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Abstract: Nutrient data collected from the Sea of Okhotsk in July 1998, September 1999, and June 2000 were used to calculate N⁎, the deviation from the stoichiometric relationship between nitrogenous nutrients and phosphate. Intermediate water from east of Sakhalin to the Bussol Strait had low N⁎ values (<−5 μmol kg−1), which led to very low N⁎ values of approximately −11 μmol kg−1 in the northwestern shelf bottom water. The low N⁎ distribution is consistent with distributions of low temperature and low salinity at densities around 26.8σ θ , which are characteristic of the Okhotsk Sea Intermediate Water (OSIW) and the Dense Shelf Water (DSW) that is a source water of the OSIW. To assess N⁎ as a new tracer of OSIW formation and to determine whether the low N⁎ signature is created by in situ biogeochemical processes or reflects a conservative property of the water mass, we analyzed the nitrogen isotopic ratio of nitrate, δ 15NO3 −. Although low N⁎ usually suggests the occurrence of denitrification in a water column with large isotopic fractionation, neither the intermediate nor shelf bottom waters had high δ 15NO3 − values, indicating that denitrification in the water column did not cause these low N⁎ values. Sedimentary denitrification with little isotopic fractionation and phosphate dissolution from sediment likely caused the extremely low N⁎ of the shelf bottom water. The low N⁎ of the intermediate water must thus be unaffected by in situ biogeochemical processes and instead reflect the intrusion of shelf bottom water into the offshore intermediate layer. Our results show that N⁎ acts as a conservative tracer of the OSIW formation process. Because the water masses characterized by low N⁎ are created at the shelf bottom, N⁎ is a valuable tracer of DSW which originates from continental shelf areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Causes of the multidecadal-scale warming of the intermediate water in the Okhotsk Sea and the western subarctic North Pacific during 1980-2008 are investigated using an ice-ocean coupled model with interannually varying atmospheric forcing. A hindcast experiment qualitatively reproduces the warming and decadal fluctuations of the intermediate water that are similar to those of observations: the warming is significant along the western part of the Okhotsk Sea and subarctic frontal region. The effects of the thermohaline- and wind-driven ocean circulation on the warming are evaluated from perturbation experiments on thermohaline (turbulent heat and freshwater fluxes) and wind causes, respectively. The thermohaline causes are shown to contribute positively to warming in the Okhotsk Sea Intermediate Water (OSIW). The heat budget analysis for the OSIW indicates that the warming is related to a decrease in cold and dense shelf water (DSW) flux, which is caused by a decrease in sea ice and surface water freshening. In contrast, the wind cause has a cooling effect in the OSIW through an increase in DSW. In the subarctic frontal region, the warming is mainly caused by the wind stress change. The heat budget analysis indicates that the warming is related to an increase in the northward advection of the subtropical warm water. These results imply that both thermohaline- and wind-driven ocean circulation changes are essential components of the warming in the intermediate water. The atmospheric conditions responsible for the warming are related to a weakened Aleutian low and Siberian high in early and late winter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paths of the Amur River discharge on the continental shelf in the Sea of Okhotsk are still unknown despite their significance in transporting dissolved and particulate iron. In this study, we conduct a coupled ice-ocean simulation for the northern Sea of Okhotsk from June 1998 to September 2000 to answer the question: Does the Amur River discharge deposit materials to the pathway of the dense shelf water? In a series of numerical experiments, we identified two routes (the western and eastern routes) that could transport the river water more than 100km offshore over the northwestern continental shelf. The two routes share the clockwise gyre in the Sakhalin Gulf and the northeastward flow on the northwestern continental shelf. These features are connected through the westward jet along the slope from the Sakhalin Gulf (the western route) and the northward transport over the shelf break canyon (the eastern route). The river water, the dense shelf water, and the easterly wind are in a fine geophysical balance for those features, and all are required for the formation of the two routes. The model results show that these unique joint effects in the Sea of Okhotsk allow the Amur River discharge to be effectively transported over the northwestern continental shelf, unlike a general river discharge that flows along the coast, and deposit materials into the pathway of the dense shelf water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tidally induced vertical mixing is important for thermohaline circulation. Previous estimations of tidal mixing have aimed to obtain time-averaged values, and ocean general circulation models (OGCMs) typically parameterize such mixing using a temporally constant strength. However, tidal mixing is known to vary temporally during tidal or spring-neap cycles. Here, we investigate the effects of temporal change in tidally induced vertical diffusivity (κ t) in the Kuril Straits using an OGCM. The results demonstrate that variations of vertical mixing on diurnal, 2-week, and 1/2-year timescales induce significant differences in the net effect of mixing and, therefore, in the thermohaline circulation originating in the Okhotsk Sea. For diurnal and 2-week variations, the strength of the tidal mixing effect depends on (1) the period and length of the duration over which κ t is larger than the temporal average and (2) the amplitude of the temporal variation of κ t , even if the time-averaged values are the same. This is explained by the relative importance of two states. In a quasi-equilibrium state, a larger κ t results in weaker stratification and vice versa, and thus the net tidal mixing effect is weaker when κ t is variable than when it remains constant. Conversely, in an adjustment stage just after an increase in κ t , a larger κ t acts on stronger stratification and vice versa, resulting in a stronger mixing effect. For a 1/2-year variation, the strength of the tidal mixing effect also depends on the phase relationship with seasonal variation in stratification. These results imply the necessity of considering temporal change when estimating tidal mixing from observations, specifying it in OGCMs, and understanding its effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A recently constructed hydrographic dataset from the Okhotsk Sea reveals a prominent freshening to depths of ~500m during the past four decades, with the maximum in the northwestern part of the sea. Averaged over the sea, this freshening corresponds to an input of 0.55m of freshwater. This leads to a decrease in density of the intermediate water and deepening of the isopycnals, with the maximum deepening at 26.8 σθ of ~60m averaged over the sea. The intermediate water is significantly warmed along the pathway of dense shelf water (DSW). A simple box model shows that DSW production has decreased by ~30% during the past four decades. We propose that the freshening and DSW reduction are caused by the weakening of salt/freshwater redistribution through sea ice decline as well as by the increase of excess precipitation over evaporation. Since the overturning in the North Pacific originates from the Okhotsk Sea through the DSW, these changes possibly weaken the shallow overturning of the North Pacific. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An ocean general circulation model coupled with a simple biogeochemical model was developed to simulate iron circulation in and around the Sea of Okhotsk. The model has two external sources of iron: dust iron at the sea surface and sedimentary iron at the seabed shallower than 300m. The model represented characteristic features reasonably well, such as high iron concentration in the dense shelf water (DSW) and its mixing, which extends southward in the intermediate layer from the northwestern shelf along Sakhalin Island and finally flows into the Pacific. Sensitivity experiments for the solubility of dust iron in seawater suggest that a solubility of 1% is appropriate in our simulation. Higher solubilities (5% and 10%) result in too low phosphate in the northwestern North Pacific in summer as well as too high iron concentrations at the sea surface, compared with observations. Besides, these experiments show that dust iron hardly contributes to the high iron concentration in the intermediate layer. To investigate locations from which the iron in the intermediate layer originates, the fate of sedimentary iron input from four regions in the Okhotsk Sea was examined. Results suggest that the western and central parts of the northern shelf are important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dense shelf water (DSW) produced in the Sea of Okhotsk causes the deepest ventilation in the North Pacific and plays a key role in overturning to the depth of intermediate layers. Salinity determines the density of DSW in cold seas such as this. However, the variability of DSW salinity has yet to be quantified and its causes remain unknown because of the paucity of available observation data. Here, we describe the variability of DSW salinity in the period from 1950 to 2005 through the analysis of a newly compiled hydrographic dataset, expanded with Russian measurements in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea. DSW salinity exhibits a decreasing trend of −0.0024±0.0015y−1 over 1950-2005, in addition to decadal-scale variability with a typical magnitude of ~0.1. We have found that DSW variability is controlled largely by surface salinity anomalies that propagate along pathways associated with ocean currents from the Bering Sea to the Sea of Okhotsk. These salt pathways can be traced farther upstream to the Alaskan Stream and western subarctic gyre. We suggest that this is a possible pathway which consists of a previously undefined upper branch of the North Pacific overturning cell. Along this pathway, the effects of the nodal tide that has an 18.6-year period may also propagate from the Kuril Straits and the Aleutian Passes. Our results indicate that long-term atmospheric variations and enhanced hydrological cycles over the North Pacific, which are associated with global climate changes, are conducted to the intermediate layer through surface salt pathways and subsequent DSW ventilation and lead to variability in material circulation and biogeochemical cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Strong vertical mixing in the Kuril Straits is believed to be an important contribution to the ventilation of the intermediate layer and water mass transformation in the North Pacific, especially for density greater than . Furthermore, a recent modeling study has suggested that the vertical profile of vertical diffusivity is a key factor in the determination of thermohaline circulation in the North Pacific. Here we report the distribution of vertical diffusivity in the Bussol' Strait, the main conduit of water exchange and a possible central site of strong mixing in the Kuril Straits. Our analysis is based on a set of highly densed CTD observations, with a total of 127 casts across the strait in 2001. Vigorous density inversions occurred in the strait with the largest vertical displacement being over 250m. We estimated the vertical diffusivity coefficient from the Thorpe scale for all the CTD data. The vertical average of estimated from all the casts is 60×10−4 m2 s−1. Overall, is relatively small in the upper 300m (density range approximately ), whereas it is relatively large below a depth of 500m (density range of ), with a maximum at the depths of 1100–1700m. The distributions of and the amplitude of the diurnal tidal current are similar, suggesting that the mixing is caused by the strong diurnal tidal current. The amplification of the diurnal (tidal) current over slopes near the bottom causes the maximum at depths of . We also introduce an empirical relationship between and the amplitude of the diurnal tidal current. The vertical diffusivity is one order of magnitude larger at the spring tide than at the neap tide, suggesting that there is extremely large variability of tidal mixing with the fortnightly modulation. In the intermediate layer at densities of , large values ( ) corresponds well to the colder and less-saline water mass characterized in the Bussol' Strait, confirming that water mass transformation occurs locally in the strait through strong diapycnal mixing. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines the seasonal variation in the in- and outflow of the Okhotsk Sea with the Pacific, mainly based on profiling float and satellite altimeter data. The motions of the floats at depths of 500-750m show that the waters of the Okhotsk tend to flow out to the Pacific through the southern Kuril Straits, mostly Bussol’ Strait, in winter seasons (November-March). Based on data from the floats exiting the Sea, the mean residence time of the intermediate water in the Kuril Basin is estimated as about one year. Isopycnal analysis from the profiling data shows that, in the mid-eastern area of the Okhotsk Sea, potential temperature of the intermediate water with σθ=26.6-27.2 increases by 0.2-0.5°C in every spring, suggesting the inflow from the Pacific in the preceding season. These suggest that the in- and outflow predominantly occurs during winter, with the inflow at the northern straits and outflow at the southern straits. The surface current field inferred from satellite altimeter data also shows that the inflow to the Sea of Okhotsk through the northern straits is strengthened in winter, linked with strengthening of the East Kamchatka Current (EKC). From yearly anomalies of the altimeter data, the winter inflow to the Okhotsk through the northern straits is significantly correlated with the EKC and Sverdrup transport over the North Pacific. Further, interannual variations in property of Okhotsk Sea Intermediate Water appear to be related with the EKC and wind stress over the North Pacific in winter, possibly through the change in inflowing Pacific water transport. These suggest that the seasonal and interannual variations of the in- and outflow are, to some extent, controlled by the large scale wind stress over the North Pacific, being consistent with Island Rule qualitatively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: From December to June 2002–2003, sea-ice and oceanic data were obtained from moorings near Sakhalin in the west central Okhotsk Sea. Ice draft measured by sonar reveals distinct periods of thin and thick ice. Thin-ice periods in January–March corresponded to offshore ice movement and increasing seawater salinity. The measured change in salinity corresponds well with that derived from heat-flux calculations using the observed ice thickness. Brine rejection from ice growing in a coastal polynya off northern Sakhalin is responsible for much of the observed salinity increase. The simultaneous observation of dense shelf water () suggests that this region is one possible source. The periods of thick-ice incursion are likely indicative of heavily deformed pack formed further north and drifting south with the current. The mean draft (1.95 m), thick-ice ratio, and keel frequency during these periods are close to values observed in the Beaufort Sea. Freshwater transport estimated from the observed ice thickness and velocity is larger than that of the Amur River discharge. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: From July 1998 to June 2000, the first long-term mooring measurements were carried out off the east coast of Sakhalin. Using these data, we examined the characteristics of the tidal heights and currents. The tidal heights and currents are dominated by the diurnal variability with fortnightly modulation over the northern part of the shelf. The and tidal current ellipses are clockwise with their major axes along the isobaths and their signal propagates with the coast on the right with phase speeds of 3.4 and , respectively. The diurnal tidal currents are almost uniform in the vertical direction except for the bottom Ekman layer. The thickness of the bottom Ekman layer caused by the diurnal tidal currents is larger in the region of stronger tidal currents, reaching 20–30m over the northern part of the shelf. The diurnal tidal currents over the northern part of the shelf can be explained by the first-mode diurnal coastal-trapped waves (CTWs). The diurnal CTWs are almost independent of the seasonal variability of density stratification and contribute significantly to diurnal currents, but only slightly to sea-surface heights. The diurnal tidal currents over the southern part of the shelf are significantly smaller than those over the northern part. This is because the diurnal CTWs cannot exist south of from the dispersion relation. The diurnal tidal currents are significantly reduced over the northern shelf, where the diurnal CTWs exist, during the high sea-ice concentration periods. From this result, we propose the scenario that the CTWs are damped by the spin-down effect due to the Ekman layer that would occur underneath the sea ice. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• We revealed the water chemical properties in the Kamchatka Basin in the western Bering Sea. • Decoupling of Si from N and P in the intermediate water occurred, and higher dissolved Si concentrations and sedimentary-sourced Fe accumulated in the deep water in the Kamchatka Basin. • The WSG water circulation flowing along the southern side of the Aleutian Islands had a strong influence on the chemical properties of the intermediate water in the East Kamchatka Current. • Nutrient-rich water intrusion occurred from the Aleutian Basin intermediate nutrient pool to the bottom layer of the Gulf of Anadyr. Analysis of observed iron (Fe) and nutrient data from the East Kamchatka Current (EKC) in the western Bering Sea, including the Kamchatka Basin, northeastern shelf slope, and Gulf of Anadyr, in the summers of 2014 and 2018 was conducted. The results indicate the location of the edge of high-nutrient and low-chlorophyll water (Fe-limited subarctic Pacific water), which expands into the EKC area. The supply of Fe was related to the freshwater supply from the Kamchatka Peninsula and caused nutrient depletion along the coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula in the EKC. Consistent with the subarctic Pacific, water with extremely high nitrate (N) and phosphate (P) concentrations and extremely low dissolved oxygen concentrations was observed in a wide density range in the intermediate layer (26.6–27.6 σ θ) in the Kamchatka Basin and formed an intermediate nutrient pool. However, the concentrations of both dissolved Fe (dFe) and silicic acid (Si) were highest in the deep layer below the 27.6 σ θ isopycnal surface in the basin, indicating that the dFe and Si cycles were decoupled from the N and P cycle in the basin intermediate water. The increase in dFe concentration with depth in the deep layer was probably due to a reduction in particulate Fe that occurred in the benthic pore water on the slope or in the settling particulate microenvironment, as indicated by a negative N* index. Based on the observed data around the Kamchatka Strait and EKC in the summer of 2018, the chemical properties of the water in the intermediate layers in the EKC on the Pacific side of the Kamchatka Peninsula were mainly influenced by circulation of the Western Subarctic Gyre, which flows from the southeastern Aleutian Islands, with minor influence from Kamchatka Basin water flowing through the Kamchatka Strait on the coastal side of the EKC. Our results also indicate that nutrient-rich water intrusion occurred from the Aleutian Basin intermediate nutrient pool to the bottom layer of the Gulf of Anadyr. Additionally, nitrate removal by via the denitrification process and the input of sedimentary Fe occurred in the intruding bottom water. The findings from this study are important for understanding the biogeochemical interactions occurring among the subarctic Pacific, Bering Sea, and Arctic Ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]