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The development of a hydrogen infrastructure has been identified as a key barrier to implementing hydrogen as for a future transportation fuel. Several recent studies of hydrogen infrastructure have assessed near-term and long-term alternatives for hydrogen supply. In this paper, we discuss how advances in material science related to hydrogen storage could change how a future hydrogen infrastructure is designed. Using a simplified engineering/economic model for hydrogen infrastructure design and cost, we explore some potential impacts of advances in storage materials, in terms of system design, cost, energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions.

The current lack of an extensive (H2) infrastructure is often cited as a serious barrier to the introduction of H2 as an energy carrier, and to the commercialization of technologies such as H2 vehicles. Because H2 can be made at a wide range of scales (from household to large city) and from a variety of primary sources (fossil, renewable and nuclear), there are many possible pathways for producing and distributing H2 to users. The DOE has identified the need to find viable transition strategies toward widespread use of H2.In this work, we developed and applied simulation tools to evaluate alternative pathways toward widespread use of H2 under various demand scenarios and regional conditions. Geographic information system (GIS) data are utilized as input to analysis, and to visualize results. The use of mathematical programming or other methods to screen the large design space of possible transition pathways for optimum solutions is employed. Using these techniques we carried out a series of regional case studies for H2 infrastructure development. The goal is to understand which factors are most important in finding viable transition strategies under different regional conditions and to develop rules of thumb for future H2 infrastructure development.

Proceedings of the 4th Annual Conference on Carbon Capture and Sequestration DOE/NETL (CCS 2005), Arlington, VA, May 2 - 5, 2005Researchers at the University of California, Davis, in support of the Department of Energy's Fossil Energy programs, are developing engineering/economic/geographic models of fossil hydrogen energy systems with carbon capture and sequestration. In this paper, we present initial results from an ongoing assessment of alternative transition strategies from today's energy system toward widespread use of H2 from fossil fuels as an energy carrier with capture and sequestration of CO2. This study is coordinated with the National Energy Technology Laboratory Carbon Sequestration program and hydrogen modeling efforts at UC Davis and within the USDOE such as H2A. In the future, we plan to utilize data on CO2 sequestration sites from the NATCARB program, and the Regional Sequestration Partnerships. Our model for the design and economics of a fossil H2 energy system with CO2 sequestration considers a number of factors including:* Cost and performance of component technologies making up the system (e.g. fossil energy complex including CO2 capture technology and co-production of hydrogen and electricity, CO2 pipelines and hydrogen storage, distribution and refueling stations). * The location and characteristics of the CO2 sequestration site (storage capacity, permeability, reservoir thickness), * The location, type, size and geographic density of the H2 demand. * Cost, location and availability of primary resources for H2 production such as coal or natural gas. * Location of existing energy infrastructure and rights of way.We have developed techniques for studying regional H2 and CO2 infrastructure development and transition strategies, based on use of Geographic Information System (GIS) data and network optimization techniques. GIS facilitates this analysis by allowing one to use spatially-referenced data, such as existing power plants, coal resources, population distribution, existing rights of way, and CO2 sequestration sites, to calculate the location and magnitude of hydrogen demand and optimize the placement of production facilities and pipeline networks for transporting hydrogen and CO2. We have applied the model to a regional case study of a coal-based hydrogen economy in Ohio with CO2 capture and sequestration. The objective is to model the optimal hydrogen infrastructure design for the entire state under different market penetration scenarios, and find the cost of building the system. In the future, we will extend this work to different regions of the US to conduct a national case study, in coordination with the Department of Energy’s National Energy Technology Laboratory, NATCARB and the Regional Sequestration Partnerships.

Proceedings of the National Hydrogen Association Annual Hydrogen Conference (NHA 2005), Washington, DC, March 29 - April 1, 2005Hydrogen offers a wide range of future environmental and social benefits, when used as a fuel for applications such as light duty vehicles and stationary power. These potential benefits include significant or complete reductions in point-of-use criteria emissions, lower life-cycle CO2 emissions, higher end-use and life-cycle efficiency, and a shift (with respect to transportation fuels) to a range of widely available feedstocks. Despite the potential benefits of a hydrogen economy, there are many challenges as well. One of the most critical is the tremendous cost and investment associated with developing and transitioning to an extensive transportation network based upon hydrogen. The widely-discussed "chicken and egg" problem focuses on the difficulty in building vehicles and hydrogen supply to meet a small and growing demand. While many current studies of the 'Hydrogen Economy' present a steady-state portrait of a mature energy system including H2 production, distribution and utilization, the transitional issues that are embodied in the chicken and egg problem are not addressed. Modeling the transition to a hydrogen economy is more complex than these static analyses because of dynamic nature of the problem. The transition costs will be determined by the size of the production, distribution and other infrastructure components and the economies of scale associated with these components and with the major shift in the transportation sector. Some analysts believe that in the near-term, infrastructure will be built up by means of distributed production of hydrogen at refueling stations by fuel processors or electrolyzers, which will lessen the initial infrastructure investment. These systems take advantage of existing energy distribution infrastructure (natural gas and electricity) reducing the capital expenditure requirements for hydrogen infrastructure. Only after significant maturation and market penetration of vehicles will the hydrogen demand be large enough to take advantage of the economies of scale associated with a dedicated infrastructure with large centralized hydrogen energy production plants and hydrogen pipeline distribution. In general, there is a trade-off between production costs and distribution costs that impacts a decision when to move from distributed to centralized hydrogen production. One key question that this analysis will explore is when and under what circumstances this transition could occur.

Presented at the National Hydrogen Association Annual Hydrogen Conference (NHA 2005), Washington, DC, March 29 - April 1, 2005The use of hydrogen as a light-duty transportation fuel requires the development of a widespread regional hydrogen infrastructure, including production facilities, a distribution network, and refueling stations. In the case of fossil-based hydrogen production with carbon capture and sequestration, additional infrastructure is needed for CO2 disposal. If construction of this infrastructure is to proceed, it is necessary to identify strategies for minimizing the cost while maximizing the utility during the transition. We have developed an infrastructure model that identifies the major parameters that determine infrastructure cost and uses a geographic information system (GIS) to apply these parameters to optimize infrastructure design for a given region.In this paper, the model is applied to a regional case study of a potential coalbased hydrogen economy in Ohio with CO2 capture and sequestration. The objective is to model the optimal hydrogen infrastructure design for the entire state under different market penetration scenarios. GIS facilitates this analysis by allowing one to use existing spatially-referenced data, such as population distribution, coal resources, existing infrastructure, and CO2 sequestration sites, to calculate the location and magnitude of hydrogen demand and optimize the placement of production facilities and pipeline networks for transporting hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Engineering/economic models that identify the costs and technical performance of infrastructure components allow for the calculation of the costs, energy usage and emissions of different hydrogen infrastructure options. Based on these parameters, it is possible to identify the lowest cost infrastructure design for supplying hydrogen to users under multiple scenarios. The goal of this research is to increase understanding of the economics and design issues related to hydrogen infrastructure development under real-world constraints.

Presented at the National Hydrogen Association Annual Hydrogen Conference (NHA 2005), Washington, DC, March 29 - April 1, 2005Understanding the evolution of a hydrogen fuel delivery infrastructure depends on the spatial characteristics of the hydrogen demand. We have developed a GIS-based method to model the magnitude and spatial distribution of hydrogen demand based on exogenously-derived market penetration rates and population data. This approach is applied to a study of the state of Ohio, but can be applied to any region of interest.Our methodology is based upon population density, which is mapped at the census-block level and used to calculate hydrogen demand density based on per-capita vehicle ownership, projections for daily hydrogen use per vehicle, and market penetration levels or profiles. Various methods (including buffers and thresholds) are used to identify and aggregate high demand density areas into demand clusters, since only those areas with sufficient hydrogen demand are assumed to be viable locations for refueling stations. The resulting demand clusters (or demand centers) represent the potential areas in which investment in hydrogen infrastructure may be warranted and can be fed into a supply infrastructure model.Sensitivity analyses were conducted to test the impact on hydrogen demand of different market penetration levels, thresholds, and buffer sizes. (i.e. different scenarios) The results allow one to examine the tradeoff between meeting hydrogen demand and the associated projected infrastructure costs. Although this demand model contains many simplifying assumptions, it provides a means for identifying potentially viable locations for hydrogen infrastructure investment at various scenarios.

In this final report, we present results from research conducted under Phase I of NREL contract number XCM-4-44000-01, from May 2004-January 2005. The overall goal of this project is to better understand infrastructure development strategies for widespread implementation of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Under this contract, we continued earlier research on this topic (Ogden and Kaijuka 2004, Ogden 2004), improving simulation tools to study hydrogen transition strategies, and applying these methods to a geographically specific case study in the Midwest. We also worked as part of the USDOE’s H2A group, developing models of hydrogen delivery systems. Our technical approach is to attempt to capture the site-specific nature of the H2 infrastructure design problem by use of Geographic Information System (GIS) data as a basis for understanding the spatial relationships between hydrogen demand and supply and existing infrastructure. In this study, we explored the use of mathematical programming techniques to find the lowest cost strategy for building a widespread hydrogen energy system. The goal of the study is to develop a better understanding of the entire system over time, and formulate “rules of thumb” for low-cost regional hydrogen infrastructure strategies. Three tasks were completed.

In this final report, we present results from research conducted under Phase I of NREL contract number XCM-4-44000-01, from May 2004-January 2005. The overall goal of this project is to better understand infrastructure development strategies for widespread implementation of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Under this contract, we continued earlier research on this topic, improving simulation tools to study hydrogen transition strategies, and applying these methods to a geographically specific case study in the Midwest. We also worked as part of the USDOE's H2A group, developing models of hydrogen delivery systems. Our technical approach is to attempt to capture the site-specific nature of the H2 infrastructure design problem by use of Geographic Information System (GIS) data as a basis for understanding the spatial relationships between hydrogen demand and supply and existing infrastructure. In this study, we explored the use of mathematical programming techniques to find the lowest cost strategy for building a widespread hydrogen energy system. The goal of the study is to develop a better understanding of the entire system over time, and formulate "rules of thumb" for low-cost regional hydrogen infrastructure strategies.

Proceedings of the 15th Annual NHA Hydrogen Conference (April 26-29, 2004)Many past studies of the 'Hydrogen Economy' have presented a steady-state portrait of a mature pathway from hydrogen production and distribution through utilization. One of the key problems surrounding the hydrogen economy is the large cost of building the infrastructure. The desire to reduce these costs associated with hydrogen infrastructure development leads to models and analysis of the dynamics of how a hydrogen supply infrastructure might grow over time, as demand for hydrogen increases in the transportation sector. To fully model hydrogen transitions is immensely complex, involving not only matching hydrogen supply and demand, but also how hydrogen interacts with the rest of the energy system, the economy, the environment and policy.As a first approach to understanding transitions, we are developing a simplified model of the hydrogen economy – including alternative feedstocks, production technologies, distribution modes and demand scenarios. This model will be used to estimate infrastructure transition costs as a function of relatively small number of parameters for various demand scenarios. We plan to study how transition costs depend on factors such as the size and geographic density of demand, the market penetration rate, resource availability and technological progress. The goal is provide insights into low cost paths for moving our transportation fuel infrastructure from its current state to one based on large-scale use of hydrogen fuel. In this paper, we describe our overall approach and present initial results.