Search

A simple and practical leaf area meter based on a photovoltaic (PV) panel was developed, and tested. Components of the developed PV leaf area meter are PV panel as sensor, wooden cabinet as enclosure, flashlight as light source, and commercial digital multimeter for voltage measurement. Variation in the voltage generated from the PV panel due to obstruction of incident radiation by sample is the principle of the projected area measurement. Voltage generation from the PV panel varies inversely with the extent of obstruction. Conversely, voltage generated varies directly with sample area when corresponding panel surface is exposed to incident radiation. Variations due to reduction in light source intensity were accounted by non-dimensionalizing the voltage readings based on the beginning and the end of experiments. The PV leaf area meter performance was evaluated using cardboard cutouts of various geometrical shapes of known areas and the voltage generated had good correlation (r = 0.9911) with actual sample areas. Linear fits adequately modeled (R2 > 0.98) the areas from non-dimensional voltages. Measurements with leaf samples from mango, sapodilla, guava, custard apple, and cotton were compared among the existing graphical (considered as reference), scanner based electronic leaf area meter, and digital planimeter methods. Digital planimeter produced better performance (R2 = 0.9996) than scanner based electronic leaf area meter (R2 = 0.9979). Linear regression calibration equation based on direct leaf samples on the PV panel (R2 = 0.9953) gave slightly better performance than leaf samples with glass cover (R2 = 0.9834); however, the latter gave better predictions than the former in testing with additional leaf samples. As leaves were flattened by the glass cover, projected area reduction effect of leaf surface curvature was minimized and the true leaf area was measured. Hence, the measurement procedure with glass cover on samples was recommended. PV leaf area meter costs only 3.8% of the scanner- based electronic leaf area meter and 14.3% of the digital planimeter prices (2001 price information). The developed PV leaf area meter had a mode of operation similar to a commercial electronic leaf area meter, yielded quick and reliable results, and was highly cost effective.

The aim of the study was to determine the variance of longissimus muscle area (LMA) measurements associated with the standard use of polar planimeter (REISS Precision 3005, Germany) and ¨Image tool¨ software program. Measurements were conducted on six dorsal samples taken between 7th and 9th rib of the right halfs of beef carcasses. Firstly, LMA was traced on acetate paper and measured using a planimeter. Secondly, the images of longissimus muscles for computer analysis were obtained by scanning (UMAX PowerLook II) dorsal samples in ratio 1:1. LMA size was determined with ¨Image tool¨ software. Triplicate measurements of LMA were performed by six measurers for each sample and method. Variance components for LMA measurement method associated with measurer, sample and measurement replicates were estimated by REML. The proportion of the total variance in LMA measurement beetwen samples was greater with ¨Image tool¨ (99.79%) than with planimeter (96.49%). The proportion of variance between measurers was 0.12% with ¨Image tool¨ and 0.34% with planimeter. The proportion of error variance due to measurement replicates associated with the use of ¨Image tool¨ program was smaller (0.09 %) than with the planimeter (3.17%). The application of ¨Image tool¨ showed greater precision in measuring LMA than standard planimeter method.

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to evaluate cephalometrically the lower lip position and area of patients with unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP) comparatively with Class I skeletodental normal subjects.PatientsLateral cephalometric and hand-wrist radiographs obtained from 24 patients with UCLP (mean age 12.86 years), along with 20 normal individuals (mean age 12.33 years) used as a control group, were examined.DesignIn addition to standard cephalometric dentofacial variables, lower lip area (superior, middle, inferior) was also measured using a digital planimeter on the lateral cephalograms.ResultsThe superior and middle part of the lower lip areas were significantly smaller (p < .05) in the UCLP group, compared to the control group. The inferior and total lower lip areas of patients with UCLP were found to be significantly smaller than controls. The labiomental angle was also smaller (38.79 degrees).ConclusionsThe results suggest that the lower lip of patients with UCLP is smaller, retruded, and curved, with a deep labiomental sulcus, compared with normal individuals during puberty. Therefore, practitioners should focus not only on the upper lip of patients with UCLP but also should consider the lower lip as it was found distinct from normal individuals during puberty.

This study compared the application and reliability of 4 methods for biofilm quantification (computerized, paper-weighing, point-counting, and planimetric) in complete dentures, verifying the correlation between them. The internal surfaces of 62 complete dentures were stained (5% erythrosine) and photographed. The slides were projected on paper, and the areas (total and biofilm-covered) were outlined with a pencil. These areas were measured with an equidistant point grid (point-counting method), a digital planimeter (planimetric method), and for the paper weighing method they were cut and weighed with a precision scale. For the computerized method, ImageTool software was used. In order to perform a validation test of the methods, all of them were applied to slide projections of geometric figures with known dimensions. The correlation tests showed high correlation values (r = 0.82 to 0.99) among the methods. The validation test (ANOVA) showed no statistically significant differences among the values obtained from the measurement of figures using all four quantitative methods and the real dimensions of these geometric figures. Quantitative methods were efficient and reliable for measuring quantity of biofilm in complete dentures, and may be useful in experimental studies on the efficacy of hygiene products. The computerized method was fast and easy to perform. Este estudo comparou a aplicação e a confiabilidade de quatro métodos de quantificação de biofilme (computadorizado, pesagem de papel, contagem de pontos e planimétrico) em próteses totais, verificando a correlação entre eles. As superfícies internas de 62 próteses totais foram coradas (eritrosina a 5%) e fotografadas. Os diapositivos foram projetados em papel, e as áreas (total e com biofilme corado) foram contornadas com grafite. Estas áreas foram medidas com uma grade de pontos eqüidistantes (método de contagem de pontos), um planímetro digital (método planimétrico) e, para o método de pesagem de papel, foram recortadas e pesadas em balança de precisão. No método computadorizado, foram medidas com um software (ImageTool). Com o objetivo de realizar um teste de validação dos quatro métodos, estes foram aplicados também em diapositivos de figuras geométricas de dimensões conhecidas. Os testes de correlação mostraram altos valores de correlação (r = 0,82 a 0,99) entre os métodos. O teste de validação (ANOVA) não mostrou diferença estatisticamente significante entre as medidas reais dos desenhos geométricos e aquelas obtidas pelos quatro métodos quantitativos. Os métodos quantitativos mostraram-se eficazes e confiáveis na mensuração dos níveis de biofilme em próteses totais, podendo ser úteis em estudos experimentais da eficiência de produtos de higiene. O método computadorizado mostrou-se rápido e de fácil aplicação.

The efficacy of XeCl excimer laser irradiation in reducing dye penetration through human coronal dentinal tubules was studied. The roots of 20 freshly extracted human molars were resected, and the apical aspect of the crowns was ground until the pulp chamber was completely exposed. Following total removal of the pulp chamber and further grinding of the occlusal and apical surfaces up to the intact dentin, the teeth were randomly divided into experimental and control groups of 10 each. The teeth in the experimental group were completely coated with nail polish and then irradiated with XeCl 308-nm excimer laser at a fluence of 0.7 J/cm 2 to form an elliptical lased area. The teeth in the control group were also coated with nail polish, but with a similar elliptical spot of exposed dentin corresponding to the irradiated spot created in the lased teeth left uncoated. All specimens were placed in 0.5% methylene blue dye for 48 h, rinsed, and air-dried. The specimens were then ground to reach the experimental area in order and photographed. The total area of penetrated dye was determined by three independent evaluators and then measured with a computerized planimeter. The mean total areas (mm 2 ) measured in the lased specimens were significantly smaller than those in the controls (p = 0.012).

The effect of microwave polymerization on the porosity of denture base resin has not been fully determined.This study investigated the effect of microwave energy on the porosity of 2 heat-activated denture base resins.Two heat-activated denture base resins, one conventional (Paladon 65) and one designed for microwave polymerization (Acron MC), were used to prepare 50 test specimens. Five groups of 10 specimens each were established: Group A (Paladon 65, water bath); Group B(1) (Paladon 65, short microwave cycle); Group B(2) (Paladon 65, long microwave cycle); Group C(1) (Acron MC, short microwave cycle); and Group C(2) (Acron MC, long microwave cycle). Half of the specimens in each group were 3 mm thick, the other half 6 mm thick. After being polymerized, specimens were cut so that 3 cross-sectional areas were formed (S(1), S(2), and S(3)). These surfaces were polished and photographed under a microscope at x100 magnification. On the developed photographs, the area of each pore was measured with a digital planimeter, and the total area of pores per surface was calculated in percentage form. The total number of pores on each surface and the topographical distribution of the pores also were recorded. A 3-factor repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to compare porosity data, and a 1-way analysis of variance was performed to determine possible interactions between groups based on material and specimen thickness (P.05). The effect of surface area on porosity data was analyzed with the use of contrasts.Group A specimens exhibited no pores. In the thicker specimens of Groups B(1) and B(2), giant pores (area as great as 3.69 mm(2)) and small, gaseous pores of almost uniform shape and size were found. In Groups C(1) and C(2), only the smaller pores were found; these were not clinically significant. Of the observed surfaces, 75.3% were free of pores and 24.7% contained at least one pore. In a selected group of pore-bearing surfaces, the majority (81%) had pores located near the center. The thicker specimens in Group B exhibited the greatest amount of porosity (P.0001); Group C specimens exhibited the least porosity. Repeated-measures analysis of variance showed that polymerization cycle had no effect on porosity (P=.19). The 3 other factors (material, specimen thickness, and surface) and all possible interactions among them were significant (P.05). Among the surfaces, S(1) and S(2) exhibited the highest total mean value of porosity (0.71% and 0.74%, respectively) and S(3) the lowest (0.025%). S(3) showed a different pattern of porosity than S(1) and S(2).Within the limitations of this in vitro study, minor porosity was identified in thin and more severe porosity in thicker areas of conventional resin specimens that underwent microwave polymerization. The resin designed specifically for microwave polymerization exhibited no clinically significant porosity.

Objective: The aim of this study was to compare four measurement methods. Digital planimetry was compared with mechanical planimetry, placing the film over graph paper and counting the squares (grid tracing), and multiplying the two maximal perpendicular diameters of the ulcer (diameter product). Method: Twenty patients with 50 chronic leg ulcers of various aetiology and sizes (20 ulcers were ≤3cm2, 15 ulcers were >3cm2 and ≤10 cm2, and 15 ulcers were >10cm2) were enrolled consecutively into this study. Ulcer area was calculated from film transparency tracings using a digital planimeter, a mechanical planimeter, grid tracing and diameter product. Results: The mean difference of digital planimetry versus mechanical planimetry, grid tracing and diameter product was 0.51cm2, 0.72cm2 and −5.38cm2, respectively. For all methods difference tended to increase with ulcer size. Conclusion: Digital and mechanical planimetry, together with grid tracing, appear to be appropriate means of obtaining accurate surface area measurements. Digital planimetry is a quick and practical method and could therefore be recommended in the clinical setting. Declaration of interest: The digital planimeter was loaned by Mölnlycke Health Care

The feasibility of using radius measurements on disks to determine cross-sectional areas of tree stems and the heartwood they contain was examined in sugar maple and red oak butt logs. Areas calculated from quadratic means of four stem radii and four heartwood radii were compared with areas measured with a planimeter. The lineal measurement method was less precise for disks taken from stumps than it was for disks taken from the tops of butt logs, probably because of bole irregularities. The radii measurements were more variable for heartwood than for complete disks in sugar maple but not in red oak. Areas computed from radii were the same as areas measured with a planimeter for only maple stump disks and red oak stump disks and heartwood.

The use of a patient's own hand as a tool to estimate the area of burn injury is well documented. The area of the palmar surface of one hand has been estimated to be 1 percent of the body surface area. The area of the palmar surface of the hand was measured to test the accuracy of this estimate and then compared with the body surface area as calculated by formulas in common use. This study also sought to determine the natural history of the growth of the hand to permit development of a readily available, bedside means of estimating hand area and body surface area. Bilateral hand tracings were obtained from 800 volunteers ranging in age from 2 to 89 years. The area of each tracing was determined using an integrating planimeter. The height and weight of each individual were measured, and his/her body surface area was calculated. The palmar hand's percentage of body surface area was determined by calculating the quotient for hand area divided by body surface area. Additionally, the width of the hand was measured from the ulnar aspect at the palmar digital crease of the small finger to the point where the thumb rested against the base of the index finger. The length of the hand was measured from the middle of the interstylon to the tip of the middle finger. These two figures were multiplied together to obtain a product which approximated the area of the hand. Based on the most commonly used DuBois formula for calculating body surface area, the area of palmar surface of the hand corresponds to 0.78 +/- 0.08 percent of the body surface area in adults. The percentage varies somewhat with age and reaches a maximum of 0.87 +/- 0.06 percent in young children. Multiplying the length of the hand by its width overestimates the area of the hand as determined by planimetry by only 2 percent. A patient's own hand may be used as a complementary, readily available template for estimation of burn area or other areas of disease or injury. In adults, the area of tracing of the outline of the hand is 0.78 percent of the body surface area, whereas in children, this number tends to be slightly higher. In the emergency room or on the wards, a simple product of length multiplied by width of the hand will closely approximate the area as determined by planimetry. This method allows a more accurate determination of the area of the palmar surface of the hand than the 1 percent estimate, which may lead to an overestimation of the size of a burn wound in adults.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the influence of spreader shape on the quality of obturation. Forty-five single canal teeth with varying degrees of apical curvature were used throughout. The canals were prepared using the step-back technique and obturated with lateral condensation. The teeth were classified into three groups (A, B, and C) and treated as follows. Group A was treated with markedly conical, flat-ended spreaders (A to D; Dentsply-Maillefer, Ballaigues, Switzerland). Group B was treated with slightly conical (15 to 40) sharp-pointed CC-cord spreaders. Group C was treated with CC-cord, slightly conical but flat-ended spreaders. The obturated teeth were decalcified in 7.5% nitric acid to obtain four cross-sections: the first at 2 mm from the apex and then the following three sections at 1-mm intervals. Section thickness was approximately 1 mm. Each section was photographed under a stereoscopic microscope. The following areas were measured on each of the microphotographs using a planimeter: (a) gutta-percha mass, (b) mass of sealer, (c) foreign bodies, and (d) empty spaces. These four areas were added to determine total cross-sectional canal area and then the percent of that area attributable to a and to b + c + d was calculated. The statistical analysis of the data (parametric Student's t test for independent groups) revealed that only in group B was the area occupied by a, the gutta-percha mass, significantly greater at all levels than the area occupied by b + c + d. Next in obturation effectiveness was group C, followed by group A.

Background Conventional gray-scale images of intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) cannot accurately differentiate histologic subtypes of sonolucent coronary plaques with or without a lipid core. Methods We analyzed radiofrequency signals obtained in vitro from 24 regions of interest (ROI) of noncalcified (sonolucent) plaques in 10 atherosclerotic coronary artery specimens pressure-fixed by formalin. Radiofrequency signals were sampled with a 30-MHz IVUS catheter and digitized at 500 MHz in 8-bit resolution. The ROIs were histologically categorized into 12 plaques with a lipid core and 12 plaques without it. Integrated backscatter and statistical parameters of the radiofrequency envelope (mean/SD ratio [MSR], skewness, and kurtosis) within the ROI were calculated offline, and their ability to detect a lipid core was compared with visual analysis of the IVUS video images. In the group with lipid cores, percent area of a lipid core in each ROI was measured in a digitized histologic image by a computerized planimeter. Results Sensitivity and specificity of MSR, skewness, and kurtosis for lipid core detection were substantially greater than visual video image analysis (83.3% and 91.7%, 100% and 91.7%, 100% and 91.7% vs 53.3% and 71.7%). Furthermore, the parameters of integrated backscatter, MSR, skewness, and kurtosis were significantly correlated to percent of core area (r = –0.64, –0.73, 0.78, and 0.63, respectively; P < .05). Conclusions Compared with IVUS video images, the parameters of radiofrequency signal analysis may be used to aid in more accurate detection and quantitative evaluation of a lipid core, which is one of the major factors of a vulnerable coronary plaque. (Am Heart J 2000;140:565-74.)

The area of the maxillary antrum in Waters' view has been measured in 68 patients using a mechanical planimeter. The mean area was 6.04 +/- 0.25 cm2. The part of the antrum lateral to the innominate line (defined as the paratemporal segment) has a mean area of 0.72 +/- 0.07 cm2. The latter diminishes in small antra and approaches zero when the total antral area falls below 3.48 cm2. It is proposed that the innominate line (Stenvers), or its extension, descends lateral to the field of the small maxillary sinus and may be used as an additional sign of such abnormality.

The Prytz planimeter is a simple example of a system governed by a non-holonomic constraint. It is unique among planimeters in that it measures something more subtle than area, combining the area, centroid and other moments of the region being measured, with weights depending on the length of the planimeter. As a tool for measuring area, it is most accurate for regions that are small relative to its length. The configuration space of the planimeter is a non-principal circle bundle acted on by SU(1,1), (isom. to SL(2,R)). The motion of the planimeter is realized as parallel translation for a connection on this bundle and for a connection on a principal SU(1,1)-bundle. The holonomy group is SU(1,1). As a consequence, the planimeter is an example of a system with a phase shift on the circle that is not a simple rotation. There is a qualitative difference in the holonomy when tracing large regions as opposed to small ones. Generic elements of SU(1,1) act on S^1 with two fixed points or with no fixed points. When tracing small regions, the holonomy acts without fixed points. Menzin's conjecture states (roughly) that if a planimeter of length L traces the boundary of a region with area A > pi L^2, then it exhibits an asymptotic behavior and the holonomy acts with two fixed points, one attracting and one repelling. This is obvious if the region is a disk, and intuitively plausible if the region is convex and A >> pi L^2. A proof of this conjecture is given for a special case, and the conjecture is shown to imply the isoperimetric inequality., AmS-TeX, 23 pages, 12 figures in 2 *.gif files. To appear in Reports on Mathematical Physics. Part of proceedings of Workshop on Non-holonomic Constraints in Dynamics, Univ. of Calgary, Aug. 1997

Side-to-side earlobe variations, based on the size of the earlobe surface area and a classification into earlobe types, were quantitatively analyzed in 58 female students, ranging from 20 to 22 years old. Using a new earlobe measurement technique, a closed-circuit outline of each ear was directly traced onto a clear polyethylene sheet, after which the surface area of the earlobe portion of each ear was identified, measured by a digital planimeter, and analyzed. Results revealed that side-to-side differences in the size of the earlobe surface area existed in all subjects. In contrast, based on classifying the earlobe shape into three types (i.e., tapering, square, or pendulous), differences in the mean earlobe surface area value among the three types were not significant. However, when the classification of the earlobe shape was reduced to only two types (pendulous or nonpendulous), the mean earlobe surface area value between the two types was highly significant. These results thus suggest that for a quantitative analysis of earlobe variations, classification of the earlobe shape into two types rather than into three types is the better method. This method makes it easy to distinguish earlobe differences. Further, if the earlobe differences are noted before ear piercing, a balanced ear piercing effect can be achieved.

The authors' focus here is to describe the development and fabrication of a portable hand-held electronic area planimeter to measure Wheal areas during dermatitis assays. The planimeter straddles over the Wheal and the scientist traces the Wheal's perimeter using an optical beam splitter/cross-hair and a miniature x-y table. Transducers connected to the x-y table and an electronic circuit performs the area integration and displays the data on a digital panel meter. The apparatus permits noncontact measurement of areas up to 1000 mm/sup 2/ with a resolution of 1 mm/sup 2/. >

BACKGROUND--Computerised x-ray planimetry has been advocated as an alternative to body plethysmography and helium dilution for measuring static lung volumes. The accuracy and reproducibility of this method has been assessed in comparison with these standard methods. METHODS--Plethysmographic and planimetric measurements of total lung capacity (TLC) and functional residual capacity (FRC) were made in 10 normal subjects and in 12 patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), with additional helium dilution measurements in the latter 12 patients. RESULTS--Mean lung volumes (TLC and FRC) for groups of subjects measured by planimetry and by plethysmography were similar in both groups and larger than the helium dilution measurement in patients with COPD. Intraindividual agreement between planimetry and plethysmography was poor, however, with a wide confidence interval (-2.2 to +2.31). The planimeter did not measure reliably changes in volume from TLC to FRC in individuals. CONCLUSIONS--Mean lung volumes measured by planimetry in a group of patients probably reflect a regression to the mean of the computer algorithm rather than accurate TLC estimation. The technique is not yet robust enough to replace the established techniques of helium dilution or plethysmography.

Non-prescription prebrushing rinses to facilitate dental plaque removal have been advertised in recent years. The purpose of the present study was to determine the plaque removal effectiveness of Plax (Colgate) prebrushing rinse by comparing it to a placebo solution. 19 dental students volunteered for this double blind study which consisted of 2 experimental periods. The following procedure was followed: 3 weeks after scaling and polishing, the participants abstained from oral hygiene for 3 days to allow dental plaque to accumulate. After plaque disclosing, the 4 mandibular incisors were photographed using a strictly defined technique, as described by Quirynen et al. Then the volunteers mouthrinsed for 30 s with 15 ml of a solution provided to them. Neither the volunteers nor the examiners knew which solution (test or control) was used. After mouthrinsing, the participants were allowed to brush their teeth and the remaining plaque was photographed again. During the 2nd experimental period, the same procedure was followed, and the 2nd solution was used for mouthrinsing. The effectiveness of the solutions was evaluated by comparing the proportion of dental plaque removed during the 2 experimental periods. The area of dental plaque was measured by an electronic high-precision device (planimeter). The proportion of plaque removed after rinsing with Plax was 0.40 +/- 0.23 and after rising with placebo 0.42 +/- 0.24, of the tooth surface (p = 0.962). Analysis of data by means of paired t-test between the 2 experimental periods revealed no beneficial effect regarding plaque removal when Plax was used.

The development of the human cochlear nucleus was studied in serial sections of the brain of 12 fetuses at 12–40 weeks of gestation, an infant at 2 months of age and an adult of 63 years using an electronic planimeter with a computer. Morphometric analysis of the development of the ventral cochlear nucleus showed that its development accelerates after 18 weeks of gestation in terms of columnar volume, columnar length, neuronal number and neuronal size.

The purpose of this study was to establish intratester and intertester reliability of four methods of measuring wound surface area from transparency film tracings. Wound area measurements were obtained in 31 subjects with venous stasis ulcers. After tracing each wound on transparency film, wound area was calculated by (1) multiplying length and width measurements with a ruler, (2) placing the transparency film over graph paper and counting the squares, (3) using a planimeter, and (4) using a digitizer. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for intratester measurements were .99 for each method. The ICC values for intertester measurements ranged from .97 to .99. The results of this study indicate that intratester and intertester wound measurements can be taken reliably with the graph paper, planimeter, and digitizer methods. The graph paper technique may be preferable in most clinical settings, because it is low in cost and easy to use.

A map of White Oak Lake was drawn from points on the shoreline established with the use of an electronic distance-measuring theodolite and a hand-held reflecting prism. Average water depths were determined along six transects. A planimeter was used to estimate the area of each section. The volume of each section was determined by multiplying the surface area by the average depth. The total area and volume of White Oak Lake were estimated to be 6.88 ha (17.0 acres) and 43,893 m{sup 3}(1,546,330 ft{sup 3}), respectively. The lake's surface area has been reduced at an average rate of 0.7% per year, and its volume has been reduced at an average rate of 1.1% per year. The volume of the lake can be reliably estimated only from current depth measurements throughout the lake, not from stage heights at the dam. The lake should be remapped periodically, and an estimate of the sediment volume should be made. 6 refs., 3 figs., 1 tab.

The present study investigates the relationship between the articular area of a bone and the magnitude of the stress it resists. An attempt was also made to find the correlation between the development of a bone and its articular area. The material of the study consisted of a large number of dry, macerated, adult male skeletons. The articular surface area of the bones was measured with the help of a planimeter. The magnitude of the force acting on the proximal articular surface of a bone is expected to go out of the bone through its distal articular surface in almost the same proportion. The present investigation is based on the assumption that if the articular area is related to the magnitude of stress, then the proximal and distal articular areas of a bone should also be correlated. A significant correlation was observed between the proximal and distal articular areas of axis vertebra; L4 and sacrum; and tibia-fibula and talus. This indicated that the stress resisted by proximal and distal articular areas was in the same proportion. Similarly, a significant positive correlation between bone index and articular area in ribs, tibia, and laminae of vertebrae indicated that the bone mass (development) runs parallel to the articular area. Thus, the present investigation could reveal that the articular area and bone development are related to the stress acting on the bone.

• A comparative study of roentgenograms of the paranasal sinuses between 37 patients with cleft lip and palate and 37 control subjects of the same age group was done using a planimeter. The results indicate that there is no statistical difference in the sizes. The paranasal sinuses increased in size with age in patients as well as in control subjects. ( Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg . (1990;116:920-922)

Two systems of measuring the areas obtained from the filter paper press method (Grau & Hamm) on meat (beef) were compared: by planimeter (method A) and by optical-electronic system (Video Image Analyzer; method B). Data obtained by three operators, measuring 15 samples twice, were utilized to estimate the ‘precision’ of the two methods. The general mean area of ring zone resulting from method A was 6·69 cm 2 . Analysis of variance demonstrated a significant influence both for ‘operator’ factor and for the interaction operator-sample. Repeatability and reproducibility were 0·1706 and 0·2580, respectively. By method B the general mean area was 6·67 cm 2 . The variance among operators was significant, but lower than in the method A, and there was no interaction. The repeatability and reproducibility were 0·03055 and 0·07234, respectively. It would appear, therefore, that the optical-electronic determination is more precise than the planimetric method.

This study was conducted to determine the accuracy and repeatability of beef carcass longissimus muscle area (LMA) measurements obtained by three different methods. Longissimus muscle area for beef carcass sides (n = 100) randomly selected in a commercial packing plant was determined: 1) independently by three USDA grading supervisor experts using the grid method to obtain triplicate measurements of the same longissimus muscle (LM); 2) by three different Colorado State University personnel tracing the LMA on acetate paper and subsequently measuring the area via a polar planimeter three different times (total of 3 x 3 = 9 observations/LM); and 3) by use of two identical video image analysis (VIA) instruments making triplicate measurements for each LM using three different procedures. Video image analysis Procedure 1 required that LMA be measured by placing the camera head unit over the LM and collecting three sequential images without moving the camera head unit while carcasses were in a stationary position; Procedure 2 required measurement of LMA by placing the camera head unit over the LM and collecting three images, but removing and repositioning the camera head unit between collection of each image while carcasses were in a stationary position; and Procedure 3 required that LMA be measured by placing the camera head unit over the LM and obtaining an image while carcasses were in continuous motion (chain speed of 360 carcasses/ h) during three different circulations past the grading stand. Overall, VIA-derived LMA measurements were highly accurate for all three procedures compared with expert-gridded (R 2 = 0.92, 0.90, and 0.84 for Procedures 1, 2, and 3, respectively) and acetate/planimeter-traced (R 2 = 0.94, 0.93, and 0.86 for Procedures 1, 2, and 3, respectively) LMA measurements. Instrument LMA repeatability also was comparable to expert-gridded and acetate/planimeter-traced LMA repeatability, as the means of the absolute differences between individual measurements and the average of those same measurements per LM were 1.29, 1.35, 0.52, 0.84, and 1.87 cm 2 for expert-gridded, acetate/planimeter-traced, and VIA Procedures 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Therefore, VIA instrumentation can be used to assess beef carcass LMA in both a stationary and operational scenario with high levels of accuracy and repeatability.

A shape of denture base is uncertain, and has a curved surface. So, some methods were developed and applied for measuring its area. The method of measuring the denture wearing area have been applicating by some methods. In practice, the method of converting the spray film of vinyl chloride into its weight, the method of converting corroded adapted metal film into its illuminating quantity, and the method of measuring adapted film or paper by planimeter, were reported. The usefulness of them are under consideration, they have both merit and demerit. Among other methods, the method of using planimeter are said to use easy, and often applied. But we are anxious about correctness of measurement.Now we think to improve these defects, so we have developed the method of measuring denture wearing area, which system is made up of micro-computer, X-Y plotter, and digitizer for planimeter. An outline of this system, the figure to measure is made input to the X-Y axis of cordinates as n-polygon, which is calculated by a method of calculation for the area of npolygon, and is made output to computer display and X-Y plotter.After examinating these soft and hard wear, we have come to a conclusion that was reliable and useful method to measure area. And then, the method to apply micro-computer obtains an effective number of six figures, but the method to apply planimeter obtains an effective number of three figures. And after measured, there is a merit, which the calculated data are printed out by micro-computer. In the correctness of measurement, the method to use micro-computer is superior to using planimeter in 0.21%.In the near future, we shall develop this program, and make the system to calculate section property, that is, geometrical moment of inertia and section of modulus.

Thirty nine patients undergoing chronic hemodialysis, were submitted to brain computerized tomography in order to investigate the probable existence of brain atrophy. Evaluation was done by measuring the size of brain ventricles by means of a planimeter. An enlargement of the ventricles ranging from 1.43 to 3.13 times the normal was found in all patients. No relation was observed between the degree of the ventricular enlargement and the EEG findings, the clinical neurological picture and the duration of hemodialysis.

An account is given of the three major techniques of estimating daily accumulated heat units from maximum-minimum temperatures: daily mean temperature, triangulation, and sine curve. Each of these techniques is also modified for partial correction of errors due to geographical bias. The efficiencies of the techniques in estimating heating units for the development of a soil insect are compared with actual measurements of heating units taken from field temperature data with a planimeter. The daily mean temperature technique with modification is the best estimator of heating units.

This report sets forth the relationship between the back muscular strength and amplitudes of myogram in numerical values, in 374 patients of both sexes measured with the Muscular Strength-Myogram (MSMG) developed by the author, using the same method of measurement as in the first report. At the same time, the report makes a comparison between the patients complaining of a pain and those without pain in relation to low back muscular strength values.1) Through the use of the MSMG, the three aspects were investigated, i.e., (A) electric discharge (μV) per kg of back muscular strength. (B) comparison of the widths of upward and downward amplitudes with the width of the back muscular strength curve, and (C) comparison of the areas covered by the myogram amplitudes and by the back muscular strength curves measured with the use of a planimeter. As a result, it was found that (C) method was the most logical for such studies.2) Comparing the values of (B) and (C) methods, it was found that only in (B) method the side of the neck portion and upper trapezius muscular portion in males showed high values, whereas in all other muscular portions the values were greater under (C) method.3) It was found that in comparison of male and female patients, under (B) method the values for females were higher by 1. 28 times than the males, and under (C) method 1.51 times higher.4) From the average values of the left and right muscle discharges obtained from (C) method in Table 3, and taking the trapezius portion which is the maximum as 1.0, the values are shown for males and females respectively as : lower back portion at 0.77 and 0.74, inter-scapular portion at 0.62 and 0.57, and the side of the neck portion at 0.29 and 0.31.5) In Tables 4 and 5, comparing the patients with and without pain through (C) method, the average values for both sexes are shown as : side of the neck portion 2. 14, trapezius portion 1.68, inter-scapular portion 1.92, and lower back portion 1.94 : that is, those complaining of pain had electric discharge values of roughly two times that of the patients without pain.6) In a comparison of patients with low back muscular strength (less than 40 kg for males and less than 20 kg for females) with others that had higher back muscular strength, it was found that the patients of the low back muscular strength group had larger electric discharges, 1.52 times for males and 1.76 times for females on the average.

This study was designed to evaluate the accuracy of a radiographic-planimetric method of estimating total lung capacity in asthma. The technique involved utilizes the routine posterior-anterior (PA) and lateral chest roentgenogram and a polarizing planimeter. Results of total lung capacity obtained by this method in 33 patients were compared with results obtained from conventional methods using helium dilution and body plethysmography combined with routine spirometry. Correlation coefficients of 0.93 for planimetry and helium dilution (p

• A report is given on the development of procedures to process laryngeal highspeed films to extract the glottal waveform and other glottal measurements. The glottal waveforms that are derived by this direct method are being used to determine whether the pathological larynx is manifested in its abnormal vibratory pattern. The glottal waveforms measured by sonic-sensing pen tracing, cursor outlining, a photocell technique, and television camera scanning are presented and compared with the conventional polar planimeter method. To date, the television camera method is the most rapid procedure and can process approximately 400 frames per hour in a semiautomatic mode. This method determines the glottal area, length, and width by a combination of analog-digital circuitry and minicomputer processing. This information is being used to explicate the exact nature of the vibrational patterns produced by the normal and pathological larynges. ( Arch Otolaryngol 102:407-410, 1976)

The extent to which experimental variables may influence the results of quantitative DSC was investigated in factorial designs. In this paper, the first of a series which reports our findings, the study design is presented. The results of the calibration checks, carried out throughout the whole period of testing, are also given. Calibration was done with indium each day. Temperature values, peak width and shape index of indium peaks were found to be independent of the apparatus adjustment. The peak height appeared to be dependent on the mass of the indium sample and the specific sensitivity EIn depended on the apparatus adjustment. Area determinations with a planimeter generally had a lower standard deviation than with the “cut and weigh” method.

In utero diethylstilbestrol (DES) exposure has recently been associated with apparently unique abnormalities of the upper genital tract. Utilizing a standardized technique of hysterosalpingography (HSG) and a linear planimeter, the following measurements were made in a group of 13 DES-exposed women and compared with a control group of 22 women undergoing HSG during infertility investigations (mean ± standard error: endometrial cavity area, 323.23 ± 32.13 sq mm versus 626.56 ± 52.75 sq mm; endometrial cavity circumference, 128.65 ± 5.08 mm versus 140.52 ± 5.56 mm; upper uterine segment length, 28.80 ± 1.11 mm versus 38.03 ± 1.81 mm; lower uterine segment length, 36.03 ± 4.77 mm versus 42.24 ± 2.39 mm; intercornual distance, 36.40 ± 2.56 mm versus 38.25 ± 1.58 mm; internal os diameter, 3.90 ± 0.44 mm versus 4.43 ± 0.23 mm; widest diameter of the endocervical canal, 3.78 ± 0.40 mm versus 9.39 ± 0.60 mm; isthmic tubal diameter, 125 ± 0.08 mm versus 120 ± 0.01 mm; ampullary tubal diameter, 4.79 ± 0.43 mm versus 4.65 ± 0.22 mm. The endometrial cavity area, upper uterine segment, and endocervical canal measurements were significantly smaller in the DES-exposed group (P

The area of sway, which is believed to be one of the most important parameters reflecting standing ability, be measured by planimeter. The Japanese Equilibrium Research Association recommends that. On the other hand, the product of the maximum widths in both X and Y directions is also used, since measurement by planimeter is difficult to use clinically. This paper aims to clarify the relationship between two methods. The area measured by plani meter and the product of the maximum widths in both X and Y directions are called A and B, respectively.Statokinesigrams of 500 patients aged 5 to 80 years with eyes open and eyes closed were analyzed and the correlation between A amd B was analyzed statisticaliv.1 ) With regression analysis, the correlation coefficient of A associated with B was determined to be: r=0.953 in the group with eyes open, r=0.968 in the group with eyes closed. Relationships between A and B in both groups were statistically significant at the level of 0.001.2) The data were fitted to the following regression equation: Y=0.443X-20.47 in the group with eyes open, Y=0.441X-5.689 in the group with eyes closed. (X=B, Y=A) The regression coefficients in both groups were significant (P

The epithelium of the human circumvallate papillae was divided into three transverse portions from its superior surface; upper (UP), middle (MP) and lower portion (LP). Three transverse sections of the taste bud in one portion, totally nine sections in three portions, were selected from many sections and photographed in 6, 500 time magnification by electron microscope. After making photomontages of these nine sections magnified in 25, 000 times, the areas of the somata were measured from the traced pictures of photomontages by planimeter. The exact method used in this study was previously reported in Jap. Jour. Otol. Tokyo (1977).The areas of 255 somata at LP, 241 at MP and 292 at UP were measured. The mean value of the area was 3.6μ2 at LP, 7.8μ2 at MP and 6.9μ2 at UP. Fifty to 65 % of the somata showed the area of 0 to 2.0μ2 at each portion. The area of LP was generally smaller than that of remaining two portions.The somata were divided into three components, cell body, intercellular detritus and branching cytoplasmic process, from the view point of their location and morphological figures by electron microscope. The areas of these components were measured. The area of the cell body was over 12.0μ2, intercellular detritus among 1.0 to 9.0μ2 and branching cytoplasmic process under 0.3μ2. It was suggested that the cell number in one taste bud is 10.7 to 27.3 from area distributions of somata.

The objective index as developed by Qaura, Deodhar, and Jit, in 1980 was used to estimate the incidence of flat foot (pes planus) in 990 school pupils (532 females and 458 males) between the ages of 5 and 14 years. The ratio of contact area to the total area of the middle of the footprint (contact index 1) (4/10), usually measured with a planimeter, is accepted as the true representative of the condition of arches. In this field study, contact index II (ratio of contact width to the total width of the foot) which is simple, reliable, and correlates with contact index I has been used to assess flat foot. The mean for the contact index and standard deviation have been calculated. Feet have been considered as normal up to 1 SD around the mean value of the index and values greater or lesser than this have been considered abnormal. Furthermore, mean ± 1 SD to 2 SD has been considered as possible flat foot, whereas mean ± 3 SD and above has been taken as definite flat foot. On the whole, bilateral flat foot is not common among children of school age in Port Harcourt (0.60%). It is, however, more common in females (0.75%) than males (0.44%). Unilateral flat foot (2.22%) is found to be more common than bilateral flat foot. Early introduction to the use of shoes may predispose to flat foot. We were not in a position to say if any of the subjects found with flat foot would have a painful foot. Clinically speaking it could become important when flat foot co-exists with painful feet or even with pain extending up to the vertebral column.

An expression is derived relating the mean vapour pressure to the mean values of temperature and relative humidity. After examining a number of typical thermohygrograph charts it is concluded that only a small error will normally be introduced by assuming that the mean vapour pressure is equal to the mean relative humidity multipliedby the saturated vapour pressure at the mean temperature. The situations where the use of correction factors will give a slight improvement in accuracy are also discussed. The mean vapour pressure may thus be determined from quantities readily obtained using a planimeter. This allows a very considerable saving in time and effort compared with obtaining a mean from vapour pressures calculated at several points on the chart from pairs of temperature and relative humidity readings.

Topographical evaluations of the optic discs of 17 eyes obtained using a clinical planimeter, the Rodenstock video-ophthalmograph, and the IS 2000 image analyzer were compared. The parameters studied were vertical and horizontal cup-to-disc ratios, cup volumes, rim areas, disc areas, and rim area-to-disc area ratios. There was good correlation between the measurements obtained by the three methods (correlation coefficients ranged from 0.46 to 0.88). For various parameters, the correlations between clinical planimetry and image analysis were higher than either those between image analysis and video-ophthalmography, or those between clinical planimetry and video-ophthalmography. The mean horizontal cup-todisc ratios and rim areas as measured by clinical planimetry were significantly higher than those measured by image analysis. Image analysis measured signiflcantly higher disc area and rim areas and lower cup volumes than video-ophthalmography.

A method measuring plaque by area has been developed which can be used to evaluate the antiplaque effect of agents such as dentifrices when used in combination with toothbrushing. The extent of disclosed plaque 24 hours after treatment on tooth surfaces previously cleaned of all observable plaque was drawn by the examiner onto accurate enlarged scale drawings of the outline of the labial surfaces of all incisors, canines, premolars and 1st molars. Areas were then measured by an electronically recording planimeter. Three separate blind crossover trials were performed using this plaque area measurement in which a minimum of 15 subjects brushed normally on one occasion only, with either a calcium carbonate dentifrice or water. Compared with when subjects brushed with water, a statistically significant reduction of 45%-52% in plaque was observed in subjects 24 hours after brushing with the dentifrice in each of the three trials. In a study with 27 subjects, the periodontal condition of the papillae was found to be related to plaque present on labial surfaces on adjacent teeth as measured by this method. The teeth adjacent to papillae which bled on probing had 77% greater plaque area than teeth adjacent to papillae which did not bleed. Plaque area measured by this method on a continuous scale has a sensitivity advantage over the commonly used four-point plaque indices, especially when comparing effective antiplaque treatments or combination of treatments.

The volume of the lungs of 102 patients with emphysema and of 33 normal individuals, aged between 30 and 79 years, was determined with the use of a digital planimeter from routine chest x-rays in two planes. Contrary to the values obtained by a helium dilution method, the volumes, as determined by planimetry, did not show a linear relationship with age, but showed an increase after the age of 60. This agrees with the results of total body plethysmography, carried out by Amrein et al. The planimetric method of Harris, Pratt and Kilburn is a simple and rapid method for demonstrating, even in the presence of regional ventilatory abnormalities, total volume with sufficient accuracy, which complements and quantifies the radiological diagnosis of emphysema.

This study describes an in vitro preparation of isolated corneal endothelium, in which silver is used to stain the endothelial cell outlines. This permits high-power light microscopy and accurate measurement of individual cell characteristics. The photographed cell areas measured with a planimeter and mean areas and cell densities were calculated. A total of 40 individual cells were measured from each of 11 guinea-pig corneas to give a mean cell area of 293 micro 2 and a mean cell density of 3413 cells/mm2. These figures are similar to findings for young human subjects. The accuracy and repeatability of the method were examined and an analysis of variance was carried out to ascertain the effects to interaction between zones and eyes within individual guinea pigs. Differences between eyes were rarely significant and peripheral cells were not found to be significantly different in area from central cells.

In order to examine the aging of dentin and cementum, seventy-two impacted human canines, nonfunctional and not affected by external factors, such as attrition, abrasion, caries, etc., were surgically extracted. Ground sections were prepared and the areas of sclerotic dentin and cementum were measured with the aid of a planimeter and expressed as a percentage of the total root area. It was found that there is a significant increase in sclerotic dentin and apposition of cementum with an increase in age.

Using the pig as an experimental animal, cryolesions were made 20 minutes after injecting the freeze sites with either saline, 1% Lidocaine, or 1% lidocaine with Epinephrine 1:100,000. The size of the cryolesion was measured 1 week later by injecting the animal with a vital dye and measuring the nonstained areas with a compensating planimeter. Saline and lidocaine had no consistent effect on the size of the necrotic tissue produced by freezing, but epinephrine significantly augmented (47 percent) the killing effectiveness of cryosurgery. If local anesthesia is to be used for cryosurgery, it should contain a vasoconstricting agent.

The purpose of this study was to add to the growing database of cross-sectional areas and moment arm lengths of trunk musculature using the methods of computerized tomographic scanning. An attempt was also made to estimate muscle force and moment generating capacity under various reported values of muscle force per unit cross-sectional area. The data were obtained on 13 active men 40.5 +/- 11.9 years of age, 173.8 +/- 5.9 cm tall and 89.1 +/- 11.7 kg body mass. Transverse CT scans were taken at the level of the L4/L5 disc with the subjects supine. Muscle cross-sectional areas were measured from 35 mm slides of the scans using a planimeter and moment arm length in the transverse plane were taken from the centroid of the L4/L5 disc to the centroid of the muscle section. Prior to estimating force and moment generating capacity, areas were corrected, where necessary, for fibre pennation angle to produce a physiological cross-sectional area. The physiological cross-sectional areas (cm2) for one side of the body were (mean +/- S.D.): sacrospinalis (SS) 15.9 +/- 2.5; multifidus (Mu) 4.2 +/- 0.7; psoas (Ps) 17.6 +/- 4.0; rectus abdominis (RA) 7.9 +/- 2.5; external oblique (EO) 9.4 +/- 2.7; internal oblique (IO) 8.1 +/- 2.3; transverse abdominus (TA) 2.9 +/- 1.3. The anterior posterior moment arm lengths were: erector mass (SS and Mu combined) 5.90 +/- 0.52; Ps 0.58 +/- 0.40; R.A. 10.28 +/- 2.07; E.O. (anterior portion) 5.94 +/- 1.39; E.O. (posterior portion) 2.08 +/- 1.39; I.O. (anterior portion) 6.92 +/- 1.63; I.O. (posterior portion) 3.85 +/- 1.54. The corresponding lateral moment arm lengths were: 3.26 +/- 0.36; 4.88 +/- 0.36; 4.35 +/- 1.31; 12.86 +/- 1.93; 13.95 +/- 1.16; 10.77 +/- 2.02; 12.52 +/- 1.26. The maximum force per unit cross-section that human muscles are capable of generating is not well defined. However, assuming an intermediate value of 50 N cm-2 of physiological cross-section, the erector musculature observed at the L4/L5 level should be capable of generating an extensor moment of about 118 N.m. At a muscle stress of 30 or 90 N cm-2, values also reported on human muscle, the moment would be 71 and 213 Nm, respectively. It must be remembered, however, that muscles not observable at the L4/L5 level can create moments around that center of rotation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

We measured central corneal endothelial cell density and area from contact specular photomicrographs of ten normal and ten abnormal corneas, comparing the precision, cost, and speed of four methods: a rectangle, planimeter, digitizer, and cell sizer. The rectangle, planimeter, and digitizer gave results that differed less than 10% from each other; therefore, the three methods can be used interchangeably for clinical purposes. There are statistically significant differences among the three techniques that may be important in basic research. The cell sizer gave a rapid, less precise estimate of mean cell area and cell density. The planimeter and digitizer measured individual endothelial cell size, and the latter entered data directly into a computer that printed both a copy of the endothelial mosaic and a histogram of cell size frequency, and computed cell density and mean cell area. We make the following recommendations: Count cells in a rectangle used for routine clinical measurement. use a cell sizer for rough estimation, as in an eyebank setting. Use a computerized digitizer to study individual endothelial cell size.

The healing rate of small experimental burns continuously treated topically with 96% O2 and 75% relative humidity was followed for 25 days. Serial image photographic magnifications (tenfold throughout) of the wounds enabled precise measurements of their size by means of a polar planimeter. Healing rate was expressed as decreased percentile of wound size on a given day compared to the initial area. The mean percentages of healing +/- SEM of the humidified O2 treated wounds on postburn days 6, 11, and 16 were 31.25 +/- 6.15, 82.09 +/- 3.52, and 98.29 +/- 1.46, respectively, and those for the control wounds were 7.08 +/- 2.20, 47.68 +/- 3.39, and 84.41 +/- 1.38, respectively. Analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences in the healing rate between O2-humidity-treated and control wounds (p less than 0.005). The results indicate that topical treatment with 96% O2 and 75% relative humidity improved healing of experimental burns in guinea pigs.

An electronic system for measuring area and perimeter directly on cross-sectional ultrasonic images is described. The resulting values are unaffected by the distortions common to display monitors or errors in the display scale factor. The results of accuracy tests are given, including a comparison with measurements by planimeter and map-measurer.