moderate demand), or inferential (high demand). Cognitive tasks tapping inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility were used to assess child EF. Results showed parents and children from both cultural groups produced comparable numbers of story-related utterances. MA dyads used higher proportions of parent/child inferential statements and a lower proportion of parent referential questions. The proportions of parent behavioral questions and child behavioral statements were positively related to child cognitive flexibility. Practice or Policy: Findings highlight heterogeneity in parent-child verbal interactions among low-income multilingual families and have implications for promoting preschoolers' cognitive/language development in diverse populations.

Research Findings: There is limited research regarding socio-emotional development in low-income Latino Dual Language Learner (DLL) children. A total of 14 studies have been identified in a comprehensive review of the literature (Halle et al. 2014). Within these studies the majority have focused on problem behaviors within this population. Through a strength-based lens, the current study examined changes in the development of positive peer interactions of Latino DLLs across their preschool year, along with child-level and eco-cultural factors that may support this development. A total of 397 low-income preschool Latino DLL children participated in the study. Teachers completed the Penn Interactive Peer Play Scale (PIPPS-T) and the Preschool Learning Behaviors Scale (PLBS), children were assessed on oral language measures, and classroom observations took place using the CLASS. Findings indicate positive increases in Latino DLL children's play interaction skills, along with decreases in problem behaviors across the preschool year. Emotional support, teacher's Spanish proficiency, oral language skills, and approaches to learning were positively related to peer interaction scores. Practice or Policy: This study has important implications for practitioners regarding improving the positive peer interactions of Latino DLLs, specifically low-income children, enrolled in preschool classrooms and supports the use of the home language in the classroom.

Although accounting is perceived as a numerical discipline, previous research has produced useful insights suggesting that non-proficiency in English language affects accounting education among some Asian students. However, there is a gap in the literature in terms of understanding how exactly accounting lecturers encounter this problem in the classroom. Without a narration of the experiences of accounting lecturers, who are the frontliners in the accounting education process, understanding the issues involved and policy responses would be limited. The present study responds to this challenge by conducting interviews with lecturers who have many years' experience in teaching accounting among Asian students in Malaysian Universities. Interview data were analyzed using thematic analysis which uncovered three themes and how they affect accounting education. First, these students have limited vocabulary and find it difficult to understand explanations of basic accounting concepts. Second, lack of confidence arises from limited vocabulary and limits students' productive interactions with their teachers - active learning is thus severely hampered. Third, students shy away from theoretical aspects of accounting and only memorize formulas and steps which they regurgitate during examinations. Implications of these findings and policy recommendations are discussed at the end of the paper.

This study investigated the psycholinguistic and child-related variables that modulate vocabulary development and the so-called receptive-expressive gap in child L2 learners of Gaelic with English as their L1. In total, 50 6- to 8-year-old English-Gaelic bilingual children attending Gaelic-medium immersion education were administered the English and the Gaelic Crosslinguistic Receptive and Expressive Lexical Tasks (CLTs). On the Gaelic CLT, children performed better on nouns than verbs. Accuracy was modulated by item-related variables such as the estimated age when a word is acquired and its morphophonological complexity. The receptive-expressive gap was larger in the minority L2 than in the majority L1 and did not narrow after 1 year of schooling. The gap was smaller for nouns than verbs in English but not in Gaelic. Exposure to English differentially affected the receptive-expressive gap across languages. This study offers new insights into the psycholinguistic and individual factors affecting the receptive-expressive gap in bilingual children in immersion education.

Second language (L2) researchers have long acknowledged the role of language anxiety in communication processes, such that learners with greater language anxiety tend to be less willing to engage in communication. However, little research has explored links between L2 speakers' perceptions of conversation and dynamic measures of anxiety. Therefore, this study measured 60 L2 English speakers' galvanic skin response (a physiological index of anxiety) during conversation. After the conversation, speakers evaluated themselves and their partner in terms of speech fluency and comprehensibility, engagement, and anxiety, and responded to trait-anxiety and social network questionnaires. Correlational analyses explored relationships between speakers' trait-anxiety, social network characteristics, self- and peer-perceptions and five levels of physiological response during conversation. Findings revealed that high arousal during interaction was related to speakers' negative self-perceptions of speech fluency and negative perceptions of their partner's engagement. Implications are discussed regarding state-anxiety as triggered by partner- or task-specific experiences.

Turks living in Greece are able to receive education in their mother tongue within the framework of minority rights. The mother tongue education of bilingual children has a significant effect on the development of the other language. The greatest responsibility in this regard lies with teachers. The experiences of the teachers who teach the mother tongue of the Turkish minority in Greece, their in-class activities, identifying problems related to curriculum and the students and finding solutions to these problems are important for the education and future of Turkish children in the region. The aim of this study is to determine the problems encountered in mother tongue education and to offer solutions by seeking the opinions of the teachers who teach Turkish in Greece about the lessons, students, in-class practices, curriculums and textbooks. "Phenomenological design", a qualitative research method, was used in this study. The sample group consisted of 23 teachers who teach Turkish to Turkish students between the ages of 6-15 in Greece. A semi-structured interview form was used. Descriptive analysis was applied to the data obtained from the interviews. The theme, codes and categories were identified. For this study, the theme was determined as "Turkish Teaching in Greece" and the categories were identified as "Language Skills", Reflections of Bilingualism", "Materials--Tools and Instruments for Lessons", "Classroom Activities which Students Enjoy" and "Problems Related to the Education System". Findings of the research discussed general problems regarding the education of Turkish students in Greece, the impact of bilingualism, teacher proficiency, lack of materials and minority status.

Collaboration between English as a Second Language (ESL) and content teachers to support multilingual students designated as English Learners is a growing but complex phenomenon in U.S. schools, and one that has continued to evolve during the pandemic and related disruptions to schooling. We draw upon ecological perspectives on language learning to consider critical questions about the relationships among collaborative practices, equity, systemic capacity, and instructional quality. Such considerations can inform educational practice and better frame empirical explorations of co-teaching and related forms of collaboration.

Background: Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is a European innovative interdisciplinary educational convergence that intends to promote multilingual competence among students through the learning of the subjects in a second/foreign language. This approach is considered one of the significant developments in the field of education. Purpose: A research study was designed with the objective of exploring and understanding the nature and method of CLIL practices prevalent in bilingual primary and secondary school classrooms in Castilla La Mancha, Spain. Spain was chosen because it is one of the pioneering countries that steered an exhaustive variety of research and experiments in CLIL practices in its diverse educational contexts. Methods: Adopting qualitative research method Participant Classroom Observations, twenty classes of two bilingual schools--fifteen classes of Natural Science and Social Science in primary school and five classes of Music at Secondary School that used CLIL approach were observed and findings recorded using observation template. Results: The findings provided a myriad view of the bilingual experiences in the classrooms, diversity and range of pedagogical practices used, student teacher interaction dynamics present, positive learning environment provided for the students in the classes to mention a few. Conclusion: The study concludes with the understanding of the 'added value' and the numerous benefits the approach provides for the students. As a fresh and innovative approach, CLIL promotes holistic and meaningful learning catering to the needs of twenty first century education systems.