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The paper deals with the animal bones from the point Gorgana I near Radovanu village, Călăraşi County. The sample is not too large, it comprises 636 bones, of which 433 fragments from a waste pit (Gr. 11). The rest was gathered from three dwellings (Loc. 2, 3, 9), an annex (Loc. 5) and other six pits (Gr. 6, 7, 12, 15, 16, 23). The skulls and several long bones of two dogs were recovered from pit no. 11. A third specimen was apparently thrown in the same pit, just a few broken bones being preserved from this skeleton. Houses provided few bones, as well as most pits (Table 1). Tables 2 - 4 contain data of the body parts distribution, based on their food value. The skull (fleshless - class A) totals no more than 12– 13%, regardless of species (Fig. 1). The class B (spine, ribs) is better represented in the case of cattle (24%), caprids, pig and red deer (31%). Few distal elements of the limbs (meatless - classes E, F, G) were reported in the case of small ruminants (12%) and pig (6%). A higher estimate was done for cattle and red deer (35%). The reduced rate of pig, sheep and goat distal extremities is caused by either metapodials processing, or bones scattering throughout the area. Or, they simply came into the pits as unidentifiable splinters. In the case of pig, the metapodials being unfit for processing, they could have been lost or eaten by humans or dogs. The prevalence of the fleshy parts (classes C, D) is recognized in case of ovicaprids (43%) and pig (50%). Instead, they represent only 29% in case of cattle and 21% of the red deer. Being large items, most of them were thrown in the household pits. Few remains present cut and processing marks, just two worked tibias from a pig and a sheep Fig. 2/ a, c), and another one, maybe from cattle (Fig. 2/ b). A sheep talus with both lateral sides polished and some fine cut marks (skinning) was found in pit no. 23. About 198 bones (37.36%) from sheep/ goat were identified, 66 of which belonged to sheep, 42 to goats and 90 with no clear assignment. As minimum number of individuals (MNI) they total 24.44%, ranking first among species. Based on complete bones it was estimated a 60.49– 76.76 cm variation at the withers, with an average of 68.24 cm for goat and 60.3– 75.55 cm, mean 68.18 cm, for sheep (Fig. 3– 4). The other measurements reinforce a much more robust goat and sheep than the Neolithic ones (Table 5). We wonder if possibly a migrant community settled at Radovanu, or at least a part of the flocks entered from the North-Pontic steppes, with human migrations. Eleven individuals presumed according to dentition, of which four goats, five sheep and two not specified (Fig. 8, 9). The infants- juveniles/ sub- adults/ adults- matures report is 45.5/ 18.1/ 36.4%, suggesting important slaughtering up to one year and more rare during the second. The mutton from younger specimens was preferred, and to a lesser extent from the sub- adults, in order to protect the flock. About one third of the identified specimens reached an advanced stage, for milking. Cattle rank second as fragments (35.85%) and third as individuals (15.55%). No metapodials were found to provide information on cattle withers height. For that reason “ we tested” the Atanassov, Vasilev, Tsonev (1980) method to estimate the stature according the width of metapodial ends. Roughly values of 117– 126 cm on metacarpals, and 122 cm on metatarsals were estimated. The study of dentition suggests intensive slaughtering of the sub- adult (57.14%), moderate of the juvenile (28.57%) and more rare of the mature specimens (14.29%). The age- classes based on teeth confirm the statistics of the long-bones fusion. Accordingly, one third is the proportion of the adults, 10.6% that of juveniles, prevailing the sub- adults. The meat was obtained mainly from individuals aged between 1 and 4, and only a small number of them were preserved for by- products and work. The pig ranks third as fragments (17.73%), its bones belonging to eight specimens (17.78%). Pig kept in the area was pretty tall but not too massive. A complete metacarpal III of 75.5 mm provided an increased size, 78 cm. After correlated long- bone fusion age profiles with dentition, eight specimens were presumed, of which 37.5% were slaughtered up to one year, equally between 1– 2 years, and 25% at higher ages. The pit no. 11 provided two dog skulls and some long bones from three dog skeletons. The first skull (Fig. 5), a couple of humeri, femurs, one ulna originate in a medium- sized specimen of 48.4 cm. The cranium is well- proportioned according to the cranium- facial report, with a value of 1.05 ; the forehead line is almost flat, sagittal crest poorly developed, nuchal projection slightly pulled back, orbits large and close. The cephalic index, with a value of 66.88 is ranked towards the upper limit of the mesocephalic type, so, a moderately broad and long skull is concerned. The second skull (Fig. 6), a couple of humeri, distal tibiae, and an ulna originate in a small specimen, of 42.28 cm stature. Reviewing interspecies frequencies, the following would summarize : hunting was not a common practice, it was occasionally done. Red and roe deer, wild boar, aurochs, boar, otter, badger, wolf (Fig. 7), brown bear were captured. As number of fragments, domestic segment prevails in a proportion of 91.69% versus wildlife, with 8.31%. In terms of the minimum number of individuals, the rate of domestic animal decreases at 66.67% versus 33.33%, the wildlife. Before setting the first Neolithic communities, the pollen analysis showed that there were reduced forested areas ; the milieu rather belonged to steppe domain, the pollen of threes representing only 13%. Forest contained oak, elm and linden. Beech and hazelnut were rarities. Apparently, the valleys flanking the site were not too wet, as the alder and willow pollen was reduced. In that forest- steppe environment, agriculture was little practiced. Perhaps the milieu during Cernavoda I settlement did not differ too much from the previous period, as confirmed by faunal composition. In this context, the faunal spectrum indicates a small percentage of reed deer, about 5.5%, dropping by 2– 2.5% versus the Neolithic habitation from the point La Muscalu. Deforestation accentuated the steppe feature of the environment during Cernavoda I habitation. The small ruminants dominate the statistics with 37.36% (as fragments), followed by cattle with 35.85%, and pig (17.73%). To a degree, the habitat played an important role to switch the economy towards their breeding. It is worth mentioning the overrepresentation of the goat among small ruminants, somewhat unusual for the Late Eneolithic sites. Pretty easy to feed, in a less prosperous animal economy of the Radovanu communities, goats were covering dairy and meat requirements. The pig husbandry was not specific to them either, even though its maintenance was easy and convenient. Mention must be made of the fact that, during the Neolithic habitation at Radovanu, the pigs amounted to about 27% and caprids only 20%. Dogs total 0.75% of the bones ; there is no evidence for its consumption. To be noted the, Articolul de faţă prezintă analiza unui eşantion de faună provenit din campaniile arheologice 2010– 2012, din locuirea Cernavodă I, de la Radovanu – Gorgana întâia. Din cele 636 fragmente, 433 provin dintr- o groapă menajeră - Gr. 11, restul din trei locuinţe, o anexă şi alte şase gropi menajere. Potrivit statisticilor, spectrul faunistic este dominat de mamiferele domestice cu o pondere de 91,69% pe resturi şi 66,67% pe indivizi. Speciile vânate au o cotă de numai 8,31% pe resturi şi 33,33% pe indivizi. Cu un procent de 37,36% pe resturi rumegătoarele mici prevalează în segmentul domestic, urmate de bovine cu 35,85% şi suine cu 17,73%. Câinele înregistrează doar 0,75%, neexistând dovezi clare de consum. Notăm absenţa oaselor de cal, apariţie rară, dar constantă, în aşezările perioadei respective. Pe lângă creşterea oilor, caprelor, vitelor, porcilor şi vânătoare, ocazional se pescuia şi se adunau scoici. Din păcate, resturile lor sunt nesemnificative cantitativ, fiind vorba de un os de peşte şi două cochilii de scoică de râu. Profilele de abataj ale rumegătoarelor mici şi viţeilor diferă puţin ; per ansamblu, se urmărea acelaşi lucru, exploatarea cărnii, laptelui şi pieilor după sacrificare., El Susi Georgeta. Date preliminare asupra exploatării animalelor în așezarea Cernavodă I de la Radovanu – Gorgana I (jud. Călărași). Campaniile 2010–2012 / Preliminary data on animal husbandry at the Cernavodă I settlement from Radovanu – Gorgana I (Călăraşi County). Campaigns 2010–2012. In: Materiale şi cercetãri arheologice (Serie nouã), N°12 2016. pp. 57-72.

Geographic and habitat distributions of large mammals most frequently do not reflect optimal conditions, but rather reflect the effects of restoration programs. An example is the European bison (Bison bonasus). This endangered species, which were extinct in the wild at the beginning of 20 th century, was reintroduced in Central and Eastern Europe mostly in forests – habitats, which were lately identified as non-optimal (Kerley et al. 2012, Bocherens et al. 2015). Our study aims to explore the dietary habits of bison and other large herbivores in Europe before the spread of agriculture during the Holocene, which considerably modified the landscapes.Dental microwear texture analysis (DMTA, Scott et al. 2006) provides information on feeding habits and allows for tracking variation in the diet of herbivores in changing environmental conditions. Therefore, this is an appropriate tool to evaluate how human management has influenced the ecology of wild herbivores (Merceron et al. 2014). We explored here the feeding patterns of the European bison and three other large herbivores: moose (Alces alces), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and extinct aurochs (Bos primigenius) originated from Neolithic Swiss settlements (6,000 - 5,000 years old), in the time before farming exerted significantly on the landscapes. Selected Swiss material was the oldest Holocene collection of preserved teeth with sufficient number of specimens from species with different feeding strategies. As a reference we used well studied modernspecies of ungulates from Białowieża Forest (Poland) characterized by known foraging patterns (Merceron et al. 2014). Forty-eight individuals of Mid-Holocene herbivores representing four different species: bison (N = 21), moose (N = 2), red deer (N = 11) and aurochs (N = 14) andthirty-six specimens of modern red deer (N = 15), bison (N = 15) and moose (N = 6) composed the data set for DMTA. The molds of shearing dental facets were made with a polyvinylsiloxane material (Regular Body Microsystem, Coltene President) and scanned using a confocal DCM8 Leica Microsystems surface profilometer equipped with a ×100 lens (NA = 0.90; working distance = 0.9 mm). Data were analysed with Toothfrax and SFrax software following procedures and settings provided by Scott et al. (2006). We analysed three textural parameters: complexity (Asfc), anisotropy (epLsar) and heterogeneity (of complexity; Hasfc81). Results showed significant differences in both Asfc and Hasfc81 betweenprehistoric European bison and aurochs. The diet of bison in the past has comprised of more grasses than the diet of aurochs. Additionally, the diet of bison was the least variable among the studied ungulates (low values of Hasfc81). Diet of red deer likely includes more woody material (Fig. 1). Comparison of parameters for prehistoric and modern ungulates showed that diet of red deer and moose did not change over time, while the diet of modern bison from Białowieża differed significantly from the diet of prehistoric bison. Modern bison are more engaged in browsing and their diet is more variable than during the Neolithic. This confirms suboptimal or marginal character of forest for this species today (Kerley et al. 2012, Bocherens et al. 2015). DMTA proved to be a method which allows obtaining knowledge about the prehistoric diet of herbivore species. To track the past ecology of modern species before the spread of agriculture and deforestation in Europe, independent proxies such as DMTA should be generalised to guide programs of reintroduction of endangered species such as the European bison in Europe.

The Palaeolithic sequence of Grotta Paglicci (Gargano promontory, Apulia, Southern Italy) is one of the most important in the Mediterranean area: It comprises the whole Upper Palaeolithic cultural sequence known for the region, as well as Early Middle Palaeolithic and Lower Palaeolithic levels. These earlier phases are best represented in a collapsed room located outside the present-day cave (the so called “external rock shelter”). In this area, a new excavation, started in 2004, brought to light Middle Palaeolithic animal remains associated with evidence of spotted hyaena (SU 64 and 53). The spatial distribution analysis of remains from SU 53 revealed the presence of a bone accumulation area and a wider dispersal of hyaena coprolites. Three main ungulate species (aurochs, fallow deer and red deer) as well as carnivores (spotted hyaena, wolf, fox, wild cat and lynx) and lagomorphs have been identified. The majority of aurochs remains are located in the main accumulation; among these specimens, a complete metatarsal connected with three tarsal bones has been found; a talus and a complete tibia, probably belonging to the same limb, have also been identified. The multidisciplinary study carried out in this paper highlights a specific bone accumulation and scattering pattern in a spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) den. In addition, taphonomy of lagomorph remains indicates the presence of other depositional agents.

This study presents the results of the analysis of mtDNA bone samples morphologically determined to be aurochs (Bos primigenius) from four various archaeological finds in the Czech Republic (Central Europe). The results from two of them — the Pleistocene sample from Praha-Řeporyje and the Neolithic sample from Vedrovice — probably represent contamination by modern DNA. Sequences identified in the Eneolithic Kutna Hora-Denemark site (∼5 thousand BP) confirm the presence of haplogroup P in the geographically partly isolated Czech basin. This finding (the first of its kind within the Czech Republic) is consistent with other published findings showing the domination of this aurochs haplogroup line in Europe. The combination of large individual size and ‘domestic’ mtDNA suggest, if inconclusively, that the Early Medieval fourth sample from Vysehrad could potentially represent an aurochs/domestic cattle hybrid.

This paper presents the first evidence for Palaeolithic portable art in Southern Portugal. This include two plaques, dated between 20,500 and 19,500 BP from Solutrean levels from the site of Vale Boi, Western Algarve (Portugal). One of the pieces is a small engraved schist plaque (14,6 × 8,1 mm) with abstract lines on one side. The other artefact is an 8 × 5 cm schist plaque. One side is an oxide natural deposit, used to produce dye; the other side has three aurochs and a probable cervid. Stilistic information and the engraving sequence indicate probably production by a single artist. The stylistic characteristics are in full agreement withi those from late Gravettian and early Solutrean art known from Valencia, Andalucia (Spain) and the Côa valley (Portugal), thus confirming the absolute AMS dates from the Vale Boi Levels., En este trabajo presentamos la primera evidencia de arte mueble paleolítico en el sur de Portugal: dos plaquetas de pizarra procedentes de niveles solutrenses del yacimiento de Vale Boi, zona occidental del Algarve (Portugal). La primera de las piezas es una pequeña placa (14,6 × 8,1 mm) que presenta sobre una de sus caras un ideomorfo grabado. La segunda (8 × 5 cm) cuenta con una superficie ocupada por óxido de hierro natural de color amarillento, tiene claros indicios de extracción de mineral para producir colorantes. En la superficie opuesta han sido grabados tres uros y una posible cierva. El estilo y secuencia de los grabados apuntan a un solo artista. Las características estilísticas de los zoomorfos concuerdan bien con los rasgos comunes del arte del ciclo Gravetiense final y Solutrense antiguo del País Valenciano, Andalucía y Valle de Côa (Portugal). Esta afinidad sintoniza asimismo con las fechas AMS de los niveles solutrenses de Vale Boi, datados entre ca. 20.500 y 19.500 BP.

The aurochs skull was found in Tuchola Forest (the Kujawy and Pomorze Province) in the vicinity of Tuchola. The skull analyzed has come from adult male aurochs, and it is almost complete, only deprived of small fragments of a single incisive bone and the jaw. The osteometric analysis following the method by Duerst [5] was performed. The observations made and measurements taken make it possible to develop our knowledge with further information concerning that extinct species as well as provide information on the occurrence and distribution of aurochs. The measurements made will also facilitate the confrontation of craniometric parameters in aurochs from the Tuchola Forest with the skulls originated from other parts of the country.

The turn of the 6th and 5th millennia BC witnessed probably the largest economic and cultural transformation of SE Europe giving rise to a new techno-complex occupying the alluvial plains of the Tisza River and its tributaries in the southern parts of the Carpathian Basin. Representatives of the Tisza Culture were engaged in intensive farming complemented with foraging creating a complex system of hierarchical multi-layered settlements (tells). The favorable endowments of the sites with a large variety of multiple ecotones ideal for multifocal subsistence, as well as the introduction of new farming techniques ensured the establishment of long-term sedentary lifeways. However, according to the archeology, a major shift in subsistence happened toward the end of the Late Neolithic marking the terminal part of the evolution of the culture. Traditional crop cultivation was increasingly complemented with hunting, animal husbandry gaining importance. Other second-line resources like fish and shellfish followed the same pattern. Finally, tells were disintegrated and a new cultural group of the Copper Age emerged. The exact background of these transformations is still unknown. In order to see whether or not potential transformations in the local riparian environment had some role in shaping human behavior, a multiproxy paleoecological analysis was implemented on mollusk material of one of the largest tell sites of SE Hungary. Freshwater mollusks collected by humans in themselves characterize the quality of the water body from which they derive. They are also an excellent marker of socioeconomic response to environmental stress. According to our findings the emergence of new settlement phases and the intensified foraging could have been correlated with alteration of stream properties yielding successively higher floods. This was initially beneficial creating lush pasturelands for large bodied prey infiltrating the area during the referred period like aurochs, red-deer. But ultimately it might have reduced areas suitable for agriculture and living most likely leading to social disruption besides other cultural, social processes.

Long doubted, the existence of Pleistocene rock art in North Africa is here proven through the dating of petroglyph panels displaying aurochs and other animals at Qurta in the Upper Egyptian Nile Valley. The method used was optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) applied to deposits of wind-blown sediment covering the images. This gave a minimum age of ~15 000 calendar years making the rock engravings at Qurta the oldest so far found in North Africa.

Summary We consider (a) feasting, and (b) the formal deposition of feasting detritus, with regard to the Late Neolithic pits on Rudston Wold. Pigs are common, as in most Grooved Ware assemblages, but we suggest that cattle may have played a proportionately greater role in eastern and northern England. Claimed ‘aurochs’ from the site are in fact misidentified domestic cattle; hardly any wild animals are present. Some aspects of the assemblage support the suggestion that the animals were consumed during feasts, although these were on a much smaller scale than those seen at major Grooved Ware monuments. There is no support for the suggestion that the pits saw formal or ‘structured’ deposition.

Rock engravings in northwest Saudi Arabia suggest that the region was once home to a host of unexpected animals. Maria Guagnin at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Jena, Germany, and her colleagues studied rock art at Jubbah and Shuwaymis, a joint UNESCO World Heritage Site. The team examined more than 1400 rock engraving panels, some dating back to 8000 BC. The pictures contain around 6600 depictions of wildlife. The team could identify the exact species shown. Some of the art showed animals that have never been seen in the local archaeological record. For example, antelope called lesser kudu appeared in the engravings, given away by their distinctive spiral horns. Before now, there was little evidence that they ever left Africa. Another depiction resembles an aurochs, the wild progenitor of modern domestic cattle, which are mostly known from Europe and Central Asia. There were also representations of wild camels and African wild asses, neither of which is known to have lived in this part of Arabia.

This study reviews the main changes of the vegetation and fauna in northern Portugal during the Holocene, using literature from palaeoecology, archaeology, history, writings from travellers and naturalists, maps of agriculture and forestry and expert consultation. The ecological history of this area shows a trend of forestry decline, with periods of recovery of the vegetation related to the decrease of human pressure on natural resources. The deforestation began on the high plateaus of this region, extending later to the heavier and more productive soils of the valleys. In the beginning of the Holocene, the climate seems to have been the most important trigger of change in this area, but human impact probably became preponderant in the last 5000 years. The natural herbivorous fauna was probably reduced, with the extinction of species such as wild horse, aurochs and European beaver, and partially replaced by human action. Nevertheless, the high resilience of ecosystems has enabled their sustainability for eight millennia and has also allowed the recovery of the vegetation and fauna in the recent decades.

It has been argued that large ungulates play a key role in natural forest dynamics, but in Britain, the largest native ungulates (aurochs and elk) are extinct. Cattle could have some similar effects, and are widely used, but rarely tested, for nature conservation management. Here, we test conservation management with cattle at a native Scots pine Pinus sylvestris forest in Scotland. Our hypotheses were that cattle impacts would (a) increase the abundance of an understorey shrub of conservation importance, bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus; and (b) increase Scots pine seedling establishment. Two cattle trials were established, one for each objective, based on a 14-ha plot within the forest, and a 6.1-ha plot at the forest edge. Cattle were introduced for 2 months to both plots, giving an approximately 100- to 150-fold increase in ungulate biomass per hectare when compared to background deer abundance. The ground layer vegetation in both treatment and matched control plots was monitored before and after treatment, and subsequently over a 4-year period. At the within-forest trial, bilberry percent-cover, 4 years after treatment, was 1.9 times higher in the cattle area than in the control (95% confidence limits 1.6–2.3). Bilberry percent-cover increases were directly related to the degree of trampling impact on heather Calluna vulgaris, as recorded immediately after the trial. At the forest-edge trial, there were vegetation changes in the cattle plot that were considered favourable to pine seedling establishment: reduced moss/litter depth and vegetation percent-cover, and increased ground-level light incidence. However, too few new pine seedlings were found for formal analysis, partly due to unexpectedly low seed-fall. Nevertheless, the potential for cattle to create conditions that would subsequently promote pine regeneration was illustrated by the observation of large numbers of new, young pine seedlings at the within-forest cattle plot. We recommend that managers and researchers collaborate to develop further trials like the ones reported here, to give an improved understanding of the conditions under which cattle can yield nature conservation benefits in woodlands.

This paper presents the results of a detailed study of mortality profiles of the large herbivores from the Middle Palaeolithic (MP) bone assemblage of the Lingjing Xuchang Man Site, Henan Province. Based on the analysis of the crown heights of fossil teeth from this assemblage, we come to a conclusion that aurochs (Bos primigenius) and horse (Equus caballus) are the major prey species in this assemblage and the age structures of these animals can be best described as the “prime-dominated pattern”. This study confirmed the well-established notions at many Middle and Upper Palaeolithic sites across Eurasia and Africa that MSA/MP foragers were fully effective in hunting aggressive prey species, particularly aurochs and horse. This find indicates that the hunting behaviors and subsistence strategies were not significantly different between MP and UP (the Upper Palaeolithic) humans in East Asia and hence suggests the early emergence of the modern human behaviors in this area.

In the Neolithic megasite at Çatalhöyük families lived side by side in conjoined dwellings, like a pueblo. It can be assumed that people were always in and out of each others' houses – in this case via the roof. Social mechanisms were needed to make all this run smoothly, and in a tour-de-force of botanical, faunal and spatial analysis the authors show how it worked. Families stored their own produce of grain, fruit, nuts and condiments in special bins deep inside the house, but displayed the heads and horns of aurochs near the entrance. While the latter had a religious overtone they also remembered feasts, episodes of sharing that mitigated the provocations of a full larder.

The authors use metrical, demographic and body part analyses of animal bone assemblages in Anatolia to demonstrate how cattle were incorporated into early Neolithic subsistence economies. Sheep and goats were domesticated in the eighth millennium BC, while aurochs, wild cattle, were long hunted. The earliest domesticated cattle are not noted until the mid-seventh millennium BC, and derive from imported stock domesticated elsewhere. In Anatolia, meanwhile, the aurochs remains large and wild and retains its charisma as a hunted quarry and a stud animal.

This paper studies the changes observed in wild ungulate game procurement strategies between the Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic periods in the southern Levant. It is proposed that the advent of agricultural societies in the Neolithic caused an increase in the frequency of encounters between human hunters and wild ungulate taxa drawn to agriculturally-modified habitats. This higher frequency of encounters is responsible for the observed shift from gazelle- and fallow deer-dominated assemblages in the Epipalaeolithic to the wild boar- and aurochs-dominated assemblages in the Neolithic. The intensification of hunting wild boar and aurochs during the Neolithic is argued to have given rise to a trajectory towards the cultural control of these taxa.

To clarify the genetic ancestry and the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) diversity of the Lidia cattle breed, a 521-bp D-loop fragment was sequenced in 527 animals belonging to 70 herds distributed across 29 lineages. The mtDNA diversity recorded was similar to that seen for Middle Eastern breeds and greater than that recorded for the majority of European breeds. Haplotype T3 was the most common (81%), followed by the African T1 haplotype (17%); very low frequencies were recorded for haplotypes T and T2. The results agree with there being two major ancestral lines for the Lidia breed, European and African, similar to that seen for other Mediterranean breeds. A wide range of variation in haplotype frequencies was seen between the examined lineages. Haplotype T3 was present in all those analysed; in five it was the only one present, and in only one lineage (Miura) was its frequency lower than that of T1. T1*, a haplotype reported in Criollo breeds and to date in only a single European breed (the Retinta breed from Spain), was found in a single animal belonging to the Concha y Sierra lineage. Network analysis of the Lidia breed revealed the presence of two major haplotypes: T3 and T1. The Lidia breed appears to be more closely related to prehistoric Iberian and Italian than to British aurochs.

The aurochs was a type of wild cattle not extinct in Europe until the mid-second millennium BC – so they must have co-existed for centuries with the domestic cattle which were to supplant it. Here the authors use stable isotope analysis to show what form that co-existence took: the domestic cattle grazing on the pasture, and the aurochs lurking in the forests and wet places.

DNA samples from 307 males of 13 Portuguese native cattle breeds, 57 males of the 3 major exotic breeds in Portugal (Charolais, Friesian, and Limousin), and 5 Brahman (Bos indicus) were tested for 5 single nucleotide polymorphisms, 1 "indel," and 7 microsatellites specific to the Y chromosome. The 13 Y-haplotypes defined included 3 previously described patrilines (Y1, Y2, and Y3) and 10 new haplotypes within Bos taurus. Native cattle contained most of the diversity with 7 haplotypes (H2Y1, H3Y1, H5Y1, H7Y2, H8Y2, H10Y2, and H12Y2) found only in these breeds. H6Y2 and H11Y2 occurred in high frequency across breeds including the exotics. Introgression of Friesian cattle into Ramo Grande was inferred through their sharing of haplotype H4Y1. Among the native breeds, Mertolenga had the highest haplotype diversity (0.68 +/- 0.07), Brava de Lide was the least differentiated. The analyses of molecular variance showed significant (P < 0.0001) differences between breeds with more than 64% of the total genetic variation found among breeds within groups and 33-35% within breeds. The detection of INRA189-104 allele in 8 native breeds suggested influence of African cattle in breeds of the Iberian Peninsula. The presence in Portuguese breeds of Y1 patrilines, also found in aurochs, could represent more ancient local haplotypes.

Recent studies of modern and ancient mtDNA in domesticated and wild cattle has indicated that members of the extinct Near Eastern aurochs population (Bos primigenius primigenius) were the wild progenitors of European domesticated cattle (Bos taurus) (Bollongino, R., Edwards, C.J., Burger, J., Alt, K.W., Bradley, D.G., 2006. Early history of European domestic cattle as revealed by ancient DNA. Biol. Lett. 2, 155–159; Edwards, C.J., Bollongino, R., Scheu, A., Chamberlain, A., Tresset, A., Vigne, J.-D., Baird, J.F., Larson, G., Ho, S.Y.W., Heupink, T.H., Shapiro, B., Freeman, A.R., Thomas, M.G., Arbogast, R.-M., Arndt, B., Bartosiewicz, L., Benecke, N., Budja, M., Chaix, L., Choyke, A.M., Coqueugniot, E., Dohle, H.-J., Goldner, H., Hartz, S., Helmer, D., Herzig, B., Hongo, H., Mashkour, M., Ozdogan, M., Pucher, E., Roth, G., Schade-Lindig, S., Schmolcke, U., Schulting, R.J., Stephan, E., Uerpmann, H.-P., Voros, I., Voytek, B., Bradley, D.G., Burger, J., 2007. Mitochondrial DNA analysis shows a Near Eastern origin for domestic cattle and no indication of comestication of European aurochs. Proc. Biol. Sci. 274, 1377–1385; Troy, C.S., MacHugh, D.E., Bailey, J.F., Magee, D.A., Lotfus, R.T., Cunningham, P., Chamberlain, A.T., Sykes, B.C., Bradley, D.G., 2001. Genetic evidence for near-Eastern origins of European cattle. Nature 410, 1088–1091). This observation is generally consistent with the observation of archaeo-zoologists, but there are exceptions. As cattle domestication is associated with size reduction, wild and domesticated individuals have usually been differentiated by measuring the size of the bones. But this criteria is complicated by a pronounced sexual dimorphism that makes it difficult to discriminate between male domestic cattle and female aurochs. In particular, several bone samples from the mainly terminal Mesolithic site Rosenhof LA 58 in northernmost Germany have provoked intense discussion because they are smaller than the minimum known size of Scandinavian female aurochs. Therefore, some scholars have argued that they represent the first and possibly locally domesticated bovines of the northern European Mesolithic. To clarify the status of the Rosenhof “cattle”, we determined the mtDNA-haplotype and sex of four of these presumed Mesolithic domesticates. We also analysed one early Neolithic sample and four Mesolithic robust and therefore morphologically definite wild aurochs from Rosenhof. For the purposes of comparison, we also determined the mtDNA haplotypes of seven samples from the adjacent Neolithic site of Wangels. The Neolithic samples from Wangels and Rosenhof revealed lineages that are typical of imported taurine cattle. In contrast, the four wild aurochs and the four presumed Mesolithic domesticates from Rosenhof yielded mtDNA sequences that are characteristic for European aurochs. Furthermore, all the proposed domestics from Rosenhof were female individuals while three out of four remains from Rosenhof's confirmed aurochs were males. As the four bones in question are too large to belong to female domesticates it is highly likely that they stem from wild female aurochs that were smaller than previously thought. Our data thus indicate that the beginning of cattle husbandry in Northern Germany did not predate, but is rather linked to the Neolithic transition. The single Neolithic Rosenhof domestic revealed an early radiocarbon date of 4000 ± 50 cal BC and marks the onset of the Neolithic in Northern Europe.

The present study tests the hypothesis that the habitat of the globally extinct aurochs Bos primigenius was primarily riverine flat-lands. Landscape features in Britain were analyzed for sites with Late Pleistocene and postglacial finds of aurochs (n=188), and, for comparison, wolf (101), brown bear (96), red deer (73), beaver (68), roe deer (46) and moose (23). Find sites were defined as Ordnance Survey 1 km map squares containing 1 or more finds. For each, spot height above sea level, heights of contour lines, flatness of terrain, total length of watercourses, and presence of woods, rock and water features were noted. Comparisons of find sites among species (Kruskal-Wallis test) show significant differences that accord with knowledge of present-day habitat preferences at the landscape level. Considering the species separately each find site was then compared with a randomly selected control map square within 10 km. Compared with their respective control squares, find sites of beaver have, today, a stronger association with presence of lakes; those of brown bear and wolf with presence of cliffs and rock outcrops; and those of aurochs with absence of woodland and with lower elevation and greater flatness. The concordance of these findings with the present-day habitats of the extant species suggests valid inferences can be made about the habitat preference of the extinct aurochs. On this basis the aurochs appears, as hypothesized, to have selected low-lying, flat ground, which (indicated by its present-day use for purposes other than woodland) was relatively fertile.

The taurine and zebuine cattle breeds comprise the majority of the world cattle population but their taxonomic status is still controversial. The two forms of cattle are currently classified as Bos taurus and Bos indicus species and are differentiated primarily by the presence or absence of a hump. However, these two species hybridize readily, producing fully fertile offspring. We have determined and analyzed complete B. taurus and B. indicus mitochondrial genome sequences to investigate the extent of sequence divergences and to study their taxonomic status by molecular dating. The sequences encompassed 16,338 and 16,339 nucleotides, respectively, and differed at 237 positions. Estimated divergence times indicated that the two cattle lineages separated 1.7–2.0 million years ago. Combined phylogenetic analyses of 18 new and 130 previously reported extant B. taurus and B. indicus control region sequences with data from 32 archaeological specimens of the extinct wild aurochs (Bos primigenius) identified four major maternal lineages. B. primigenius haplotypes were present in all but the B. indicus lineage, and one B. taurus sequence clustered with B. primigenius P haplotypes that were not previously linked with domestic cattle. The B. indicus cluster and a recently reported new B. primigenius haplotype that represents a new lineage were approximately equidistant from the B. taurus cluster. These data suggest domestications from several differentiated populations of B. primigenius and a subspecies status for taurine (B. primigenius taurus) and zebuine (B. primigenius indicus) cattle.

Evidence for a Neolithic funeral feast has been excavated in northern Israel. A herd of eight wild cattle (aurochs) were slaughtered and joints of their meat placed in a pit which was covered over and the human burial laid on top. This was covered in turn with plaster, but the human skull was later removed through an accurately sited hole. It was the feast that began this funerary sequence, and the authors conservatively calculate that it provided a minimum of 500kg of meat. Given a 200g steak apiece this could theoretically feed some 2500 people, endorsing the authors' claim that the site was a central cult site serving surrounding villages. It is also suggested that the aurochs skulls, missing from the pit, may have been reserved for ritual purposes elsewhere, an early example of the Near Eastern bull cult that was later to have a long history in Europe.

The kouprey is a rare and enigmatic forest ox discovered by scientists in Cambodia only in 1937. Numerous morphological hypotheses have been proposed for the origin of the kouprey: that it is a species closely related to banteng and gaur, two other wild oxen of southeast Asia; a morphologically divergent species placed in a separate genus, named Novibos ; a wild species linked to aurochs and domestic cattle; a vicariant population of banteng; a feral cattle; or a hybrid of banteng with either zebu cattle, gaur or water buffalo. In a recent paper, which gained a lot of media coverage, Galbreath et al . analysed mitochondrial DNA sequences and concluded that the kouprey never existed as a wild, natural species, and that it was a feral hybrid between banteng and zebu cattle. Here we analyse eight DNA markers—three mitochondrial regions and five nuclear fragments—representing an alignment of 4582 nucleotides for the holotype of the kouprey and all related species. Our results demonstrate that the kouprey is a real and naturally occurring species, and show that Cambodian populations of banteng acquired a mitochondrial genome of kouprey by natural introgressive hybridization during the Pleistocene epoch.

1The Palaeoloxodon antiquus large-mammal assemblage was typical of the late middle and late Pleistocene interglacials in Europe. This review examines the assemblage's origins, dispersal and cohesiveness in Eurasia. 2During the more climatically equable middle-Pleistocene periods, the Palaeoloxodon assemblage (or closely related) species occurred across central Eurasia almost simultaneously. In Central and Western Europe, these species responded to climatic changes together as an unvarying interglacial assemblage, whereas in Eastern Europe and Siberia, they occurred in diverging assemblages. The boundary of the Palaeoloxodon assemblage can be drawn roughly from Poland to Romania. 3In Central and Western Europe this interglacial assemblage last occurred during the Eemian. During this period many of the Palaeoloxodon assemblage species may also have co-occurred in south-eastern Europe and, except for Bubalus murrensis and Hippopotamus amphibius, further eastwards. The extinct species of the Palaeoloxodon assemblage disappeared in Siberia and Central Asia prior to Europe and the Caucasus whereas the extant species were already present in their modern distribution areas. 4A quantitative study of faunal associations across Eurasia, following much-needed comprehensive systematic reviews, would further elucidate the patterns of faunal change associated with local and global climatic changes during the middle to late Pleistocene.

Colonization of Ukrainian part of Lower Danube began in the interval 7.5–7.0 ka BP, when the regional landscape was mesophilous meadow steppe. Forest plots with small percentages of deciduous vegetation were present in river valleys, temporary estuaries, and on ridges. The faunal complex was dominated by aurochs, red deer, and wild boar. High biomass density, combined with the fact that the region had not been intensively explored previously, allowed relatively stable forms of human adaptation. This is illustrated by the presence of the base camp Mirnoe, the seasonal settlements Zaliznychne and Vasylivka, which display diverse forms of livelihood activity, and by the distinctive pattern of site distribution pattern. In this context, the beginning of auroch domestication in this region is conceptualized not so much as an adaptive response to subsistence source base shortage, but rather as a phenomenon caused, together with joint exploitation of the same settlement area, by resource spatial distribution.

The extinct aurochs (Bos primigenius primigenius) was a large type of cattle that ranged over almost the whole Eurasian continent. The aurochs is the wild progenitor of modern cattle, but it is unclear whether European aurochs contributed to this process. To provide new insights into the demographic history of aurochs and domestic cattle, we have generated high-confidence mitochondrial DNA sequences from 59 archaeological skeletal finds, which were attributed to wild European cattle populations based on their chronological date and/or morphology. All pre-Neolithic aurochs belonged to the previously designated P haplogroup, indicating that this represents the Late Glacial Central European signature. We also report one new and highly divergent haplotype in a Neolithic aurochs sample from Germany, which points to greater variability during the Pleistocene. Furthermore, the Neolithic and Bronze Age samples that were classified with confidence as European aurochs using morphological criteria all carry P haplotype mitochondrial DNA, suggesting continuity of Late Glacial and Early Holocene aurochs populations in Europe. Bayesian analysis indicates that recent population growth gives a significantly better fit to our data than a constant-sized population, an observation consistent with a postglacial expansion scenario, possibly from a single European refugial population. Previous work has shown that most ancient and modern European domestic cattle carry haplotypes previously designated T. This, in combination with our new finding of a T haplotype in a very Early Neolithic site in Syria, lends persuasive support to a scenario whereby gracile Near Eastern domestic populations, carrying predominantly T haplotypes, replaced P haplotype-carrying robust autochthonous aurochs populations in Europe, from the Early Neolithic onward. During the period of coexistence, it appears that domestic cattle were kept separate from wild aurochs and introgression was extremely rare.

The Neolithic Revolution began 11,000 years ago in the Near East and preceded a westward migration into Europe of distinctive cultural groups and their agricultural economies, including domesticated animals and plants. Despite decades of research, no consensus has emerged about the extent of admixture between the indigenous and exotic populations or the degree to which the appearance of specific components of the “Neolithic cultural package” in Europe reflects truly independent development. Here, through the use of mitochondrial DNA from 323 modern and 221 ancient pig specimens sampled across western Eurasia, we demonstrate that domestic pigs of Near Eastern ancestry were definitely introduced into Europe during the Neolithic (potentially along two separate routes), reaching the Paris Basin by at least the early 4th millennium B.C. Local European wild boar were also domesticated by this time, possibly as a direct consequence of the introduction of Near Eastern domestic pigs. Once domesticated, European pigs rapidly replaced the introduced domestic pigs of Near Eastern origin throughout Europe. Domestic pigs formed a key component of the Neolithic Revolution, and this detailed genetic record of their origins reveals a complex set of interactions and processes during the spread of early farmers into Europe.

The domestication of the aurochs took place approximately 10,000 years ago giving rise to the two main types of domestic cattle known today, taurine (Bos taurus) domesticated somewhere on or near the Fertile Crescent, and indicine (Bos indicus) domesticated in the Indus Valley. However, although cattle have historically played a prominent role in human society the exact origin of many extant breeds is not well known. Here we used a combination of medium and high-density Illumina Bovine SNP arrays (i.e., ~54,000 and ~770,000 SNPs, respectively), genotyped for over 1300 animals representing 56 cattle breeds, to describe the relationships among major European cattle breeds and detect patterns of admixture among them. Our results suggest modern cross-breeding and ancient hybridisation events have both played an important role, including with animals of indicine origin. We use these data to identify signatures of selection reflecting both domestication (hypothesized to produce a common signature across breeds) and local adaptation (predicted to exhibit a signature of selection unique to a single breed or group of related breeds with a common history) to uncover additional demographic complexity of modern European cattle.

Background Ancient DNA analysis offers a way to detect changes in populations over time. To date, most studies of ancient cattle have focused on their domestication in prehistory, while only a limited number of studies have analysed later periods. Conversely, the genetic structure of modern cattle populations is well known given the undertaking of several molecular and population genetic studies. Results Bones and teeth from ancient cattle populations from the North-East Baltic Sea region dated to the Prehistoric (Late Bronze and Iron Age, 5 samples), Medieval (14), and Post-Medieval (26) periods were investigated by sequencing 667 base pairs (bp) from the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and 155 bp of intron 19 in the Y-chromosomal UTY gene. Comparison of maternal (mtDNA haplotypes) genetic diversity in ancient cattle (45 samples) with modern cattle populations in Europe and Asia (2094 samples) revealed 30 ancient mtDNA haplotypes, 24 of which were shared with modern breeds, while 6 were unique to the ancient samples. Of seven Y-chromosomal sequences determined from ancient samples, six were Y2 and one Y1 haplotype. Combined data including Swedish samples from the same periods (64 samples) was compared with the occurrence of Y-chromosomal haplotypes in modern cattle (1614 samples). Conclusions The diversity of haplogroups was highest in the Prehistoric samples, where many haplotypes were unique. The Medieval and Post-Medieval samples also show a high diversity with new haplotypes. Some of these haplotypes have become frequent in modern breeds in the Nordic Countries and North-Western Russia while other haplotypes have remained in only a few local breeds or seem to have been lost. A temporal shift in Y-chromosomal haplotypes from Y2 to Y1 was detected that corresponds with the appearance of new mtDNA haplotypes in the Medieval and Post-Medieval period. This suggests a replacement of the Prehistoric mtDNA and Y- chromosomal haplotypes by new types of cattle.

Background Domestication of the now-extinct wild aurochs, Bos primigenius, gave rise to the two major domestic extant cattle taxa, B. taurus and B. indicus. While previous genetic studies have shed some light on the evolutionary relationships between European aurochs and modern cattle, important questions remain unanswered, including the phylogenetic status of aurochs, whether gene flow from aurochs into early domestic populations occurred, and which genomic regions were subject to selection processes during and after domestication. Here, we address these questions using whole-genome sequencing data generated from an approximately 6,750-year-old British aurochs bone and genome sequence data from 81 additional cattle plus genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism data from a diverse panel of 1,225 modern animals. Results Phylogenomic analyses place the aurochs as a distinct outgroup to the domestic B. taurus lineage, supporting the predominant Near Eastern origin of European cattle. Conversely, traditional British and Irish breeds share more genetic variants with this aurochs specimen than other European populations, supporting localized gene flow from aurochs into the ancestors of modern British and Irish cattle, perhaps through purposeful restocking by early herders in Britain. Finally, the functions of genes showing evidence for positive selection in B. taurus are enriched for neurobiology, growth, metabolism and immunobiology, suggesting that these biological processes have been important in the domestication of cattle. Conclusions This work provides important new information regarding the origins and functional evolution of modern cattle, revealing that the interface between early European domestic populations and wild aurochs was significantly more complex than previously thought. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13059-015-0790-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The aurochs was the wild ancestor of modern cattle. With large horns and great strength, it inspired awe and fear until it went extinct in 1627. After a failed attempt to resurrect the aurochs in the 1930s, a new generation of biologists has been trying to back-breed a replica by combining traits from various heritage cattle. They hope that analysis of ancient DNA from fossilized aurochs will help guide and speed up the process. Already they are establishing herds of aurochs like cattle in various countries as part of an ambitious effort to rewild abandoned farmland and nature reserves in Europe.

Situé sur la côte ouest du Cotentin (Manche), le site du Rozel a livré un complexe de deux niveaux d’occupations anthropiques. L’abri sousroche conservait les vestiges d’un habitat comportant des structures de combustion, du mobilier lithique et fait exceptionnel dans le Cotentin des restes osseux. L’ensemble s’inscrit dans une formation dunaire sus-jacente à une plage ancienne. Initialement attribué à un Périgordien ancien, le site a fait l’objet d’une « relecture » visant à préciser son attribution chronostratigraphique et chronoculturelle. Le Rozel est actuellement le seul gisement de Basse-Normandie a avoir livré une industrie lithique à composante mixte. Les matières premières utilisées sont le quartz filonien prélevé à l’intérieur même de l’abri, et les galets de silex prélevés dans les cordons littoraux actifs à l’époque. Les générations successives de grands cordons littoraux formés au fur et à mesure de la régression weichsélienne ont été enfouies très rapidement par le massif dunaire, ne permettant plus l’exploitation de leur contenu, riche en nodules propices à la taille. Le débitage apparaît orienté, dans les deux niveaux, vers la production d’éclats prédéterminés (principalement Levallois) et d’enlèvements allongés. Un schéma opératoire laminaire de type paléolithique supérieur a été mis en évidence dans le niveau supérieur, lié à l’occupation principale de l’abri. Le site intègre l’ensemble des gisements à industrie laminaire de gestion volumétrique du début du Dernier Glaciaire. La faune représentée témoigne de conditions environnementales plutôt tempérées où l’aurochs, les cervidés et dans une moindre mesure les chevaux dominent. L’originalité du site réside dans la présence d’un fragment mandibulaire de morse, associé à l’occupation, témoignant de conditions subarctiques temporaires. L’analyse des vestiges de faune atteste de travaux de boucherie (découpe, fracturation des os longs) et traduit différents modes d’acquisition, ou des traitements particuliers en fonction des espèces. La convergence des observations effectuées dans les différentes disciplines indique que les occupations du site du Rozel se rapportent à la phase récente du Paléolithique moyen du début du dernier glaciaire weichselien et non au Paléolithique supérieur initial. Located on the Western coast, the Rozel provided an archaeological complex characterized by two occupation levels. The shelter has preserved traces of a habitat with combustion structures, lithic tools, and faunal remains, an exception on the Cotentin peninsula. The settlement is located in littoral dune upon a complex raised beach. Initially attributed to an Early Perigordian occupation, this site has been reinvestigated from a stratigraphic and cultural point of view. The Rozel shelter is the only occupation in the region presenting a mixed lithic industry. The raw materials used for tools are vein quartz found inside the shelter, and flint cobbles from the active gravel ridges. The successive gravels ridges raised step by step during the weichselian regression were rapidly buried by drift dune sands limiting exploitation of there high content of suitable flint knapping nodules. In the two occupation layers “debitage” seems to be oriented to the production of predeterminated flakes (manly Levallois technique) and elongated flakes. An operating procedure ‘laminaire de type paléolithique supérieur’, has been revealed in the upper floor, in relation with the main occupation of the site. Le Rozel is an integral part of the series if sites presenting volumetric blade industries from the beginning of the Weichselian. The preserved fauna attests of mostly temperate environments dominated by wild ox, deer and some horses. The particular interest of this site is the occurrence of a fragment of walrus bone in association with the occupation attesting of temporary subarctic climatic conditions. Analysis of the faunal remains attests to various slaughtering and butchering techniques indicating different methods used according to species. All these multidisciplinary approaches assign all of Le Rozel shelter occupations to the beginning of the Weichselian, not to the Early Upper Palaeolithic.

The unusual assemblage of aurochs horn cores from the baths of Bourbonne-les-Bains suggests votive deposits. But were they? The authors describe the assemblage, date it to the later Roman to early medieval period, discuss its possible environmental and ritual connotations, but also raise the possibility that it relates to craft-workers making use of the hot water supply to work the horn.

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios from bones of contemporaneous Late Atlantic aurochs and early cattle in eastern Denmark are significantly different and provide information on the origin and feeding strategies of the earliest domestic cattle. The data show that the early cattle were feeding on grass right from the beginning 4000 cal. yr BC. In contrast, the youngest aurochs population primarily browsed and grazed from the dense forest floor resulting in rather negative δ 13 C values measured on bone collagen. The oldest aurochs have similar isotope values to the earlier cattle, whereas the youngest aurochs have similar values to Late Atlantic red deer from the same locality. As eastern Denmark was largely covered by forest, speculations on the origin of the grazing areas are many. The grass may have grown in openings in the forest, at the forest fringe, or more likely on the newly reclaimed coastal land areas exposed by the decreasing rate of eustatic sea-level rise contemporaneously with isostatic uplift, during the Littorina transgressions. The stable isotope values do not indicate that leaf foddering of the early cattle was of importance.

Times Cited: 16; International audience; Cattle domestication from wild aurochsen was among the most important innovations during the Neolithic agricultural revolution. The available genetic and archaeological evidence points to at least two major sites of domestication in India and in the Near East, where zebu and the taurine breeds would have emerged independently. Under this hypothesis, all present-day European breeds would be descended from cattle domesticated in the Near East and subsequently spread during the diffusion of herding and farming lifestyles. We present here previously undescribed genetic evidence in contrast with this view, based on mtDNA sequences from five Italian aurochsen dated between 7,000 and 17,000 years B.P. and > 1,000 modern cattle from 51 breeds. Our data are compatible with local domestication events in Europe and support at least some levels of introgression from the aurochs in Italy. The distribution of genetic variation in modern cattle suggest also that different south European breeds were affected by introductions from northern Africa. If so, the European cattle may represent a more variable and valuable genetic resource than previously realized, and previous simple hypotheses regarding the domestication process and the diffusion of selected breeds should be revised.

bones during the construction of the municipal baths in Vac. It had to be bought back from a private collector that year, which made its provenancing uncertain.2 Aurochs seems to have disappeared from Hungary by the 13th century.3 As of today, the latest remains of this animal were found in 9th–10th century Zalavar and 11th–13th century Csongrad.4 Aurochs, however, had already become rare in the present day territory of Hungary by the Roman Period.5 Its conventionally accepted date of extinction in Europe is 1627.6 The cutmark, as a cultural modification, makes this bone a “real” archaeological artefact. This Sonderfund is, thus, extremely interesting from both a zoological and archaeological point of view, and as such deserves multidisciplinary treatment. Therefore, an effort was made to summarize its chronological, zoological and technological aspects using a variety of methods.

The Lower Paleolithic sites of Ambrona and Torralba (Soria, Spain) are often associated with each other because of their proximity although they do not represent the same morphostratigraphic unit. Systematic and extensive excavations were conducted at these sites by an American team during the 1960s and 1980s. Recently (1989–2000), a Spanish team has reactivated the research by initiating a new interdisciplinary project. In the central sector and west of the Ambrona site a stratigraphy has been established with six units from AS1 at the base to AS6 at the surface, corresponding to fluvial–lacustrine deposits in which abundant fauna associated with Acheulian artefacts were found. The most abundant species were elephant, horse, deer and aurochs. Other species like carnivores occur in small numbers only. The lithic assemblage is relatively sparse and consists of a few bifaces, choppers and several flake tools distributed throughout levels AS1 to AS5. The fauna and the lithic industry therefore document human presence at Ambrona during the Middle Pleistocene. In order to verify the presumed antiquity of the Ambrona deposits, horse teeth sampled in levels AS1, AS2 and AS6 were analysed using combined ESR/U-series (US) methods. The samples from the lower levels (AS1 and AS2) underwent a very recent uranium uptake as indicated by the U-series dates, ranging between 5 and 18 ka. In contrast, a more conventional postmortem uranium uptake was observed in the upper level samples (AS6) in the enamel and dentine tissues, while a light U-leaching was observed in the cementum. The combined ESR/U-series dates obtained on these samples suggest a minimum age of approximately 350 ka, contemporaneous of OSI 9 or the end of OSI 11, for the Ambrona site.

We examine the larger mammals from late Middle Palaeolithic Kebara Cave (Israel), and offer eight principal conclusions concerning Neanderthal hunting activities at the site. (1) Regardless of prey size, most procurement was by hunting, not scavenging. The major prey were gazelle and fallow deer, but also aurochs, red deer, and boar. (2) Hunting was seasonal, with most hunts in winter and/or spring. (3) Hunters took male and female deer in similar numbers, but a preponderance of female gazelle. These sex ratios probably reflect local availability and encounter rates. (4) More juvenile deer than juvenile gazelle were taken. The frequency of juveniles has not been severely impacted by taphonomic processes. Because of their small size and limited body fat, juveniles were probably low-ranked resources by comparison to their adult counterparts and may often have been excluded from the hunters' optimal diet. If so, fluctuations in the numbers of juveniles do not track changes in hunting season, but instead indi...

International audience; The absence of a comprehensive inventory of the remains of Bos primigenius in France and the lack of osteometric comparison data is a handicap in advancing our knowledge of this species. In a very unpretentious way limited to the West of France, this work completes the corpus and provides original metric data resulting from four institutions (Nantes Museum, Cherbourg Museum, Bougon Museum and Brest University), for a sample of 11 specimens for which only the cranial skeleton is preserved. This study is a continuation of an initial publication (Borvon et al., 2008) which had already listed Aurochs remains from western France and aims at encouraging this type of research which seems to have alot more possible results to give.; L’absence de recensement exhaustif des restes du Bos primigenius (Bojanus 1827) en France et le manque de données ostéométriques de comparaison est un handicap pour avancer sur la connaissance de cette espèce. De façon très modeste et limitée à l’ouest de la France, ce travail vient compléter le corpus et apporte des données métriques originales provenant de quatre institutions (Muséum de Nantes, Muséum de Cherbourg, Musée de Bougon et Université de Brest), pour un ensemble de 11 spécimens dont seul le squelette crânien est conservé. Cette étude vient dans le prolongement d’une publication initiale (Borvon et al., 2008) qui avait déjà recensé des restes d’Aurochs du Grand Ouest et vise à encourager ce type de recherche qui semble loin d’avoir donné tous les résultats possibles.

We present an extensive ancient DNA analysis of mainly Neolithic cattle bones sampled from archaeological sites along the route of Neolithic expansion, from Turkey to North-Central Europe and Britain. We place this first reasonable population sample of Neolithic cattle mitochondrial DNA sequence diversity in context to illustrate the continuity of haplotype variation patterns from the first European domestic cattle to the present. Interestingly, the dominant Central European pattern, a starburst phylogeny around the modal sequence, T3, has a Neolithic origin, and the reduced diversity within this cluster in the ancient samples accords with their shorter history of post-domestic accumulation of mutation.

Domesticated cattle were one of the cornerstones of European Neolithisation and are thought to have been introduced to Europe from areas of aurochs domestication in the Near East. This is consistent with mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) data, where a clear separation exists between modern European cattle and ancient specimens of British aurochsen. However, we show that Y chromosome haplotypes of north European cattle breeds are more similar to haplotypes from ancient specimens of European aurochsen, than to contemporary cattle breeds from southern Europe and the Near East. There is a sharp north–south gradient across Europe among modern cattle breeds in the frequencies of two distinct Y chromosome haplotypes; the northern haplotype is found in 20 out of 21 European aurochsen or early domestic cattle dated 9500–1000 BC. This indicates that local hybridization with male aurochsen has left a paternal imprint on the genetic composition of modern central and north European breeds. Surreptitious mating between aurochs bulls and domestic cows may have been hard to avoid, or may have occurred intentionally to improve the breeding stock. Rather than originating from a few geographical areas only, as indicated by mtDNA, our data suggest that the origin of domestic cattle may be far more complex than previously thought.

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios from 14 C dated bones of early Atlantic aurochs (Bos primigenius Bojanus) and late Atlantic first domestic cattle (Bos taurus Linnaeus) in eastern Denmark and southern Sweden are significantly different and provide information on the origin and feeding strategies of the two species. Radiocarbon dates generally divide the bone material of aurochs and domestic cattle in three groups: aurochs older than 4000 cal yr BP, an older group of domestic cattle around 4000 cal yr BP, and a younger, less well-defined group of domestic cattle starting at around 3500 cal yr BP. The older domestic cattle are represented mainly by fragmentary bones left over from meals, and deposited in lakes at the vicinity of the settlement areas. Bones of the younger domestic cattle group occur both as settlement debris and as single articulated skeletons in bogs, commonly in association with different types of clay pots. The latter type of finds suggests that sacrifice of domestic cattle began at this time. The dating of the early domestic cattle further indicates that they were contemporaneous with or slightly younger than the elm decline, which occurred shortly after 4000 cal yr BC on the Danish island of Sjaelland. Our results indicate a sudden rapid introduction of domestic cattle into Denmark, heralding the introduction of agriculture and there is no evidence for leaf foddering or domestication of aurochs. A combination of several natural events may have created the necessary open land, providing the grazing areas for the imported cattle. 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Several assumptions on the size of the African aurochs have been tested primarily using measurements assembled from the literature. During the Holocene, the African aurochs was indeed smaller than its European and Near Eastern cousins and it appears also to have been more gracile. The available African aurochs measurements of this period probably derive mostly from male animals, since many females may have been misidentified as domestic cattle. Therefore, the degree of sexual dimorphism remains unknown, although iconographic evidence suggests that it may have been marked. Male Holocene aurochs probably reached a height of about 160 cm at the withers and is not taller than Pleistocene female aurochs, which grew to between 140 and 160 cm. The height at the withers of the Pleistocene male individuals is estimated at between 150 and 170 cm. As in Europe, the aurochs in Africa underwent a size decline between the Pleistocene and the Holocene. The Pleistocene African aurochs moreover seems to have been more robust than its Holocene successor.