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Much has been learned about the socialization of physical education (PE) teachers using occupational socialization theory (OST). However, important to understanding any socialization process is explaining how the roles that individuals play are socially constructed and contextually bound. OST falls short of providing a comprehensive overview of how the role of the PE teacher is defined and negotiated within schools. The purpose of this paper is to present role socialization theory as a new approach to understanding teacher socialization that integrates elements of OST and role theory. Role socialization seeks to explore: (a) the ways in which the occupational role of the PE teacher is socially constructed and contextually bound in a school setting; (b) how individuals are attracted to, prepared for, and socialized into PE teaching and coaching roles; and (c) how socialization influences the ways in which role-sets view the role of the PE teacher as a member of the school community.

Previous meta-analyses of the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement have been plagued with theoretical and methodological flaws. Specifically, these studies have not adopted both fixed and mixed effects models for analyzing the effect size; they have not evaluated the moderating effect of some commonly used parameters, such as comparing same-age reciprocal peer tutoring, same-age nonreciprocal, or cross-age peer tutoring; considered the educational level of tutee or tutor; or properly addressed publication bias. Most studies are confined to specific populations and particular subjects (mainly mathematics and reading), and some studies are confounded by other types of intervention (such as cooperative learning or adult-led tutoring). Hence, there is a compelling need for an updated, comprehensive meta-analysis evaluating the effect of peer tutoring on academic achievement that incorporates advances in methodology, is not confounded by other modes of peer learning, and engages a wide range of participants and various subjects. The present study demonstrates that peer tutoring has a positive impact on academic achievement. The moderators and crucial determinants of the effectiveness of peer tutoring are identified and compared. Moreover, program parameters based on the concepts of role theory and interdependent group contingencies are evaluated. Finally, a preliminary empirical model of the crucial determinants of best practices for peer tutoring on academic achievement is proposed.

Integrating theoretical knowledge within teacher education has often been portrayed as difficult, with previous studies reporting student teachers' ambivalence, or even scepticism, about the value of research findings and theory to classroom practice. Moreover, the nature of teachers' professional knowledge is itself uncertain and highly complex. This paper reports on the developing conceptions held by a group of postgraduate student teachers about the relationship of theory to classroom practice in learning to teach. The data are drawn from a small-scale longitudinal case study. They capture participants' preconceptions about theory before beginning training and subsequent developments through the course and into the first teaching post. The research finds these students to be far from naïve at the outset, entering training open to a range of forms of learning, with a positive view of the potential contribution of theory to practice. Alongside a growing appreciation of the complex, situated and contested nature of theory, the data suggest that theory comes to be increasingly valued over time. As newly qualified teachers, the participants not only see theory as integral to their practice, but recognise the important, largely unanticipated, role of the university in this process. As a result of these insights, potential considerations for course design are offered, at a time when teacher education in many countries is becoming more school-based and new forms of partnership are being developed.

This study utilised role theory to investigate teacher aide roles within regional schools in Queensland, Australia. Twenty primary schoolteacher aides were interviewed; data were triangulated with 27 teacher aides' responses to a follow-up questionnaire and interviews with 6 administrative staff. Data suggest that classroom instructional support roles and small group instruction dominate teacher aide work; they also perform many non-instructional roles and work individually with students with diverse needs. School leaders must reconsider the roles expected of these professionals given their position, professional training and remuneration, better supporting teacher aides through improved communication, collaboration and sustained professional learning opportunities.

Although the role of the school social worker has historically been inconsistent, fragmented, and contextual, concerns about the need to advocate for school social work positions, demonstrate the effectiveness of school social work practice, understand the consequences of role ambiguity, and respond in a proactive way to policy changes has necessitated a focus on the development of a more clearly defined school social work role. The purpose of the current exploratory-descriptive study was to examine the role of school social workers in Louisiana (N = 378). Results of the analysis led to a consistent role definition in Louisiana and the development of a conceptual practice model. This conceptual model and role definition has implications for school social workers' ability to advocate for their positions, provide accountability for their work, and guide the training and education of school social workers.

The paper reports on a study of partners of USA university president/chancellors, a rarely researched population in scholarly literature. Interviews with 24 male and female presidential partners of state supported colleges and universities provided insight into a privileged yet perplexing position, rarely seen by the public. The study draws on the theoretical framework of social role theory and the response of presidential partners to the university's role expectations. Findings reveal often intensely demanding roles, some clear and others more ambiguous suggest that while some of the presidential partners are able to adapt to these role expectations, others find themselves in a struggle.

The constructs of role stressors, burnout, and resilience have been the topic of numerous research studies in physical education and education more generally. Specific to physical education, much effort has been devoted to the study of teacher/coach role conflict. However, no prior studies have examined how role stressors, burnout, and resilience experienced by teacher/coaches differ from what is experienced by noncoaching teachers. Using role theory as a guiding framework, this study sought to examine differences in role stressors, burnout, and resilience among teacher/coaches and noncoaching teachers from core (e.g., mathematics, language arts) and noncore (e.g., physical education, music) subjects. Analyses were conducted using 2 × 2 (coaching status × subject affiliation) Factorial ANOVAs. While some group differences are highlighted, overall the results suggest that there are more similarities than differences among teacher/ coaches and noncoaching teachers. These findings suggest that it is not safe to assume that dual role teacher/coaches will always experience more role stress and burnout than noncoaching teachers. Additional research is needed to more fully understand the implications of being a dual role teacher/coach.

The study of teacher/coach role conflict has a long history in the physical education literature. However, only a few studies have measured the construct using psychometric instrumentation. Ryan (2008) created one such instrument, but the survey was not validated prior to use. As such, the purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the factorial, convergent, and divergent validity of Ryan's (2008) Teacher/Coach Role Conflict Scale. Participants included 194 teacher/coaches who taught a variety of academic subjects. Preliminary analyses indicated that there were no differences among participants with reference to gender, teaching affiliation, school context, or school level. Results from confirmatory factor analysis indicated that, after the specification of a correlated error, the hypothesized model was a good fit for the data, ?2(33) = 88.92, p < 0.001; CFI = 0.97; NNFI = 0.96; SRMR = 0.05; RMSEA = 0.09. Correlational analyses indicated that the instrument correlated positively with other measures of role stress and negatively with personal accomplishment, which supports convergent and divergent validity, respectively. Implications of the research as well as directions for future studies are discussed.

The purpose of this article is to describe a project that aims to foster active aging through entrepreneurial activities among older adults. The project establishes the feasibility of implementing an intervention program that assimilates the concept and capabilities of entrepreneurship among older adults and supports them while launching new ventures. A 12-meeting training program was provided to the selected participants followed by continuing support through a tailor-made incubator. The pilot experiment selected a group of retirees who sought work and had no previous entrepreneurial experience. Of the 22 participants in the intervention program, 15 (70%) actually started a microenterprise based on their previously formulated ideas and past work experience and encouraged by participation in the program. Fostering older adults' entrepreneurial activities has value much further than fulfilling individual needs because it provides benefits to the welfare of the community as well as to the economy. The pilot experiment suggests that this type of intervention program is feasible and warrants further studies.

Attentiveness to and transparency about the methodological implications of the level of analysis selected for peace and conflict exercises constitute essential elements of good game design. The article explores the impact of level of analysis choices in the context of two key portions of exercises, scenario construction and role specification. It weighs the consequences of these choices in terms of the differing conclusions one can draw from exercises and potential pitfalls of careless choices. Finally, it argues that level of analysis considerations in game design parallels specific debates within segments of the social science literature, connections that are also explored in this article for their relevance to game design. (Contains 6 notes.)

This study capitalizes on a unique, nested data set comprised of students ("n" = 531) and teachers ("n" = 45) in three high schools that explicitly incorporated student support roles into teachers' job descriptions. Drawing from research on student-teacher relationships, teacher effects on student outcomes, and role theory, this study explored correlates of teachers' role definition. In particular, it considered role breadth, or the degree to which teachers defined their roles to include the provision of various forms of social and emotional support to students. We hypothesized that teachers' role breadth would relate to student perceptions of teacher support and high academic expectations (also known as academic press). Multi-level modeling of the relationship between teacher role breadth and student outcomes accounted for the data's nested quality and showed a positive relationship between teachers' sense of efficacy about providing student support and their reported role breadth. In addition, teacher role breadth was positively related to student perceptions of teacher support and academic press, controlling for student-reported background and school performance characteristics. Implications for student-teacher relationships, teacher education, and teacher roles are discussed. (Contains 4 tables, 1 figure, and 3 footnotes.)

The use of social networking sites (SNSs) has become commonplace amongst students. In this research, we aim to shed light upon the educational use and privacy issues on Facebook from the perspective of role theory and reference group theory. 15 bachelor students of the University of Leuven (KU Leuven) in Flanders, Belgium, were interviewed in depth several times during the 2009-2010 academic year. In addition, 143 students completed an online survey concerning their daily ICT use. Our findings confirm the enormous popularity of SNSs amongst contemporary students. Findings also suggest that students make a clear distinction between ICT use for study and non-study related purposes. Three categories of students arise concerning students' answers on the question of whether Facebook possesses educational possibilities: the indifferents, the approvers, and the supporters. No interviewee would accept a friendship request from a faculty member, partly based on an awareness of the consequences of too much self-disclosure on Facebook. Three explanations, inspired by role theory and reference group theory, are given to frame this denial: firstly, that students identify themselves with different reference groups; secondly, in reference group theory, that the behavior of a person is consistent with the expectations of the peer group; and finally, inspired by role theory, that being a faculty member's friend is seen as a role conflict.

While quality physical education teacher education requires recruits to be trained in the knowledge, skills, and dispositions necessary for effective teaching, research stemming from socialization theory and role theory indicates that this may not be adequate. Pre-service teachers also need to be made aware of organizational challenges they will face when transitioning into their first teaching position. These challenges stem from the ways in which recruits are socialized into physical education, and are related to the complex, sociopolitical structure of schooling. The purpose of this article is to provide a review of the organizational challenges faced by beginning physical education teachers and to present recommendations for how teacher training programs can better prepare pre-service teachers to meet these challenges. The discussion includes both general and specific strategies that can be implemented to provide pre-service teachers with the knowledge and skills necessary to enhance their ability to navigate life in the sociopolitical contexts of schools. Preparing students for the realities of school life should correspond with a decrease in reality shock and the washout effect.

The authors critically analyze how the concept of the drama triangle--part of the game theory associated with transactional analysis--can be used by post secondary instructors teaching online to build a sense of community and decrease students' dependence on instructors in discussion forums. The article begins with an overview of sense of community, followed by a detailed discussion on the drama triangle and its applicability to online instruction and discussion forum management. Observational data as an online instructor are presented in order to illustrate how drama triangle interactions in the online environment can stall sense of community formation. In addition, the authors provide online instructors with specific strategies for recognizing and avoiding instructor-student interactions that promote the rescuing, victim, and persecutor behaviors that detract from sense of community formation.

Too little research exists that provides windows into the day-to-day lives of community college students. The purpose of this paper is to explicate one finding and concomitant grounded theory derived from a photovoice project aimed at understanding the educational lives of community college students. Participants saw the community college as a means to obtain a freer life, in the broadest sense. An integration of Bourdieusian thought and scholarship on role theory led to the creation of a constructivist grounded theory termed habitus dissonance spark theory, which suggests that community college enrollment is prompted by habitus dissonance, or discomfort with perceived levels of social agency, or freedom, in life. This paper outlines the finding and resultant grounded theory and its implications. (Contains 1 table and 17 figures.)

Drawing from role theory, this study sought to explore the effects of assuming a new role on Latina community health workers (CHW) participating in a cervical cancer prevention program in a new Latino immigrant community located on the East Coast of the United States. Through a series of in-depth, Spanish language interviews with the 4 participants, the researchers explored the process and effects of assuming and enacting the CHW role through a narrative analysis approach. Themes that emerged from the analysis included "Reasons for becoming a promotora," "Vision and reality of the role," "Structuring interactions: The hierarchy of knowledge transmission," and "Transforming identities." Findings showed that assuming the CHW role had transformative effects on the participants that, in the end, allowed them to reconcile disparate aspects of their own immigrant identities. The findings have multiple implications for designing prevention programs employing CHWs and immigrant community strengthening. (Contains 1 note.)

Both gifted educators and parents need to be vigilant as to how gifted education is characterized in the popular media. Gifted educators spend countless resources to meet the needs of gifted students using very limited fiscal resources, and it is imperative that those efforts are not undermined in the popular media by unsubstantiated statements. This study addresses one such statement and is presented as encouragement to document and defend the actions of gifted educators when the popular media attempts to discredit the field.

Belbin team role self and observer perceptions were applied to a large cohort (145) of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences undergraduates in a module assessed through two separate group projects. Students self-selected groups for the first project; for the second, groups were more "balanced." Results show slight improvement in group performance compared with that of previous years, with a significant increase in first-class grades. No evidence was found linking group balance to performance; however, students recognized the value of their Belbin report when entering the job market. Belbin usefully contextualizes regularly occurring group work issues and provides students with ways of managing these issues. (Contains 4 tables and 3 figures.)

This paper attempts a fundamental analysis of the nature of research into e-learning and the role that theory plays in this. We examine "research" in broad terms, and the nature of phenomena in general. We identify that e-learning is an artificial phenomenon, and that research approaches need to be cognisant of the design elements in e-learning, and the cyclical nature of e-learning development. We identify various desired research outcomes which are appropriate at each stage of the e-learning lifecycle, and argue that studies of e-learning involve a mixture of evaluation and research. We discuss e-learning evaluation research in the context of different disciplinary and interdisciplinary research approaches, recognising that there is no one "right" way to do e-learning evaluation research. However, we recognise that there is a varying mixture of a "search for fundamental understanding" and "consideration of use" in e-learning evaluation research. We use these considerations to discuss the role of theory in educational research, and, in particular, in e-learning evaluation research, before applying the preceding arguments to the e-learning lifecycle, identifying five different forms of evaluation research. (Contains 3 tables.)

Research grounded in role theory and occupational socialization theory point to the potential consequences of occupying the roles of physical education teacher and athletic coach concurrently. Specifically, time constraints and inconsistencies in role requirements, organization, rewards, and modes of accountability in teaching and coaching create challenges and may force some teacher/coaches to choose one role as primary to the detriment of the other role. However, most of this research has diminished or altogether neglected the impact of individual identity and social context on the experience of role conflict. The purpose of this paper is to review research related to role conflict in the dual role of teacher/coaches and to propose a conceptual model for viewing teacher/coaches role conflict from a multidimensional perspective. Finally, a case is made for a revitalization of teacher/coaches role conflict research in physical education. (Contains 1 figure.)

Helping students prepare for the complex transition to life after graduation is an important responsibility shared by those in student affairs and others in higher education. This chapter explores theories and models that can inform student affairs practitioners and faculty in preparing students for life after college. The focus is on roles, self-authorship, socialization, transition, generations, and vocational development. By making use of these theories and models, the practitioner can more richly understand the impacts of time, space, and context on the experiences that students may have as they graduate from college and begin the next phase of their lives, whether continuing on to graduate or professional school, starting a first job, advancing a career, moving away from family, or simply completing their degree with no strict plan of what else may lie ahead. In this article, the author stresses that student affairs professionals and faculty must understand how students see themselves and make meaning of their own development in order to support them through the transition to life after college.

This study addresses the intended escalatory tendency in eight hypothetical situations in which the provocator's identity (partner or stranger, male or female) and the provocation form (verbal or physical aggression) were manipulated. The research question is "how does the identity of the provocator and the form of his or her provocation affect the participant's intended escalation level, and does the gender of the participant affect differences in intended escalation level?" The research sample consisted of 208 Israeli couples. The main finding is that women's intended response to their male partner is more escalatory than men's intended response to their female partner. Results also show that women's escalation is the most severe to partner provocation and the least severe to male strangers' provocation. Men's escalation is the most severe to provocation by male strangers and the least severe to their partner's provocation. Findings indicate that men's intention to escalate decreases as their partner's provocation becomes more severe. The severity of provocation has little effect on women's intention to escalate. Such results are consistent with social role theory and sexual selection theory that maintain that status enhancement is more important for men than for women, and is more important for men than risk reduction is, whereas the opposite is true for women. (Contains 2 figures and 1 table.)

A meta-analysis examined the extent to which socio-structural and psycho-cultural characteristics of societies correspond with how much gender and ethnic/racial groups differ on their support of group-based hierarchy. Robustly, women opposed group-based hierarchy more than men did, and members of lower power ethnic/racial groups opposed group-based hierarchy more than members of higher power ethnic/racial groups did. As predicted by social dominance theory, gender differences were larger, more stable, and less variable from sample to sample than differences between ethnic/racial groups. Subordinate gender and ethnic/racial group members disagreed more with dominants in their views of group-based hierarchy in societies that can be considered more liberal and modern (e.g., emphasizing individualism and change from traditions), as well as in societies that enjoyed greater gender equality. The relations between gender and ethnic/racial groups are discussed, and implications are developed for social dominance theory, social role theory, biosocial theory, social identity theory, system justification theory, realistic group conflict theory, and relative deprivation theory. (Contains 6 tables, 5 figures, and 1 footnote.)

Higher and further education institutions are increasingly using social software tools to support teaching and learning. A growing body of research investigates the diversity of tools and their range of contributions. However, little research has focused on investigating the role of the educator in the context of a social software initiative, even though the educator is critical for the introduction and successful use of social software in a course environment. Hence, we argue that research on social software should place greater emphasis on the educators, as their roles and activities (such as selecting the tools, developing the tasks and facilitating the students' interactions with these tools) are instrumental in a social software initiative. To address this gap, we have developed a research agenda on the role of the educator in a social software initiative. Drawing on role theory, both as the basis for a systematic conceptualization of the educator role and as a guiding framework, we have developed a series of concrete research questions that address core issues associated with the educator roles in a social software context. We have provided recommendations for further investigations. By developing a research agenda, we hope to stimulate research that creates a better understanding of the educator's situation and develops guidelines to help educators carry out their social software initiatives. Considering the significant role an educator plays in the initiation and conduct of a social software initiative, our research agenda ultimately seeks to contribute to the adoption and efficient use of social software in education.

Drawing on role theory and socio-constructivist ideas about learning, this study explores how peer-tutoring can support tutors' learning. The sample comprised ten 16-17-year-old biology tutors, working with twenty-one 14-15-year-old students from a science class over eight weeks. Data were collected through an online wiki, tutor interviews, paired tutor discussions and video recordings. Tutors' perceptions of their role motivated them to learn the material, and their learning was supported by discussion and explanation, revisiting fundamentals, making links between conceptual areas, testing and clarifying their understanding, and reorganising and building ideas, rehearsing them, and working through them repeatedly, to secure their understanding. When tutors employed long answer questions, there was evidence of reflection on their learning and links made between conceptual areas. When preparing to tutor, tutors could focus on key points and engage with basic ideas from alternative perspectives. Mental rehearsal of peer-tutoring episodes helped them appreciate weaknesses in their own subject knowledge.

While narrative history has been the prevailing mode in historical scholarship, its preeminence has not gone unquestioned. In the 1980s, the role of narrative in historical writing was "the subject of extraordinarily intense debate." The historical backdrop of this debate can be traced to the preceding two decades, when four groups of thinkers became discernible: (1) social-scientifically oriented historians, in particular the Annales group, among them Fernand Braudel and Emmanuel LeRoy Ladurie, who saw narrative history as nonscientific; (2) analytical philosophers, among them Hayden White and Louis Mink, who "sought to establish the epistemic status of narrativity"; (3) semiologically oriented theorists, among them Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, who saw narrative as "one discursive "code' among others"; and (4) hermeneutically oriented philosophers, among them Hans Georg Gadamer and Paul Ricoeur, who viewed narrative as the "manifestation in discourse of a specific kind of time-consciousness." In this essay the author discusses the first two of the major challenges to narrative history and talks about the role of theory in educational history. Because the narrative has dominated the works of American educational historians, the author's distinction between narrative and theory is an attempt to encourage educational historians who are narrativists to open themselves to theoretical works. She argues that there exists a canon of narrativity that should be challenged. In other words, there should be a prominent seat at the educational history table for such scholarship that marries theory with narrative and/or foregrounds theory in examining historical issues in education. (Contains 19 footnotes.)

This study explores the extent to which a teacher elicited students' mathematical reasoning through the use of challenging tasks and the role her knowledge played in doing so. I characterised the teacher's knowledge in terms of a "local theory" of instruction, a form of pedagogical content knowledge that involves an empirically tested set of conjectures situated within a mathematical domain. Video data were collected and analysed and used to stimulate the teacher's reflection on her enactments of an instructional sequence. The teacher, chosen for how she consistently elicited student reasoning, showed evidence of possessing a local theory in that she articulated the ways student thinking developed over time, the processes by which that thinking developed, and the resources that facilitated the development of student thinking. Her knowledge informed how she revised and enacted challenging tasks in ways that elicited and refined student thinking around integer addition and subtraction. Furthermore, her knowledge and practices emphasised the progressive formalisation of students' ideas as a key learning process. A key implication of this study is that teachers are able to develop robust knowledge from enacting challenging tasks, knowledge that organises how they elicit and refine student reasoning from those tasks. (Contains 3 tables and 1 footnote.)

The question of capacity building in education has predominantly been approached with regard to the methods and methodologies of educational research. Far less attention has been given to capacity building in relation to theory. In many ways the latter is as pressing an issue as the former, given that good research depends on a combination of high quality techniques and high quality theorising. The ability to capitalise on capacity building in relation to methods and methodologies may therefore well be restricted by a lack of attention to theory. In this paper we make a case for capacity building with regard to theory, explore the different roles of theory in educational research, and provide an outline of an agenda for capacity building with regard to theory. (Contains 6 notes.)

The purpose of this qualitative study was to identify a public, state-supported university's role expectations of the presidential partner. The study identified various challenges and obstacles, as well as useful strategies for retaining the presidential partner's professional identity as a professor. This paper will provide a glossary of terminology unique to this under-reported population followed by a brief literature review of the history of the role expectations for public university presidential partners. The paper will continue with role theory as the framework, the methodology used in developing the study, and discuss the results with supporting narrative. The paper will conclude with a discussion of the results and further implications for practical use and research.

This self-study describes the ways in which a move to a different state, university, and academic role has shaped my sense of self as a scholar, teacher educator, and college administrator. I draw from role theory and from conceptions of habitus and field to provide a conceptual lens for interpreting the data and my experiences. I then address two related issues that affect my identity on a daily basis: the ways in which my prior practice is influencing my current practice and the professional costs and benefits of moving to a new state and a new institution late in one's career. (Contains 2 tables.)

This study introduces a model of novice teachers' expectations together with supporting empirical evidence. The model is sectorial, distinguishing novice teachers' expectations according to their reciprocal relations with their partners in the school. The study investigated 237 teachers attending internship programmes at five large teachers training colleges in Israel, using a self-report questionnaire. The findings revealed that: (1) the expectations of novice teachers are based on a sectorial organisational view of the school, as proposed by role theory; (2) novice teachers have very high expectations of their organisational work environment; and (3) their highest expectations are for public recognition of the importance of teaching, while the lowest expectations are for receiving support and backing from the partners in the educational process. The article discusses novice teachers' views of their function as organisational people and of the school as an arena for developing and nurturing their organisational selves. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

Men and women tend to espouse different political attitudes, as widely noted by both journalists and social scientists. A deeper understanding of why and when gender gaps exist is necessary because at least some gender differences in the political realm are both pervasive and impactful. In this article, we apply a social role theory framework to understanding gender gaps in political attitudes. The core principles are that men's and women's political attitudes diverge because of diffuse gender roles (e.g., broad expectations based on sex) as well as differential specific roles (e.g., family and occupational roles). We delineate several mechanisms by which diffuse and specific roles would produce differences and similarities in political attitudes. In particular, our analysis examines (a) the influence of gender-stereotypic expectations, (b) internalized traits and goals, and (c) variations in status and resources. A range of evidence shows that the general shape of gender differences in political attitudes aligns with the social roles of men and women, particularly with regard to elements that associate agency and higher status with men and communion and lower status with women. Additionally, we consider intersections among diffuse gender roles and specific roles, following the general principle that gender gaps in political attitudes emerge especially when both diffuse gender roles and specific roles emphasize agency for men and communion for women. The consideration of a social role perspective offers opportunities not only to integrate existing data about gender gaps in political attitudes but also to highlight directions for new research.

This study investigated the perceived benefits of five adolescents with an intellectual disability functioning as tutors or teacher assistants in physical education. Their personal experiences and interpretations were ascertained by interviews, video recording, photographs, and field observations. An interpretative phenomenological analysis revealed different combinations of benefits for each participant. All expressed positive affect from helping. Four participants identified pride and accomplishment and connectedness, while three spoke about career ambitions and self-identity. Two addressed responsibility towards others, being a role model, and modification of behaviour. One student addressed altruism as a benefit. The young leaders' experiences were interpreted in terms of roles, role theory, and a responsibility model. (Contains 1 table.)

The quest for engineers during the past boom and predictions of future shortages have focused attention on the low enrolment figures in science and technology (S&T) subjects. Normally, it is assumed that young people shy away from "tough majors" or make irrational choices, based on an absence of information. While not denying the fundamental necessity that a higher proportion of the population should have a background in S&T, this paper pursues a different approach. Only by identifying potentially valid reasons for the lack of interest in S&T will it be possible to change not just some "misguided" perceptions among the younger generation, but to categorise the facts and make targeted recommendations for necessary changes. Therefore, this article will discuss the importance of image and status, the influence of society and peer groups, as well as financial rewards and career aspects. It will be shown that the universally observable trend away from S&T is not due to a dislike of technology on the part of the younger generation, but is caused by the fact that careers in this field do not seem attractive enough, especially in comparison with alternatives available in developed countries. Some recommendations to improve this situation are offered. (Contains 1 table and 14 figures.)

In spite of continuing patterning of curriculum subject preference and choice by gender, there has been little recent attention to the argument developed in the 1970s that children play with different toys according to their gender, and that these provide girls and boys with (different) curriculum-related skills. The article describes a small-scale empirical study that asked parents of 3-5 year old children to identify their child's favourite toys and viewing material, and analysed responses according to children's gender. The most frequently identified toys and viewing materials were subjected to content and discourse analysis, with the intention of identifying both educative aspects of content, and the gender discourses reflected. The article explores conceptual issues around categorisations of "education" within toys and entertainment resources, positing the notion of "didactic information" to delineate between overtly educational content and other social discourses. Analysis reveals toy preferences to be highly gendered, with boys' toys and resources concentrated on technology and action, and girls' on care and stereotypically feminine interests. Didactic information, and aspects developing construction and literacy skills, were identified in the selected toys and resources for boys, and were lacking in those for girls. All the toys and resources could be read as implicated in "gendering": the various gender discourses, and other discourses around aspects of social identity reflected in the toys and resources are identified and analysed. The analysis presented suggests the value of reinvigorated attention to children's toys and entertainment resources in terms both of the education they afford, and their role in the production of social identities. (Contains 2 tables and 7 notes.)

Preschoolers' conceptual understanding and procedural skills were examined so as to explore the role of number-words and concept-procedure interactions in their additional knowledge. Eighteen three- to four-year-olds and 24 four- to five-year-olds judged commutativity and associativity principles and solved two-term problems involving number words and unknown numbers. The older preschoolers outperformed younger preschoolers in judging concepts involving unknown numbers and children made more accurate commutativity than associativity judgements. Children with conceptual profiles indicating a strong understanding of concepts applied to unknown numbers were more accurate at solving number-word problems than those with a poor conceptual understanding. The findings suggest that an important mathematical development during the preschool years may be learning to appreciate addition concepts as general principles that apply when exact numbers are unknown. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)

Using an interdisciplinary approach, this article explores the intersection between manhood and college life for 24 selected African American college men enrolled in 12 colleges and universities across the 19 southern and border states of America. The purpose of this study is to illustrate how constructions of manhood and masculinity among this group influence collegiate efforts in serving African American college men academically, socially, and developmentally. The following themes emerged in the study with respect to the institutional role in shaping manhood: (a) institutional recognition; (b) constructing faculty/student relationships; (c) mentoring and supporting; and (d) bridging campus and community. Subsequently, the article is a resource to advance the field's thinking about this group's college experiences, retention, and identities. (Contains 1 figure.)

A conceptual framework for studying the role of global health partnerships (GHPs) in determining policy practices on access to medication is presented. Although GHPs are of a practical nature, they are implicitly theory informed. The narratives used by GHP partners in relating to access to medication have theoretical origins. Building on the theoretical literature on models and the notion of embodied knowledge found in science and technology studies, GHPs are conceptualized as models that mediate between theory and practice. The proposed framework can be used to investigate the role of theory in the creation of GHP models and how the models shape global and national policy practices. A social constructivist approach is suggested as a suitable method for empirical analysis. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Early childhood teachers and educational programs are expected to be the primary resources as children experience different and sometimes conflicting cultural contexts. Early educators can play a paramount role as young children move through fluid identities and start recognizing and navigating within and across spaces of cultural differences--e.g., between home cultures and the socially-dominant school culture. In this sense, we draw attention to a multi-year action research study, paying particular attention to the process whereby an early childhood teacher investigated, problematized, and challenged the nature of curriculum and practices in a diverse preschool classroom. We focus on the role of action research in fostering culturally-relevant teaching. As we do so, we analyze an early childhood teacher's shifting perceptions of what it means to engage in culturally-relevant teaching, respecting and honoring cultural diversities.