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This study was performed in order to quantify soil erosion in the arid lands of central Tunisia. To do this we used geographic information systems, remote sensing and the RUSLE prediction model. While the study area is characterized by reduced rainfall quantities and therefore a low R factor, other factors such as high soil erodibility, low vegetation cover and steep slopes resulted in locally high erosion rates. Indeed, the calculation of RUSLE factors revealed values between 0 and 731 tones×ha-1×year-1 with an average of 3.84 tones×ha-1×year-1. Whereas most catchment lands have low levels, the relief surrounding the catchment has relatively high rates due to the high value of slopes, the skeletal soils that compose them, but also due to the absence of protection, reforestation or crop management. This study also showed that despite their small extension compared to the watershed, main streams sectors, and especially their banks, record the highest erosion rates mainly due to the flow accumulation in the downstream sectors. Relative protection of the piedmont, which has saved them from higher erosion, can only be considered efficient and sustainable if the upstream hillsides are also protected. The comparison with previous studies carried out in Tunisia shows similarities in the results of some of them, considering the natural geographical variation of the R factor.

One of the key components of energy and hydrological processes is soil moisture, which is measured indirectly, because of exiting some problems in measuring directly. Some existing methods such as thermal inertia, vegetation indices, temperature and water indices (e.g. NDWI) has certain limitations such as difficulties in capturing images of day and night times, and differences in method of calculating of thermal inertia for different hours in a day. Therefore, finding a new method for calculating of soil moisture based soil temperature or water and soil spectral changes is very necessary. Although soil moisture is not calculated directly in the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL), since all parameters that have effect on soil moisture changes, consider for calculating evapotranspiration in SEBAL, this model can be used to calculate soil moisture. Jarghoye-Sofla, as the study area, is located adjacent to the Gavkhoni playa, Isfahan province. The study area, has faced with declining in soil moisture, as a result of climatic fluctuations, and drying of the wetlands in recent years. The purpose of this research is assessing of the remote sensed based surface energy balance model, and evaluation of biophysical parameters derived from satellite imagery to estimate soil moisture. Data used in this research, consisted of MODIS satellite images and measurements of 33 soil samples taken at depth of 0-30 cm. By measuring point soil moisture, and calculating volumetric soil moisture, the rate of evapotranspiration was estimated using the SEBAL model. Then, correlation between the parameters used in the SEBAL and ground measurements of soil moisture was evaluated. Results show high correlation between parameters of the SEBAL and soil moisture. The highest correlation was determined between the SEBAL algorithm daily evapotranspiration and soil moisture for days of 16 and 17 November, 2014 with values of 0.51 and 0.68, respectively.

DOI:10.17014/ijog.2.2.63-76In the context of the study, a Multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) in GIS was used in developing suitability index to optimize suitable lands for agricultural uses and seasonal farming in dry lands from geologic point of view. This study was performed in the areas between Mafraq and Zarqa Cities in Jordan which are classified as arid lands. The study aims at protecting groundwater from pollution, reducing soil salting, reducing irrigation water loss caused by evaporation, and increasing crop productivity. The geo-environmental parameters of the named area including geology, groundwater depths, soil depths and textures, climatic conditions, topographic settings, and groundwater vulnerability conditions were mapped and converted into layers with special rates, given weights, and then modeled using the multi criteria evaluation (MCE) option, using Decision Making Modeling in IDRISI (GIS software) to reach at the best choice of lands for agricultural activities, and also to determine which of these lands are suitable for summer farming and which are suitable for winter farming.

Aims One of the outstanding challenges facing humankind is increasing crop production under various types of severe environmental conditions. Many measures have been taken to adopt molecular and biotechnological approaches that lead to the development of transgenic plants able to deal with such harsh and polluted environments. However, such solutions could be very expensive and require considerable efforts and time to achieve these objectives. The main objective of this review is to discuss the new biological solutions that have emerged in the last decade, as environmentally friendly approaches, perhaps to support and/or replace the present efforts. These solutions based on plant–microbe interactions could be a lifeline and promising alternative strategy to create plants with a high resistance to the extreme environments. Methods During the last two decades research projects have been conducted to study the ecology, identify the features, and the ecophysiology of native plants and the associated microorganisms in the Arabian Gulf region and particularly in Qatar. Many physiological and biochemical parameters have been determined, including organic solutes (amino acids like proline, glycinebetaine, soluble sugars, etc.), photosynthetic pigments, organic acids and inorganic ions especially heavy metals, along with the physical and chemical properties of the soil in various locations of the State of Qatar. Also, the microorganisms adjacent to and associated with these native plants were identified to elucidate the possible roles in the soil biota in supporting these plants against extreme environmental conditions. Important Findings Investigations of native plants in the Arabian Gulf states during the last decade have shown that wild plants exhibit different abilities to accumulate organic solutes to cope with the harsh natural environments. Pollution is a major factor stressing wildlife in this region due to the expansion of urban sectors and industrial activities of oil and gas. Compatible osmolytes, like proline, accumulate in wild plants in response to severe environmental conditions and heavy metal contaminated soil. Accumulation of these solutes in plant tissues could provide some level of adaptation and resistance against all these types of environmental stresses. We present some promising efforts in the Arabian Gulf region to remediate desert soil and water polluted with heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbons. Substantial evidence is introduced about the roles of microorganisms associated with wild plants in natural habitats, such association may help them cope with the extreme stresses. Possible mechanisms adopted by microorganisms in alleviating the harsh abiotic stresses facing the wild life are discussed, one of which is the promotion of biosynthesis and transport of organic solutes to the plants. Also, the main possibilities of the origin of activities of the accumulation of compatible organic solutes are suggested and the objectives of the future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite significant efforts to restore dryland ecosystems worldwide, the rate of success of restoration is extremely low in these areas. The role of cyanobacteria from soil biocrusts in reestablishing soil functions of degraded land has been highlighted in recent years. These organisms are capable of improving soil structure and promoting soil N and C fixation. Nevertheless, their application to restore functions of reconstructed soils in dryland restoration programs is yet to be harnessed. In this study, we used microcosms under laboratory conditions to analyse the effects of inoculating soil substrates used in post-mine restoration with a mixture of N-fixing cyanobacteria isolated from soil biocrust ( Nostoc commune , Tolypothrix distorta and Scytonema hyalinum ) on i) the recovery of the biocrust, and ii) the carbon sequestration and mineralisation rates of these substrates. Soils were collected from an active mine site in the mining-intensive biodiverse Pilbara region (north-west Western Australia) and consisted of previously stockpiled topsoil, overburden waste material, a mixture of both substrates, and a natural soil from an undisturbed area. Our results showed that cyanobacteria rapidly colonised the mine substrates, with biocrust coverage ranging from 23.8 to 52.2% and chlorophyll a concentrations of up to 12.2 μg g −1 three months after inoculation. Notably, soil organic C contents increased 3-fold ( P  < 0.001) in the mine waste substrate (from 0.6 g kg −1 to 1.9 g kg −1 ) during this period of time. Overall, our results showed that cyanobacteria inoculation can rapidly modify properties of reconstructed soil substrates, underpinning the potential key role of these organisms as bio-tools to initiate recovery of soil functions in infertile, reconstructed soil substrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Currently, there is no agreed upon method for estimating evapotranspiration (ET) across large regions such as the state of New Mexico. Remote sensing methods have potential for providing a solution, but require validation. A comparison between field‐scale ET measurements using a portable chamber ET measurement device and modeled ET using the remote sensing Regional Evapotranspiration Estimation Model (REEM) was performed where the model had not been previously evaluated. Data were collected during the growing season of 2015 in three irrigated agricultural valleys of northern New Mexico in agricultural and nonagricultural settings. No statistically significant difference was observed in agricultural datasets between means of measured (M = 3.7 mm/day, SE = 0.31 mm/day) and modeled (M = 4.0 mm/day, SE = 0.01 mm/day) daily ET; t(17) = −1.50, p = 0.15, α = 0.05. As there was no statistical difference observed between agricultural datasets, results support the use of REEM in irrigated agricultural areas of northern New Mexico. A statistically significant difference was observed in nonagricultural datasets between means of measured (M = 1.7 mm/day, SE = 0.22 mm/day) and modeled (M = 0.0 mm/day, SE = 0.00 mm/day) daily ET; t(9) = 1.79, p = 5.7 × 10−6, α = 0.05. With additional calibrations and air temperature sensors placed outside of agricultural areas, REEM may be suitable for use in nonagricultural areas of northern New Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here we present an accurate microstratigraphic characterization of sheep/goat dung deposits from an ethnographic pastoral campsite located in SW Fazzan, at the border between Libya and Algeria. Research for referential data on current livestock contexts is essential for correctly interpreting archaeological records documented in ancient livestock spaces. Studies on herbivore faecal remains have played a key role in identifying socio-economic activities (e.g. domestic use of fuel, manuring, stabling or foddering strategies). Soil micromorphology, stable isotopes analysis (δ 13 C and δ 15 N, bulk and compound specific), and lipid analysis ( n -alkane fraction) have been applied on soil samples and dung pellets in order to obtain reference biosignatures for Caprinae stabling deposits in arid and hyperarid environments, where the biological material as dung preserves very well. Information about pastoral habitat adaptations in this area, taphonomic processes of dung deposits, significant micro-features related to penning (trampling, bedding and presence of dung spherulites, druses, phytoliths, and/or microfragments of coprolites), diet, and seasonality of herd animals is herein shown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In arid conditions, the low quality of the forage and water shortage could be attenuated by the introduction of Opuntia species. Several plant species grows well under Prosopis canopy, responding to a higher nutrient content in the soil, It was hypothesized that productivity and nutrient content, mainly crude protein (CP), of Opuntia ellisiana planted under Prosopis would be higher than of those planted outside the canopy, and that these parameters would be influenced by the cactus position: north or south from the centre of the tree. Sampling was done in 18 plants under the canopy of Prosopis and 23 outside of it. After one year of the plantation, the totality of cladodes was harvested. The productivity per plant was 3.1 and 5.7 cladodes and 34.9 and 48.1 g of dry matter (DM), outside and under the canopy, respectively. The bromatological values (%) were moisture: 89.1 and 91.9, organic matter (OM): 76.7 and 79.8, CP: 4.4 and 8.1, acid detergent fiber (ADF): 13.7 and 18.2, neutral detergent fiber (NDF): 29.0 and 31.5, K: 3.1 and 3.6, P: 0.07 and 0.11, Ca: 5.5 and 4.4, Na: 0.04 and 0.02, outside and under the canopy, respectively. Crude protein, moisture, OM, ADF, NDF, K, P and productivity per plant were higher under the canopy, whereas Ca and Na values were higher outside the canopy (p<0.05). Magnesium (1.9 and 1.9%) was not affected by the position outside or under the canopy. The north or south orientation did not influence any of the analysed parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Ephemeral and intermittent streams are abundant in the arid and semiarid landscapes of the Western and Southwestern United States (U.S.). Connectivity of ephemeral and intermittent streams to the relatively few perennial reaches through runoff is a major driver of the ecohydrology of the region. These streams supply water, sediment, nutrients, and biota to downstream reaches and rivers. In addition, they provide runoff to recharge alluvial and regional groundwater aquifers that support baseflow in perennial mainstem stream reaches over extended periods when little or no precipitation occurs. Episodic runoff, as well as groundwater inflow to surface water in streams support limited naturally occurring riparian communities. This paper provides an overview and comprehensive examination of factors affecting the hydrologic, chemical, and ecological connectivity of ephemeral and intermittent streams on perennial or intermittent rivers in the arid and semiarid Southwestern U.S. Connectivity as influenced and moderated through the physical landscape, climate, and human impacts to downstream waters or rivers is presented first at the broader Southwestern scale, and secondly drawing on a specific and more detailed example of the San Pedro Basin due to its history of extensive observations and research in the basin. A wide array of evidence clearly illustrates hydrologic, chemical, and ecological connectivity of ephemeral and intermittent streams throughout stream networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula) is a perennial specie, native to South Africa, from good forage value that adapts well to a wide range of soils and climatic conditions. The Imperial variety of weeping lovegrass comes from collections made in Central and Northern Mexico. It was assessed in arid and semi-arid zones in rainfed and irrigation from 1986 until the record in 2008. The registration granted by the National Service of inspection and certification of seeds (SNICS) is ERA-001-060608. To date, the first variety recorded for this specie in Mexico. The mean dry matter annual production per hectarea of this variety performance ranges between 896 y 1,947, mean of 1,200 under rainfed conditions and between 3,150 y 6,100 under irrigation conditions. This grass is tolerant to drought, easy settlement and rapid growth, is palatable to livestock, grazing-resistant and tolerant to salinity. It is used for the recovery of degraded rangeland and conservation of soil in grassland of arid and semi-arid zones in Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geologic events promoting the aridization of southern South America contributed to lineage divergences and species differentiation through geographic (allopatric divergence) and biotic and abiotic factors (ecological divergence). For the genus Anarthrophyllum, which is distributed in arid and semi-arid regions of Patagonia, we assessed how these factors affected species diversification and reconstructed its possible biogeographic history in South American arid environments. Sequences were obtained from two molecular markers: the ITS nuclear region and the trnS-trnG plastid region. Using Parsimony, Maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference individual gene trees were reconstructed, and a species tree was obtained using multi-species coalescent analysis. Divergence times among species were estimated using secondary calibrations. Flexible Bayesian models and stochastic character mapping were used to elucidate ancestral geographic distributions and the evolution of the floral and vegetative phenotypes in the genus. Gene trees and species tree analyses strongly support Anarthrophyllum as monophyletic; all analyses consistently retrieved three well-supported main clades: High Andean Clade, Patagonian Clade 1, and Patagonian Clade 2. Main diversification events occurred concomitant with the Andean uplift and steppe aridization; the Andean mountain range possibly acted as a species barrier for the High Andean Clade. Vegetative traits showed adaptations to harsh climates in some clades, while pollinator-related floral features were associated with independent diversification in bee- and bird-pollinated clades within both Patagonian Clades. In conclusion, evolutionary and biogeographic history of Anarthrophyllum resulted from the action of ecological, historical, and geographic factors that acted either alternatively or simultaneously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water resources play a vital role in ecosystem stability, human survival, and social development in drylands. Human activities, such as afforestation and irrigation, have had a large impact on the water cycle and vegetation in drylands over recent years. The Badain Jaran Desert (BJD) is one of the driest regions in China with increasing human activities, yet the connection between human management and the ecohydrology of this area remains largely unclear. In this study, we firstly investigated the ecohydrological dynamics and their relationship across different spatial scales over the BJD, using multi-source observational data from 2001 to 2014, including: total water storage anomaly (TWSA) from Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), lake extent from Landsat, and precipitation from in situ meteorological stations. We further studied the response of the local hydrological conditions to large scale vegetation and climatic dynamics, also conducting a change analysis of water levels over four selected lakes within the BJD region from 2011. To normalize the effect of inter-annual variations of precipitation on vegetation, we also employed a relationship between annual average NDVI and annual precipitation, or modified rain-use efficiency, termed the RUEmo. A focus of this study is to understand the impact of the increasing planted vegetation on local ecohydrological systems over the BJD region. Results showed that vegetation increases were largely found to be confined to the areas intensely influenced by human activities, such as croplands and urban areas. With precipitation patterns remaining stable during the study period, there was a significant increasing trend in vegetation greenness per unit of rainfall, or RUEmo over the BJD, while at the same time, total water storage as measured by satellites has been continually decreasing since 2003. This suggested that the increased trend in vegetation and apparent increase in RUEmo can be attributed to the extraction of ground water for human-planted irrigated vegetation. In the hinterland of the BJD, we identified human-planted vegetation around the lakes using MODIS observations and field investigations. Four lake basins were chosen to validate the relationship between lake levels and planted vegetation. Our results indicated that increasing human-planted vegetation significantly increased the water loss over the BJD region. This study highlights the value of combining observational data from space-borne sensors and ground instruments to monitor the ecohydrological dynamics and the impact of human activities on water resources and ecosystems over the drylands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was performed in order to quantify soil erosion in the arid lands of central Tunisia. To do this we used geographic information systems, remote sensing and the RUSLE prediction model. While the study area is characterized by reduced rainfall quantities and therefore a low R factor, other factors such as high soil erodibility, low vegetation cover and steep slopes resulted in locally high erosion rates. Indeed, the calculation of RUSLE factors revealed values between 0 and 731 tones× ha-1 × year-1 with an average of 3.84 tones× ha-1 × year-1. Whereas most catchment lands have low levels, the relief surrounding the catchment has relatively high rates due to the high value of slopes, the skeletal soils that compose them, but also due to the absence of protection, reforestation or crop management. This study also showed that despite their small extension compared to the watershed, main streams sectors, and especially their banks, record the highest erosion rates mainly due to the flow accumulation in the downstream sectors. Relative protection of the piedmont, which has saved them from higher erosion, can only be considered efficient and sustainable if the upstream hillsides are also protected. The comparison with previous studies carried out in Tunisia shows similarities in the results of some of them, considering the natural geographical variation of the R factor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camels are essentially fitted to live in arid regions by their ability to go without water for considerable periods, an ability they owe to their remarkable tolerance for dehydration while keeping the blood volume normal. This allows them to survive rainless seasons on the scantiest feed and exist in areas where other livestock species cannot. In Kenya they inhabit the northern part of the country. It has been observed that the full potential of camel has not been realized. According to Field (2005) camel has been ignored for a long time by policymakers, researchers, and development agents. This led to the need for Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) Marsabit to come up with this study that had the objective of analyzing the socio-economic importance of camel among the pastoral communities of Northern Kenya, and to identify the key constraints faced by camel keepers and come up with strategies to reduce the constraints. This study was conducted in Northern Kenya among the Gabra, Rendille and the Ariaals who are major camel keepers. Various data collecting techniques were applied namely; focus group discussions, key informants, direct observation and documented materials. This study revealed that Camels are very important for subsistence, social and religious functions for livestock producers who rear them. The wealth of camel keepers is determined by the number of camels they own. They offer transport of goods from one place to the other when clan members are migrating. Camel hides are used for domestic purposes and also for sale. The study findings revealed that the full potential of camel and its products have not been realized. This is attributed to various factors including camel keepers' cultural practices, their geographical location, and lack of market information, among others. This being the case there is needed to educate the camel keepers on other uses of camel apart from what they already know. Camel keepers also need to be equipped with appropriate information on prices and market outlets for camels. Kenya Meat Commission which offers market for cattle and small ruminant meat should expand its market to accommodate camel meat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lake Urmia, in northwest Iran, is the second most saline lake in the world. During the past two decades, the level of water has markedly decreased. In this paper, climate of the lake region is investigated by using data from four meteorological stations near the lake. The data include climatic parameters such as temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed, sunshine hours, number of rain days, and evaporation. Climate around the lake is examined by way of climate classification in the periods before and after the reduction in water level. Rainfall in the lake catchment is also evaluated using both gauge and satellite data. The results show a significant decreasing trend in mean annual precipitation and wind speed and an increasing trend in annual average temperature and sunshine hours at the four stations. Precipitation and wind speed have decreased by 37 mm and 2.7 m/s, respectively, and the mean annual temperature and sunshine hours have increased by 1.4 °C and 41.6 days, respectively, over these six decades. Only the climate of the Tabriz region is seen to have significantly changed, going from semiarid to arid. Gauge records and satellite data show a large-scale decreasing trend in rainfall since 1995. The correlation between rainfall and year-to-year changes in lake level is 0.69 over the period 1965 to 2010. The relationship is particularly strong from the early 1990s to 2005. This suggests that precipitation has played an important role in the documented decline of the lake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental stresses pose a significant threat to plant growth and ecosystem productivity, particularly in arid lands that are more susceptible to climate change. Strigolactones (SLs), carotenoid-derived plant hormones, have emerged as a potential tool for mitigating environmental stresses. This review aimed to gather information on SLs' role in enhancing plant tolerance to ecological stresses and their possible use in improving the resistance mechanisms of arid land plant species to intense aridity in the face of climate change. Roots exude SLs under different environmental stresses, including macronutrient deficiency, especially phosphorus (P), which facilitates a symbiotic association with arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF). SLs, in association with AMF, improve root system architecture, nutrient acquisition, water uptake, stomatal conductance, antioxidant mechanisms, morphological traits, and overall stress tolerance in plants. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that SL-mediated acclimatization to abiotic stresses involves multiple hormonal pathways, including abscisic acid (ABA), cytokinins (CK), gibberellic acid (GA), and auxin. However, most of the experiments have been conducted on crops, and little attention has been paid to the dominant vegetation in arid lands that plays a crucial role in reducing soil erosion, desertification, and land degradation. All the environmental gradients (nutrient starvation, drought, salinity, and temperature) that trigger SL biosynthesis/exudation prevail in arid regions. The above-mentioned functions of SLs can potentially be used to improve vegetation restoration and sustainable agriculture. Present review concluded that knowledge on SL-mediated tolerance in plants is developed, but still in-depth research is needed on downstream signaling components in plants, SL molecular mechanisms and physiological interactions, efficient methods of synthetic SLs production, and their effective application in field conditions. This review also invites researchers to explore the possible application of SLs in improving the survival rate of indigenous vegetation in arid lands, which can potentially help combat land degradation problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Depletion of water supplies for potable and irrigation use is a major problem in the rural wadi valleys of Saudi Arabia and other areas of the Middle East and North Africa. An economic analysis of supplying these villages with either desalinated seawater or treated wastewater conveyed via a managed aquifer recharge (MAR) system was conducted. In many cases, there are no local sources of water supply of any quality in the wadi valleys. The cost per cubic meter for supplying desalinated water is $2–5/m3 plus conveyance cost, and treated wastewater via an MAR system is $0–0.50/m3 plus conveyance cost. The wastewater reuse, indirect for potable use and direct use for irrigation, can have a zero treatment cost because it is discharged to waste in many locations. In fact, the economic loss caused by the wastewater discharge to the marine environment can be greater than the overall amortized cost to construct an MAR system, including conveyance pipelines and the operational costs of reuse in the rural environment. The MAR and associated reuse system can solve the rural water supply problem in the wadi valleys and reduce the economic losses caused by marine pollution, particularly coral reef destruction.

Very low frequency electromagnetic (VLF-EM) measurements were carried out in Wadi Isbayia area, south Sinai Peninsula, to test the efficiency of the VLF-EM method in the exploration of sulphide mineralization in arid environments. The VLF-EM field measurements, including tilt angle, real and imaginary components of the received VLF field, were carried out along fifteen profiles covering a quartz monzonite bedrock. Interpretation of the VLF measurements, in the light of geological information, has showed that sulphide minerals in the Wadi Isbayia area extend from the ground surface to a depth of about 200 m. However, the structural lineaments, especially faults, have controlled the distribution of the sulphide mineralization. A few of polished sections for rock samples, collected from the sites of the VLF-EM anomalies in the study area, have been prepared and examined by ore microscopy which confirmed the presence of pyrite and chalcopyrite as well as iron oxides, disseminated in the quartz monzonite bedrock. These results showed that the VLF-EM method is an effective tool in the exploration of sulphide minerals in the arid environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Harsh environment, severe aridity, and climate change create chronic water shortages in the Middle East. Technical challenges, socio-economic factors, and competing uses of water have escalated the difficulties in water planning at national and institutional levels. This research identifies opportunities and challenges associated with wastewater treatment systems and the potential for wastewater reuse in the West Bank, Tunisia, and Qatar through the following objectives: (1) identify the factors associated with successful and unsuccessful reuse schemes, (2) compare treated wastewater quality with end use application of treated wastewater, and (3) identify the governance and social challenges preventing the use of treated wastewater, specifically in agricultural applications. Water quality analyses and consultations with farmers, local stakeholders, and water and agriculture experts were conducted. Opportunities and challenges for treated wastewater reuse in agriculture are identified as the proximity of the treatment facility to agricultural areas, water quality, and motivation of farmers. With proper maintenance and appropriate monitoring, the modest (natural) treatment facilities in the West Bank and secondary treatment technologies in Tunisia are capable of producing effluent safe for use in production of certain agricultural products; however, in Qatar, despite massive investments in producing high-quality treated wastewater using advanced treatment technologies, there is little demand. Water policies, laws and acts, and action plans are urgently needed to be coupled and integrated for implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between 2003–2011, a research programme in southwest Fazzan (Libya) aimed at understanding the resilience of the Kel Tadrart Tuareg, currently inhabiting the Acacus Mts. Using a multi-pronged approach featuring oral interviews, participant observation, mapping of settlements and localisation of natural resources, the Kel Tadrarts’ interaction with the landscape was investigated, and traditional (local) ecological knowledge turned out to be a key factor in the successful adaptation of the Kel Tadrart to erratic rainfall and meagre pastures. The study of Kel Tadrart resilience has fostered new interpretation of the recent past of the region, developed under the framework of the Theory of Resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]