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Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency (AADCD) is a rare, autosomal recessive neurometabolic disorder that leads to a severe combined deficiency of serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine. Onset is early in life, and key clinical symptoms are hypotonia, movement disorders (oculogyric crisis, dystonia, and hypokinesia), developmental delay, and autonomic symptoms. In this consensus guideline, representatives of the International Working Group on Neurotransmitter Related Disorders (iNTD) and patient representatives evaluated all available evidence for diagnosis and treatment of AADCD and made recommendations using SIGN and GRADE methodology. In the face of limited definitive evidence, we constructed practical recommendations on clinical diagnosis, laboratory diagnosis, imaging and electroencephalograpy, medical treatments and non-medical treatments. Furthermore, we identified topics for further research. We believe this guideline will improve the care for AADCD patients around the world whilst promoting general awareness of this rare disease.

Plantenvirussen zijn zeer kleine ziekteverwekkers. Eigenlijk zijn het kleine pakketjes met genetische informatie, een stukje RNA of DNA met een eiwitmantel eromheen. Viroïden zijn nog kleiner, omdat ze geen eiwitmantel bezitten en alleen uit RNA bestaan. Virussen en viroïden kunnen zich alleen vermenigvuldigen in een cel van hun gastheer en daarbij zetten ze zijn huishouding naar hun hand.

Dringend alternatieven nodig voor de beheersing van vergelingsziekte in de suikerbietenteelt. De ziekte kan de opbrengst ernstig schaden.

A total of 21 okra (Abelmoschus escuentus L. Moench) genotypes were screened for their reactions against okra mosaic disease (OMD) and flea beetles (Podagrica species) infestations in field trials which were conducted from May to October, 2015 (wet season) and November 2015 to March 2016 (dryseason), in order to identify sources of resistance and or tolerance. The trials were laid out in a randomised complete block design (RCBD) with four replications. Field resistance in the genotypes was assessed at 2, 6 and 10 weeks after planting using a 0 to 5 visual scale based on disease symptoms(where 1 denotes no symptom and 5, very severe symptom). Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was performed to detect the presence of Okra mosaic virus (OkMV) in the okra genotypes.Populations of the flea beetle (Podagrica spp.), the vector of OkMV, and the associated leaf and fruit damage were also assessed. All the okra genotypes exhibited a varying range of disease symptoms and the flea beetle infestations, and lacked immunity. Genotypes GH2052, GH2063, GH2026, GH3760,GH5302, GH5332, GH5793, GH6105 and UCCC6 exhibited mild symptoms of OMD, and were less susceptible to flea beetle infestation and associated leaf damage during both seasons. Using ELISA, OkMV was detected in all the 21 genotypes. The mean number of fruits per plant and the mean fruit yield (t ha-1) differed significantly (P

"The Ophioviridae is a family of filamentous plant viruses, with single-stranded negative, and possibly ambisense, RNA genomes of 11.3-12.5 kb divided into 3-4 segments, each encapsidated separately. Virions are naked filamentous nucleocapsids, forming kinked circles of at least two different contour lengths. The sole genus, Ophiovirus, includes seven species. Four ophioviruses are soil-transmitted and their natural hosts include trees, shrubs, vegetables and bulbous or corm-forming ornamentals, both monocots and dicots. This is a summary of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Report on the taxonomy of the Ophioviridae, which is available at http://www.ictv.global/report/ophioviridae."

Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency (AADCD) is a rare, autosomal recessive neurometabolic disorder that leads to a severe combined deficiency of serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine. Onset is early in life, and key clinical symptoms are hypotonia, movement disorders (oculogyric crisis, dystonia, and hypokinesia), developmental delay, and autonomic symptoms. In this consensus guideline, representatives of the International Working Group on Neurotransmitter Related Disorders (iNTD) and patient representatives evaluated all available evidence for diagnosis and treatment of AADCD and made recommendations using SIGN and GRADE methodology. In the face of limited definitive evidence, we constructed practical recommendations on clinical diagnosis, laboratory diagnosis, imaging and electroencephalograpy, medical treatments and non-medical treatments. Furthermore, we identified topics for further research. We believe this guideline will improve the care for AADCD patients around the world whilst promoting general awareness of this rare disease. © 2016 The Author(s).

New diagnostic and rapid ‘nextgeneration sequencing’ methods facilitate thediscovery of new plant viruses. However, virus detection or elucidation of thesequence of its dna/rna is no guarantee for understanding its epidemiology.In order to develop effective control measures in field crops or in greenhouses,knowledge of how viruses move from one plant to another is essential.

Research indicates that many people hold negative attitudes towards transgenders and that transgenders experience stigmatisation in the public space, at work and in the immediate vicinity (Keuzenkamp, 2013; Norton & Herek, 2012). Stigmatization has various forms viz enacted stigma, consisting of a negative action or treatment, felt stigma, the stigmatizing experience that someone has, supposes to have, or claims to be experiencing. In addition, there is internalized stigma, or self-stigmatization, which implies that one believes the opinion of others about them is true (Herek, 2007; Scambler & Hopkins, 1986). Self-stigmatization may disrupt life goals (Corrigan, 2012), lead to social isolation and psychopathology (Bos, Pryor, Reeder, and Stutterheim, 2013), limit the social network (Link & Phelan, 2001), lead to lower quality of life, lower self-esteem (Meyer, 2003), depressive symptoms, unemployment and loss of income (Keuzenkamp, 2012). In this paper we present a qualitative study on self-stigmatization experienced by transgenders in the Netherlands after transition. We also examined the role of social support and coping strategies used by transgenders in dealing with stigma.In 2015 ten trans men and ten trans women, aged 19 to 75 years, were interviewed. Participants were recruited through networks of transgender people. A semi-structured interview protocol was used. The interviews lasted on average 90 minutes.The participants reported various acts of enacted stigma after transition. The more passable they were, the less stigma they experienced. Felt stigma was also reported. Many participants indicated that they have fear for stigmatization, which makes them alert continuously. Internalized stigma was observed in some participants, corresponding with feelings of not being heard and accepted. They reported a relatively low quality of life, feelings of loneliness and withdrawal. There were clear differences between the experiences of trans men and trans women. A striking result of this study was the amount in which transgender people seem to be stigmatising other transgenders.Transgender people are treated differently by men and women. The trans women in this study report being taken less seriously by men after their transition. Trans men experience an increase in their status in the eyes of men. Women are generally more empathic then men toward both trans men and trans women.The transgenders in this study use various forms of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping to deal with stigmatization. The participating trans women more often use empowerment than trans men. They also are more open than trans men about their trans identity. Openness and social support are experienced as important strategies for reducing the effects of stigmatization. According to many participants it is necessary to achieve more publicity. Through publicity transgender people become visible. This visibility is important, because it can change the opinion of society about transgenders.The qualitative outcomes of this study can be used as a basis for more quantitive research. It is recommended to do further research into the effects of openness and social support on (self-)stigmatization. In future studies it seems advisable to distinguish between, trans men and trans women, because of their different situation.

The plant virus genus Torradovirus was created to contain two new species of whitefly-transmitted, tomato-infecting plant picorna-like viruses: Tomato torrado virus and Tomato marchitez virus. So far, research on torradoviruses has focused mainly on the description of the viruses and the diseases they cause, the determination of viral properties and nucleic acid sequences, and the development of detection methods. Evidence has been found for the transmission of torradoviruses by three whitefly species in a semipersistent, stylet-borne manner.Key concepts included in this chapter:Discovery of TorradovirusesProperties of TorradovirusesTransmissionFuture Research

The discovery of α-synuclein (α-syn) as a major component of Lewy bodies, neuropathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies and of glial inclusions in multiple system atrophy initiated the investigation of α-syn as a biomarker in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Due to the involvement of the periphery in PD the quantification of α-syn in peripheral fluids such as serum, plasma and saliva has been investigated as well. We review how the development of multiple assays for the quantification of α-syn has yielded novel insights into the variety of α-syn species present in the different fluids; the optimal preanalytical conditions required for robust quantification and the potential clinical value of α-syn as biomarker. We also suggest future approaches to use of CSF α-syn in neurodegenerative diseases. © 2015 Future Medicine Ltd.

Research indicates that many people hold negative attitudes towards transgenders and that transgenders experience stigmatisation in the public space, at work and in the immediate vicinity (Keuzenkamp, 2013; Norton & Herek, 2012). Stigmatization has various forms viz enacted stigma, consisting of a negative action or treatment, felt stigma, the stigmatizing experience that someone has, supposes to have, or claims to be experiencing. In addition, there is internalized stigma, or self-stigmatization, which implies that one believes the opinion of others about them is true (Herek, 2007; Scambler & Hopkins, 1986). Self-stigmatization may disrupt life goals (Corrigan, 2012), lead to social isolation and psychopathology (Bos, Pryor, Reeder, and Stutterheim, 2013), limit the social network (Link & Phelan, 2001), lead to lower quality of life, lower self-esteem (Meyer, 2003), depressive symptoms, unemployment and loss of income (Keuzenkamp, 2012). In this paper we present a qualitative study on self-stigmatization experienced by transgenders in the Netherlands after transition. We also examined the role of social support and coping strategies used by transgenders in dealing with stigma.In 2015 ten trans men and ten trans women, aged 19 to 75 years, were interviewed. Participants were recruited through networks of transgender people. A semi-structured interview protocol was used. The interviews lasted on average 90 minutes.The participants reported various acts of enacted stigma after transition. The more passable they were, the less stigma they experienced. Felt stigma was also reported. Many participants indicated that they have fear for stigmatization, which makes them alert continuously. Internalized stigma was observed in some participants, corresponding with feelings of not being heard and accepted. They reported a relatively low quality of life, feelings of loneliness and withdrawal. There were clear differences between the experiences of trans men and trans women. A striking result of this study was the amount in which transgender people seem to be stigmatising other transgenders.Transgender people are treated differently by men and women. The trans women in this study report being taken less seriously by men after their transition. Trans men experience an increase in their status in the eyes of men. Women are generally more empathic then men toward both trans men and trans women.The transgenders in this study use various forms of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping to deal with stigmatization. The participating trans women more often use empowerment than trans men. They also are more open than trans men about their trans identity. Openness and social support are experienced as important strategies for reducing the effects of stigmatization. According to many participants it is necessary to achieve more publicity. Through publicity transgender people become visible. This visibility is important, because it can change the opinion of society about transgenders.The qualitative outcomes of this study can be used as a basis for more quantitive research. It is recommended to do further research into the effects of openness and social support on (self-)stigmatization. In future studies it seems advisable to distinguish between, trans men and trans women, because of their different situation.

The influence of addition of nonreactive silicone oil or semianchored silicone polymer on crosslinked poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) rubber–rubber adhesion was studied. The additives can be considered either a tackifier, or connector molecules, able to cross the interface and entangle. In both cases, it influences the tack of the elastomers. An additional variable is the molecular weight of the additive, which affects the reptation of the polymer chains. Polymer–polymer demixing, which is the result of thermodynamic incompatibility of mixed polymers is another factor that influences tack. It causes the free chains to appear at the surface forming a layer of oil, which actually destroys the tack of the PDMS samples. The resulting tack phenomena as a function of oil, respectively semianchored silicone polymer chains, are very much dependent on the transient nature of the polymer reptation: in many cases the polymers need very long time periods to obtain equilibrium in interphase crossing, or oil sweats out of the crosslinked polymers, forming a liquid layer between the two phases resulting in a low tack value, due to hydrodynamic wetting alone.

PBL uses and maintains the Dutch passenger car fleet model DYNAMO to forecast the vehicle fleet development. This allows PBL to project the effects of policies on the fleet. The original model has to be adapted to the new issues that arise, such as the developments in CO2 emissions of vehicles. In particular, in the Netherlands, the average CO2 emissions of newly-sold vehicles have decreased more rapidly than in other European countries, partly due to European CO2 emissions regulations and the fiscal climate. The Dutch vehicle fleet projection has been made for over a decade now based on the same underlying data. To update the DYNAMO fleet model, PBL has asked TNO to provide PBL with input on, amongst others, future technologies which may be used to achieve the 95 g/km European CO2-related targets for passenger cars in 2020 and possible more stringent targets thereafter, and associated cost curves. The costs for CO2 reductions are based on cost curves developed by TNO in 2011 for the impact assessment of the 95 g CO2/km target for the European Commission. Currently the process of post 2020 in ongoing and new cost curves are being developed. However, as these are not available within the timeframe of this project, the 2011 cost curves are used in this study.

Uit dit onderzoek is gebleken dat planten die eerder in het seizoen worden geïnfecteerd, bol len geven met een hoger percentage TBV Plan ten die eenmalig een week voor het rooien wor den besmet, geven bijna geen zieke bollen. Bij infectie twee weken en langer voor het rooien loopt het percentage zieke bollen sterk op. Ook worden klisters later ziek dan de hoofdbol. Infec tie vindt blijkbaar plaats vanuit de plant via de hoofdbol naar de klisters. ln de praktijk vindt inl'e tiegedurende hei hele seizo n pla11 door pas r nde, vliegende blad luizen. In de praktijk i du ook ni t va 1 te tel len wanneer planten voor hel er t geïnfecteerd raken. Vrijwel zeker gebeurt dat ook al vroeg in het seizoen. In dat geval is er dus geen spra ke van een lager percentage virus in de kleine maten. De resultaten hebben betrekking op het onder zoek in een cultivar ('Strong Gold') en van een seizoen (2013-2014). Om beter gefundeerde conclusies te kunnen trekken is vervolgonder zoek gestartin het seizoen 2014-2015 met twee cultivars. Het actieplan 'Minder virus in tulp' is een gezamenlijk initiatief van Wageningen UR, PPO Bloembollen, Boomkwekerij & Fruit, Proeftuin Zwaagdijk, KAVB,LTO en BKD.

Doelstellingen van het Actieplan “Minder virus in Tulp” zijn: Dit project organiseert de opstart en de uitvoering van een actieplan dat leidt tot minder virus in tulp in een economisch rendabele teelt. De aandacht ligt met name bij TBV, TVX, Augustaziek, ArMV en LSV. Uitvoering van het actieplan moet leiden tot enthousiasme en power in de sector waardoor ook nieuwe inspiratie voor innovaties ontstaat. De beoogde modulaire en stapsgewijze aanpak van dit project zorgt voor een duidelijke afbakening van doelstellingen, activiteiten en budget en maakt tussentijdse nadere invulling van activiteiten mogelijk. Dit verslag beschrijft een aantal onderzoeken die hebben plaatsgevonden vanaf de start van dit Actieplan.

Augustaziek bij tulp wordt veroorzaakt door het Olive mild mosaic virus (OMMV), een virus dat behoort tot het geslacht Necrovirus (waar ook het tabaksnecrosevirus (TNV) toe behoort). Dit virus kan plantenwortels infecteren vanuit de grond, een proces dat vele malen efficiënter wordt wanneer de virusdeeltjes via zwermsporen van de wortels-infecterende bodemschimmel Olpidium brassicae worden overgebracht. Schimmel en virus komen pleksgewijs in verschillende grondsoorten voor en leven op allerlei gewassen en onkruiden. Augusta komt in bepaalde jaren meer voor dan in andere jaren. Er wordt soms over een cyclus van ongeveer 12 jaar gesproken waarin zogenaamde Augusta-jaren voorkomen. Het onderzoek waarin in dit verslag wordt gerapporteerd had als uitgangspunt drie vragen: • Wanneer Augustaziek uitdooft in een partij, is het virus dan echt afwezig, of heeft men met een latente (niet zichtbare) infectie te maken? Genezen van virus is nl. geen gangbaar verschijnsel in de plantenwereld. • Hoe groot is het risico op zichtbare schade in de broei van een partij die op het veld zichtbare Augusta-schade vertoonde? Kan de schade in de broei voorspeld worden? • Zijn er factoren/indicatoren die een ‘Augusta-jaar’ aankondigen? Om een idee te krijgen over de mogelijke antwoorden op deze vragen is als eerste een enquête gehouden onder tulpentelers (bollenteelt en afbroei). Aan de hand van die enquête is gekeken naar o.a. teeltomstandigheden, perceel, voorvrucht etc. Ook is aan deze telers gevraagd of zij materiaal beschikbaar wilden stellen van partijen waarin zij eerder Augusta-schade hadden waargenomen. Deze partijen zijn opgeplant in de kas onder afbroei-omstandigheden en op het veld onder bollenteelt-omstandigheden. Tijdens deze teelten werd de symptoomontwikkeling gevolgd en werden virustoetsen uitgevoerd om de infectie met OMMV te monitoren. Bij enkele planten met symptomen is met behulp van Next Generation Sequencing gekeken of ook daadwerkelijk OMMV betrokken was bij het ziektebeeld. Hieruit bleek dat er in enkele planten andere virussen dan OMMV voorkwamen die symptomen veroorzaakten die waarschijnlijk in de praktijk moeilijk van Augusta kunnen worden onderscheiden. Voorbeelden van deze virussen zijn het tulpenvirus X, Arabis mozaïekvirus, dravikmozaïekvirus, tabaksratelvirus en het vroege-verbruiningsvirus van erwt. Hoewel op bovenstaande vragen nog geen duidelijke antwoorden te geven zijn, is wel een stapje in de goede richting gezet. Uit dit onderzoek zijn de volgende inzichten verkregen: • Symptomen in tulp die in de praktijk Augustaziek worden genoemd worden over het algemeen veroorzaakt door infectie met OMMV, maar ook andere virussen kunnen op Augusta lijkende schadebeelden geven. • OMMV lijkt in de afbroei ook symptoomloos te kunnen voorkomen, maar dat zal afhankelijk zijn van cultivar en teeltomstandigheden (over het algemeen wordt aangenomen dat bij hogere temperaturen minder schade wordt waargenomen). • Een aantal partijen die als Augustapartijen waren aangemerkt bleken vrij te zijn van OMMV in de virustoets in het leverbaar materiaal en in de boltoetsen na kasteelt en veldteelt. Tijdens deze teelten werd geen schade waargenomen in deze partijen. Of dit ook daadwerkelijk betekent dat uitdoving heeft plaatsgevonden is niet te concluderen omdat ten tijde van de waarneming van de symptomen de zieke planten niet op virusinfecties zijn getoetst.

In Belgium and the Netherlands phytoplasma diseases mainly affect fruit trees, while they are almost absent in the United Kingdom. Specific insect vectors were identified and strict measures to eliminate both pathogens and pests are actively implemented in Belgium and the Netherlands

De verspreiding van tulpenmozaïekvirus (TBV) in de tulpenteelt gebeurt door bladluizen en is voornamelijk tegen te gaan door selectie en het bestrijden van de bladluizen soor gewasbespuiting met pyrethroïden. Met de huidige middelen is daarmee een reductie van 50-70% haalbaar. Bij probleempartijen wordt in tulp ook minerale olie ingezet.

Nederland speelt internationaal een belangrijke rol in productie en handel van plantaardig materiaal. Hierin zijn vaak ongewenste veroorzakers van quarantaine- (Q) en kwaliteitsziekten (K) en -plagen een storende factor. Om de (fytosanitaire) kwaliteit van verhandeld (met name ook geëxporteerd) plantmateriaal ook in de toekomst te kunnen blijven garanderen, en eigen teelten te vrijwaren van ongewenste organismen is het van groot belang vroegtijdig deze plantenpathogenen te kunnen detecteren en te identificeren. Hiervoor zijn gevalideerde onderzoekmethoden noodzakelijk, die geschikt zijn voor routinematig gebruik door het bedrijfsleven, de keuringsdiensten en de NVWA. De hier voorgestelde intensieve samenwerking tussen kennisinstellingen, overheid en keuringslaboratoria is noodzakelijk om de agrarische sector toekomstbestendig te houden. Daarnaast dient naast aandacht voor nieuwe ontwikkelingen ook aandacht besteedt te worden aan kwaliteitsborging en efficiëntie verbetering van bestaande technieken zodat de taken van de keuringsdiensten beter uitgevoerd kunnen worden.

The research described in this thesis focuses on the molecular and biological characterization of a new group of plant viruses. At the start of this research only a ‘torrado’ disease in tomato was known, which is recognised by necrosis on leaves and fruits, that eventually turn into its typical and devastating burnt-like symptoms. Using a wide range of available (virological) tools the causal agent was identified as a so-far unknown spherical virus of approximately 28 nm in diameter. Further analysis revealed that the virus contained a bi-partite RNA genome of which the entire nucleotide sequence was elucidated. The virus was named after the Spanish name of the disease, hence Tomato torrado virus (ToTV). Although this virus has been found mainly in Europe, it is emerging and meanwhile found in Central America and Australia. After the discovery of ToTV, another disease suspected to be caused by a torrado-like virus was analysed. It was shown that this disease, which was found in tomatoes grown in Mexico, was caused by a similar but distinct torradovirus named Tomato marchitez virus (ToMarV). Its molecular and biological features, as analysed and described in this thesis, supported the proposal of a new genus denoted Torradovirus, named after its first representative. This genus was recognized and classified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) into the family Secoviridae (order Picornavirales). Currently, the genus Torradovirus harbours, besides the recognised species ToTV and ToMarV, also the tentative species Tomato chocolàte virus (ToChV), Tomato chocolate spot virus (ToChSV, analysed by another research group), and Lettuce necrotic leaf curl virus (LNLCV). Elucidation of torradovirus genome sequences revealed that their RNA1 contained one open reading frame (ORF) that contains motifs typical for proteins involved in replication, i.e. helicase, protease and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). RNA2, on the other hand, contained two ORFs (RNA2-ORF1 and RNA2-ORF2) that coded for a small (~20 kDa) protein of unknown function, the putative movement protein, and the three coat proteins, respectively. Considering the economic importance of torradoviruses and their emerging character, attempts were made to develop a diagnostic tool to detect the presence of these viruses. To this end generic PCR primer pairs (Torradovirus-1F/Torradovirus-1R and Torradovirus-2F/Torradovirus-2R) were developed against highly conserved regions in RNA1 and RNA2, respectively. Evaluation of these primer sets revealed that they supported detection of all currently known torradoviruses. Limited information indicated that members of the genus Torradovirus were transmitted by whiteflies. By a detailed study using varying acquisition access periods and inoculation access periods, it was demonstrated that ToTV, ToMarV and ToChV are all transmitted by three whitefly species, namely Trialeurodes vaporariorum, Trialeurodes abutilonea and Bemisia tabaci. The mode of transmission was determined as semi-persistent, i.e. like viruses that enter and remain in the foregut until being transmitted to another plant host. However, localisation of the viral RNA within the whitefly vector confirmed the presence of virus in the stylets and thereby showed that torradoviruses represent the first spherical viruses transmitted by whiteflies in a semi-persistent and stylet-borne manner.

Early diagnosis of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimers (AD) or Parkinsons disease (PD) is needed to slow down or halt the disease at the earliest stage. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers can be a good tool for early diagnosis. However, their use in clinical practice is challenging due to the high variability found between centers in the concentrations of both AD CSF biomarkers (A42, total tau and phosphorylated tau) and PD CSF biomarker (α-synuclein). Such a variability has been partially attributed to different preanalytical procedures between laboratories, thus highlighting the need to establish standardized operating procedures. Here, we merge two previous consensus guidelines for preanalytical confounding factors in order to achieve one exhaustive guideline updated with new evidence for A42, total tau and phosphorylated tau, and α-synuclein. The proposed standardized operating procedures are applicable not only to novel CSF biomarkers in AD and PD, but also to biomarkers for other neurodegenerative disorders. © 2012 Future Medicine Ltd.

Mogelijke bronnen van besmettingen met het aardappelvirus Y (PVY) in aardappelen. In dit onderzoek is met name gekeken naar de rol van bladluizen als belangrijkste overbrengers (‘vectoren’) van PVY. Daarnaast is gekeken naar het mogelijk voorkomen van het virus in andere planten (m.n. onkruiden).

In spite of much public and private effort, expenditure and creativity, reports show that the economic and environmental cost of weeds in Australia continues to grow. Australians face the sustainability challenges of a large and bio-diverse country, major resource exploitation industries, and a relatively small pool of funds and human resources to provide for protection and restoration. To effectively manage these combined challenges and ensure the sustainability of the Australian environment and equitable outcomes for Australians in general, Australians need to create legal, social, managerial and economic strategies that are far more effective than those used to date. To do so requires institutional as well as technological innovation. There has been increasing recognition over the past couple of decades that approaches to weed management must include better processes, particularly in engaging people in solutions, as well as more effective application of biophysical and social science. Weeds arrive in Australia and, in large part, continue to spread in Australia because of the activities of people.