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The Paternò-Büchi reaction is a photochemical reaction between a carbonyl compound and an alkene to give the corresponding oxetane. In this review the mechanism of the reaction is discussed. On this basis the described use in the reaction with electron rich alkenes (enolethers, enol esters, enol silyl ethers, enanines, heterocyclic compounds has been reported. The stereochemical behavior of the reaction is particularly stressed. We pointed out the reported applications of this reaction to the synthesis of naturally occuring compounds.

The first examples of 3,3-diaryloxetanes are prepared in a lithium-catalyzed and substrate dependent divergent Friedel–Crafts reaction. para-Selective Friedel–Crafts reactions of phenols using oxetan-3-ols afford 3,3-diaryloxetanes by displacement of the hydroxy group. These constitute new isosteres for benzophenones and diarylmethanes. Conversely, ortho-selective Friedel–Crafts reactions of phenols afford 3-aryl-3-hydroxymethyl-dihydrobenzofurans by tandem alkylation–ring opening; the outcome of the reaction diverging to structurally distinct products dependent on the substrate regioselectivity. Further reactivity of the oxetane products is demonstrated, suitable for incorporation into drug discovery efforts.

The first examples of 3,3‐diaryloxetanes are prepared in a lithium‐catalyzed and substrate dependent divergent Friedel–Crafts reaction. para‐Selective Friedel–Crafts reactions of phenols using oxetan‐3‐ols afford 3,3‐diaryloxetanes by displacement of the hydroxy group. These constitute new isosteres for benzophenones and diarylmethanes. Conversely, ortho‐selective Friedel–Crafts reactions of phenols afford 3‐aryl‐3‐hydroxymethyl‐dihydrobenzofurans by tandem alkylation–ring‐opening reactions; the outcome of the reaction diverging to structurally distinct products dependent on the substrate regioselectivity. Further reactivity of the oxetane products is demonstrated, suitable for incorporation into drug discovery efforts.

Highly concentrated: The title reaction proceeds to afford a rare type of 15-membered polyether macrocycle in up to 84 % yield (R1=alkyl, alkoxy, O-allyl, OCH2CH2Ph; R2=alkyl, Ph; R3=H, Me, Et). This nontemplated macrocyclization is performed in a single pot under high concentration and precludes the usual polymerization.

The first photocycloadditions of aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes to methylated isoxazoles are reported. The reactions lead solely to the exo-adducts with high regio- and diastereoselectivities. Ring methylation of the isoxazole substrates is crucial for high conversions and product stability. The 6-arylated bicyclic oxetanes 9a–9c were characterized by X-ray structure analyses and showed the highest thermal stabilities. All oxetanes formed from isoxazoles were highly acid-sensitive and also thermally unstable. Cleavage to the original substrates is dominant and the isoxazole derived oxetanes show type T photochromism.

The synthesis of 2-sulfinyl oxetanes is described by a C–C bond-forming cyclisation strategy. Oxetanes bearing electron-poor aryl sulfoxides are shown to be viable targets using this strategy. We report investigations into the sulfoxide magnesium exchange on 2-sulfinyl oxetanes, which resulted in products formed via ligand exchange and ligand coupling pathways. The sulfinyl oxetanes can be readily oxidised to the sulfonyl oxetanes.

The two geometric isomers of 2-(tert-butyl)-4-phenyloxetane have, for the first time, been prepared starting from the commercially available 4,4-dimethyl-1-phenylpentane-1,3-dione. The latter was reduced with NaBH4 to give a mixture of diastereomeric syn and anti diols which were then stereospecifically cyclized into the corresponding oxetanes with an overall yield for the two steps of 69.6%. The newly synthesized stereoisomeric four-membered oxygenated heterocycles were separated by column chromatography on silica gel and fully spectroscopically characterized.

Oxetanes offer exciting potential as structural motifs and intermediates in drug discovery and materials science. Here an efficient strategy for the synthesis of oxetane rings incorporating pendant functional groups is described. A wide variety of oxetane 2,2-dicarboxylates were accessed in high yields, including functionalized 3-/4-aryl- and alkyl-substituted oxetanes and fused oxetane bicycles. Enantioenriched alcohols provided enantioenriched oxetanes with complete retention of configuration. The oxetane products were further derivatized, while the ring was maintained intact, thus highlighting their potential as building blocks for medicinal chemistry.

Oxetanes offer exciting potential as structural motifs and intermediates in drug discovery and materials science. Here an efficient strategy for the synthesis of oxetane rings incorporating pendant functional groups is described. A wide variety of oxetane 2,2-dicarboxylates were accessed in high yields, including functionalized 3-/4-aryl- and alkyl-substituted oxetanes and fused oxetane bicycles. Enantioenriched alcohols provided enantioenriched oxetanes with complete retention of configuration. The oxetane products were further derivatized, while the ring was maintained intact, thus highlighting their potential as building blocks for medicinal chemistry.

A two-step stereoselective chemoenzymatic synthesis of optically active ?-aryl-substituted oxygen heterocycles was developed, exploiting a whole-cell mediated asymmetric reduction of ?-, ? -, and ? -chloroalkyl arylketones followed by a stereospecific cyclization of the corresponding chlorohydrins into the target heterocycles. Among the various whole cells screened (baker's yeast, Kluyveromyces marxianus CBS 6556, Saccharomyces cerevisiae CBS 7336, Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 20016), baker's yeast was the one providing the best yields and the highest enantiomeric ratios (up to 95:5 er) in the bioreduction of the above ketones. The obtained optically active chlorohydrins could be almost quantitatively cyclized in a basic medium into the corresponding ?-aryl-substituted cyclic ethers without any erosion of their enantiomeric integrity. In this respect, valuable, chiral non-racemic functionalized oxygen containing heterocycles (e.g., (S)-styrene oxide, (S)-2-phenyloxetane, (S)-2-phenyltetrahydrofuran), amenable to be further elaborated on, can be smoothly and successfully generated from their prochiral precursors.

Some ring-opening reactions of optically pure 2-aryl-3,3-dimethyl oxetanes have been examined under strongly protic or Lewis acid conditions. Ring-opening occurred at the benzylic position and partial inversion of configuration was observed in the case of hydrolysis or alcoholysis of the optically pure oxetanes catalyzed by H2SO4. The acid concentration affects the degree of inversion of configuration in water or methanol. On reaction with n-butyllithium or lithium thiolates aided by Lewis acid (BF3.ether) the corresponding β-substituted benzyl alcohols were obtained. Substitution now occurs at the least hindered carbon and the configuration of the asymmetric center remains unaffected.

The aim of this project was to explore the scope and limitations of a tandem photochemical process, consisting of a [2+2] cycloaddition between cyclopentenones and alkenes followed by a Norrish I/γ-hydrogen transfer reaction if the initial bicyclic adduct is formed. Using standard synthetic procedures, a small library of cyclopentenone substrates was prepared. The development of new methods to access substituted cyclopentenones, using organocatalyzed aldolisation conditions, was considered; however, these efforts were unfruitful.The photochemical studies showed that a selection of cyclopentenones and alkenes could react together to furnish cyclobutene aldehydes with average to good yields. The reaction conditions were optimized for the formation of this specific compound type, and some of the limitations as regards substrate diversity were determined. In some cases, control of the regioselectivity of the Norrish-I process was problematic.In course of the study, it was discovered that some of these cyclobutene aldehydes could themselves react photochemically, via an intramolecular Paternò–Büchi reaction, to form hitherto unknown tricyclic oxetanes. This constitutes a one-pot triple photochemical reaction sequence between the starting cyclopenenones and alkenes. Conditions were optimized for this transformation and several examples prepared. The tricyclic core structure was studied in detail, in both solution and the solid state, revealing that the formation had been highly diastereoselective in some examples. Some limitations, arising from steric hindrance and/or use of electron rich alkenes, constituted a limitation of the scope of the process.; L’objectif de ce projet a été d’explorer les limites et les possibilités d’une réaction tandem photochimique, composée d’une cycloaddition [2+2] entre des cyclopentenones et des alcènes, suivie d’une Norrish I/transfert du γ-hydrogen si l’adduit bicyclique se forme.En utilisant des procédures de la littérature, une petite bibliothèque de cyclopentenones fut préparée. Le developpement de méthodes permettant l’accès à des cyclopentenones substituées, par des réactions d’aldolisation organocatalysées, fut explorée sans succès.Des études photochimiques menées sur une selection de cyclopentenones et d’alcènes ont montré qu’ils pouvaient réagir ensemble pour fournir des cyclobutène aldehydes avec des moyens à bons rendements. Les conditions réactionnelles furent optimisées pour la formation de ce composé et quelques unes des limites en termes de susbtrat furent déterminées. Dans certains cas, un problème de régiosélectivité de la réaction de Norrish I furent constatés. Durant le cette étude, il fut découvert que certains de ces cyclobutène aldéhydes pouvaient eux-mêmes réagir photochimiquement par une réaction de Paternò–Büchi intramoléculaire pour mener à des oxétanes tricycliques totalement inédits. Ceci représente une séquence one-pot de trois réactions photochimiques entre la cyclopentenone de départ et l’alcène. Les conditions opératoires furent optimisées pour cette transformation et plusieurs exemples furent préparés. La structure centrale tricyclique fut étudiée en détail, en solution et dans l’état solide, montrant que la formation de ces oxétanes était hautement diastéréoselective dans certains exemples. Certaines limitations, découlant de gène stérique et/ou l’utilisation d’alcènes électroniquement riches, constituent une limite à la portée de cette réaction.; Questo progetto ѐ nato con l’obiettivo di sviluppare un processo tandem fotochimico, costituito da una cicloaddizione [2+2] tra olefine e substrati ciclopentenonici, seguita da una reazione di Norrish-I / trasferimento di γ-idrogeno sul prodotto biciclico ottenuto. Usando procedure standard, ѐ stata preparata una libreria di substrati ciclopentenonici da testare in questo processo. Lo studio di nuove metodologie organocatalitiche per la sintesi di tali substrati ѐ stato inoltre intrapreso, sfortunatamente senza buoni risultati.Lo studio di questo processo ha mostrato come una serie di ciclopentenoni sia effettivamente in grado di reagire con doppi legami olefinici, portando alla formazione di derivati aldeidici ciclobutenici, con discrete o buone rese. Le condizioni di reazione sono state ottimizzate per la formazione di questa classe di composti, e alcune limitazioni relative alla struttura del substrato sono emerse da questi studi. In alcuni casi, infatti, il controllo della regioselettività della reazione di Norrish-I si ѐ rivelato problematico.Durante tale studio, ѐ apparso che alcune delle aldeidi ciclobuteniche ottenute si sono rivelate in grado di reagire ulteriormente in condizioni fotochimiche, attraverso una reazione di Paternò–Büchi intramolecolare, portando alla formazione di ossetani triciclici finora sconosciuti. Ciò costituisce in ultima analisi un triplo processo fotochimico one-pot a partire da ciclopentenoni e alcheni. Anche le condizioni di reazione per questa sequenza sono state ottimizzate e alcuni esempi sono stati preparati e isolati. La struttura triciclica di questi nuovi composti e stata caratterizzata nel dettaglio, sia in soluzione che allo stato solido, rivelando un’elevata diastereoselettività in diversi casi. La presenza di gruppi stericamente ingombranti, o l’uso di olefine elettronricche, si sono dimostrati tuttavia una limitazione alla sintesi di queste interessanti strutture.

The aim of this project was to explore the scope and limitations of a tandem photochemical process, consisting of a [2+2] cycloaddition between cyclopentenones and alkenes followed by a Norrish I/γ-hydrogen transfer reaction if the initial bicyclic adduct is formed. Using standard synthetic procedures, a small library of cyclopentenone substrates was prepared. The development of new methods to access substituted cyclopentenones, using organocatalyzed aldolisation conditions, was considered; however, these efforts were unfruitful.The photochemical studies showed that a selection of cyclopentenones and alkenes could react together to furnish cyclobutene aldehydes with average to good yields. The reaction conditions were optimized for the formation of this specific compound type, and some of the limitations as regards substrate diversity were determined. In some cases, control of the regioselectivity of the Norrish-I process was problematic.In course of the study, it was discovered that some of these cyclobutene aldehydes could themselves react photochemically, via an intramolecular Paternò–Büchi reaction, to form hitherto unknown tricyclic oxetanes. This constitutes a one-pot triple photochemical reaction sequence between the starting cyclopenenones and alkenes. Conditions were optimized for this transformation and several examples prepared. The tricyclic core structure was studied in detail, in both solution and the solid state, revealing that the formation had been highly diastereoselective in some examples. Some limitations, arising from steric hindrance and/or use of electron rich alkenes, constituted a limitation of the scope of the process.; L’objectif de ce projet a été d’explorer les limites et les possibilités d’une réaction tandem photochimique, composée d’une cycloaddition [2+2] entre des cyclopentenones et des alcènes, suivie d’une Norrish I/transfert du γ-hydrogen si l’adduit bicyclique se forme.En utilisant des procédures de la littérature, une petite bibliothèque de cyclopentenones fut préparée. Le developpement de méthodes permettant l’accès à des cyclopentenones substituées, par des réactions d’aldolisation organocatalysées, fut explorée sans succès.Des études photochimiques menées sur une selection de cyclopentenones et d’alcènes ont montré qu’ils pouvaient réagir ensemble pour fournir des cyclobutène aldehydes avec des moyens à bons rendements. Les conditions réactionnelles furent optimisées pour la formation de ce composé et quelques unes des limites en termes de susbtrat furent déterminées. Dans certains cas, un problème de régiosélectivité de la réaction de Norrish I furent constatés. Durant le cette étude, il fut découvert que certains de ces cyclobutène aldéhydes pouvaient eux-mêmes réagir photochimiquement par une réaction de Paternò–Büchi intramoléculaire pour mener à des oxétanes tricycliques totalement inédits. Ceci représente une séquence one-pot de trois réactions photochimiques entre la cyclopentenone de départ et l’alcène. Les conditions opératoires furent optimisées pour cette transformation et plusieurs exemples furent préparés. La structure centrale tricyclique fut étudiée en détail, en solution et dans l’état solide, montrant que la formation de ces oxétanes était hautement diastéréoselective dans certains exemples. Certaines limitations, découlant de gène stérique et/ou l’utilisation d’alcènes électroniquement riches, constituent une limite à la portée de cette réaction.; Questo progetto ѐ nato con l’obiettivo di sviluppare un processo tandem fotochimico, costituito da una cicloaddizione [2+2] tra olefine e substrati ciclopentenonici, seguita da una reazione di Norrish-I / trasferimento di γ-idrogeno sul prodotto biciclico ottenuto. Usando procedure standard, ѐ stata preparata una libreria di substrati ciclopentenonici da testare in questo processo. Lo studio di nuove metodologie organocatalitiche per la sintesi di tali substrati ѐ stato inoltre intrapreso, sfortunatamente senza buoni risultati.Lo studio di questo processo ha mostrato come una serie di ciclopentenoni sia effettivamente in grado di reagire con doppi legami olefinici, portando alla formazione di derivati aldeidici ciclobutenici, con discrete o buone rese. Le condizioni di reazione sono state ottimizzate per la formazione di questa classe di composti, e alcune limitazioni relative alla struttura del substrato sono emerse da questi studi. In alcuni casi, infatti, il controllo della regioselettività della reazione di Norrish-I si ѐ rivelato problematico.Durante tale studio, ѐ apparso che alcune delle aldeidi ciclobuteniche ottenute si sono rivelate in grado di reagire ulteriormente in condizioni fotochimiche, attraverso una reazione di Paternò–Büchi intramolecolare, portando alla formazione di ossetani triciclici finora sconosciuti. Ciò costituisce in ultima analisi un triplo processo fotochimico one-pot a partire da ciclopentenoni e alcheni. Anche le condizioni di reazione per questa sequenza sono state ottimizzate e alcuni esempi sono stati preparati e isolati. La struttura triciclica di questi nuovi composti e stata caratterizzata nel dettaglio, sia in soluzione che allo stato solido, rivelando un’elevata diastereoselettività in diversi casi. La presenza di gruppi stericamente ingombranti, o l’uso di olefine elettronricche, si sono dimostrati tuttavia una limitazione alla sintesi di queste interessanti strutture.

This article presents a series of ring-extended gramicidin S derivatives, 9-14, that have four ornithine residues as polar protonated side chains and one modified turn region containing a mono-functionalized cis-δ-oxetane, δ-furanoid, or δ-pyranoid sugar amino acid residue. Of the GS analogs evaluated, we identified compound 7, which contains the mono-benzyloxy cis-δ-pyranoid sugar amino acid, as having a better biological profile than the clinically applied topical antibiotic gramicidin S. Copyright © 2012 Verlag Helvetica Chimica Acta AG, Zürich, Switzerland.

This article presents a series of ring-extended gramicidin S derivatives, 9-14, that have four ornithine residues as polar protonated side chains and one modified turn region containing a mono-functionalized cis-δ-oxetane, δ-furanoid, or δ-pyranoid sugar amino acid residue. Of the GS analogs evaluated, we identified compound 7, which contains the mono-benzyloxy cis-δ-pyranoid sugar amino acid, as having a better biological profile than the clinically applied topical antibiotic gramicidin S. Copyright © 2012 Verlag Helvetica Chimica Acta AG, Zürich, Switzerland.

Ln(III)trifluoromethansulfonates in CH2Cl2 efficiently catalyze the aminolysis of trimethylene oxide, 2-octyl-, and 2-phenyloxetane, at r.t., to give the corresponding γ-amino alcohols in very good yields.

Capítulo 4, pp 85-107, The search in the field of four-membered heterocycles, where a non-carbon atom is part of the ring, has been actively pursued in 2009 within Organic Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry, Medicinal Chemistry, and Material Science. In particular, the synthesis and chemistry of oxygen- and nitrogen-containing heterocycles dominate the field in terms of the number of publications. It should be clearly stated that a comprehensive description of all the aspects of the vast research area of four-membered heterocyclic chemistry can not be fully covered in this book chapter. Instead, the present overview presents a personal selection of the topics which we believe are the more relevant.

The photochemical coupling reaction between 2, 3-dihydrofuran and benzaldehyde was studied by using DFT/B3LYP/6-31G+ (d, p) method. The regiocontrol of the attack of the benzaldehyde on the double bond is related to the different stabilities of the biradical intermediates. The endo stereoselectivity of the reaction depends on the superposition between HSOMO and LSOMO in the biradical intermediate. In the photochemical reaction between furan and benzaldehyde also the regiocontrol depends on the relative stability of the possible biradical intermediates. The exo stereoselectivity of the coupling reaction depends on the superposition between the HSOMO and LSOMO of the biradical intermediate. The reaction of chiral phenylglyoxylates with furan gave the corresponding adducts with de = 15 - 95%. The stereocontrol can be explained considering the energy gap between the biradical intermediates in the coupling reaction. When the reaction was performed in the presence of zeolite, the diastereoisomeric excess increased. The reaction of benzoin and 2-phenylpropiophenone with furan gave the cycloadduct with high diastereocontrol. All the products were obtained with de > 98%. The Paterrno-Buchi reaction between 2-furylmethanols with aromatic carbonyl compounds also showed high regio- and stereocontrol. On the contrary, when 5-methyl derivatives were used, a lack of regiocontrol was observed. Furthermore, with aliphatic carbonyl compounds, no diastereoselectivity was observed. These results were explained assuming the attack of the excited carbonyl compound on the same side as the hydroxyl group, through the formation of a hydrogen bond or of a complex. This type of attack gave the biradical intermediate in preferential conformations. The relative energies of these conformers account for the observed diastereoselectivity.

The reaction of (S)-1-methylpropylbenzoylformate with furan gave (1'S)-1'-methylpropyl (1S, 5R, 6R)-6alpha-phenyl-2, 7-dioxabicyclo[ 3.2.0] hept-3-en-6beta-carboxylate with de = 15%. The reaction of (S)-2-methylbutyl benzoylformate with furan gave (2'S)-2-methylbutyl (1SR, 5RS, 6RS)-6alpha-phenyl-2, 7-dioxabicyclo[3.2.0] hept-3-en-6beta-carboxylate as a mixture of stereoisomers. (1R, 2S, 5R)-5-Methyl-2-(1-methylphenylethyl) cyclohexyl benzoylformate gave (1R, 2S, 5R)5- methyl-2-(1-methylphenylethyl) cyclohexyl (1R, 5S, 6S)-6alpha-phenyl-2, 7-dioxabicyclo[3.2.0] hept-3-en-6beta-carboxylate with de = 95%. The stereochemical behaviour can be explained considering the energy gap between the biradical intermediates in the coupling reaction. When the reaction was performed in the presence of zeolite, the diastereoisomeric excess increased (37, 18 and 98%, respectively). The reaction of (S)-1-methylpropylbenzoylformate with 2-methylfuran gave (1'S)-1'-methylpropyl (1S, 5R, 6R)-1-methyl-6alpha-phenyl-2, 7-dioxabicyclo[3.2.0] hept-3-en-6beta-carboxylate (yield: 12%) with de = 94%. The main product was (1'S)-1'-methylpropyl (1SR, 5RS, 6RS)-3-methyl-6alpha-phenyl- 2, 7-dioxabicyclo[3.2.0] hept-3-en-6beta-carboxylate as a mixture of diastereoisomers. The reaction of (S)-2-methylbutyl benzoylformate with 2-methylfuran gave (2'S)-2-methylbutyl (1S, 5R, 6R)-1-methyl-6alpha-phenyl-2, 7-dioxabicyclo[ 3.2.0] hept-3-en-6beta-carboxylate (yield: 9%) with de = 10%. The main product was (2'S)-2-methylbutyl (1SR, 5RS, 6RS)-3-methyl-6alpha-phenyl-2, 7-dioxabicyclo[3.2.0] hept-3-en-6beta-carboxylate as a mixture of stereoisomers. The stereochemical behaviour can be explained on the basis of the energy gap between the possible biradical intermediates. The reaction of (S)-1-methylpropylbenzoylformate and (S)-2-methylbutyl benzoylformate with 2-furylmethanol gave the corresponding adducts as a mixture of diastereoisomers. The reaction of (S)-1-methylpropylbenzoylformate and (S)-2-methylbutyl benzoylformate with 2-furylphenylmethanol gave the corresponding adducts with high diastereoselectivity. In this case, the stereochemical behaviour is determined by the presence of the hydroxy group in a molecule with a preferntial conformation.

Recently we have documented research efforts aimed at new classes of oxetanes as well as spiroheteroalicyclic ring systems (which we have termed 'Compact Modules') designed to expand the palette of tailored module scaffolds available to medicinal chemists, which constitute an important role for synthetic chemistry in the drug discovery process. An essential component for this process is to provide access to specific molecular topologies with functional group diversity, essential for generating leads that discriminate among biological targets, therefore promoting selectivity and enhancing the safety profile of the final clinical candidates.

Treatment of the 3-monomethanesulfonates of 1,2,2-trisubstituted 1,5-propanediols under phase-transfer conditions affords 2-aryl (or alkyl)-3,3-dialkyloxetanes. Twelve oxetanes have been obtained by this method; three of these oxetanes have been obtained enantiomerically pure as both enantiomers starting from the appropriate enantiomerically pure 1,3-diols. In these reactions the chiral center does not undergo inversion and the oxetanes have the same absolute configuration as the starting 1,3-diols.

A four-membered oxygen ring (oxetane) can be readily grafted into native peptides and proteins through site-selective bis-alkylation of cysteine residues present as disulfides under mild and biocompatible conditions. The selective installation of the oxetane graft enhances stability and activity, as demonstrated for a range of biologically relevant cyclic peptides, including somatostatin, proteins, and antibodies, such as a Fab arm of the antibody Herceptin and a designed antibody DesAb-A against the human Amyloid- peptide. Oxetane grafting of the genetically detoxified diphtheria toxin CRM197 improves significantly the immunogenicity of this protein in mice, which illustrates the general utility of this strategy to modulate the stability and biological activity of therapeutic proteins containing disulfides in their structures. © 2017 The Authors. Published by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.