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Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) affecting dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) have considerable importance in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) because of the consequences associated with production decline and economic losses. Our study aimed to determine the prevalence of selected VBDs in camels in the UAE and identify risk factors. This research is currently affected by the low number of epidemiological molecular surveys addressing this issue. Blood samples were obtained from 425 dromedary camels from different locations across the UAE. Whole genomic DNA was isolated, and PCR screening was done to detect piroplasmids (Babesia/Theileria spp.), Trypanosoma spp., and Anaplasmataceae spp. (Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Neorickettsia and Wolbachia spp.). Amplicons were sequenced, and phylogenetic trees were constructed. Trypanosoma sequences were identified as T. brucei evansi, whereas Anaplasmataceae sequences were identified as A. platys-like. All camels were negative for Babesia/Theileria spp. (0%); however, 18 camels were positive for T. b. evansi (4%) and 52 were positive for A. platys-like (12%). Mixed infection with T. b. evansi and A. platys-like was found in one camel. Statistical analyses revealed that camels with a brown coat colour were significantly more prone to acquire the A. platys-like strain compared with those having a clearer coat. A similar finding was observed when comparing urban moving camels with desert indoor and urban indoor camels. Continuous disease surveillance is required to ensure and maintain the good health status of the camels in the UAE. Nonetheless, the risk of disease outbreak remains if the misuse of drugs continues., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

As of 21 April 2020, 176 ASF outbreaks have occurred in China. For each outbreak, an investigation was conducted, including historical data retrieval and traceability of potential contacts. The purpose of this study is to conduct a preliminary analysis of the data obtained from the outbreak investigations, including an investigation of the possible contributing factors of the spread of ASF in China. Based on the epidemic situation and the policies issued, the entire epidemic can be divided into three phases. 71 outbreaks were reported between 3 August 2018 and 17 November 2018; 44 outbreaks between 19 November 2018 and 30 March 2019; and 61 outbreaks between 4 April 2019 and 12 April 2020. Based on the reported outbreaks, the proportional rate of outbreaks in small farms (livestock ≤ 500, 127/168) is significantly higher than that of medium (501 ≤ livestock < 2,000, 14/168; 2001 ≤ livestock ≤ 5,000, 9/168) and large farms (livestock ≥ 5,001, 18/168). The odds of infection related to swill feeding (OR = 2.5, 95% CI, 1.5–4.3) and the mechanical dissemination of vehicles and personnel (OR = 2.7, 95% CI, 1.6–4.5) are significantly higher than those of pigs and pig production transportation. Swill feeding is the major contributing factor for small farms while mechanical dissemination of vehicles and personnel is the major contributing factor for large farms. The average duration from the beginning of the infection to the official outbreak report is gradually decreasing, which means that response speed of industry entities and the animal husbandry and veterinary departments from the beginning of the infection to the outbreak report is gradually increasing. Based on the analysis for ASF outbreaks, some policies and suggestions were put forward, such as improving the biosecurity level of the farms, as well as strengthening the supervision of breeding, transportation and slaughter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable) principles were proposed in 2016 to set a path towards reusability of research datasets. In this systematic review, we assessed the FAIRness of datasets associated with peer-reviewed articles in veterinary epidemiology research published since 2017, specifically looking at salmonids and dairy cattle. We considered the differences in practices between molecular epidemiology, the branch of epidemiology using genetic sequences of pathogens and hosts to describe disease patterns, and non-molecular epidemiology. Results: A total of 152 articles were included in the assessment. Consistent with previous assessments conducted in other disciplines, our results showed that most datasets used in non-molecular epidemiological studies were not available (i.e., neither findable nor accessible). Data availability was much higher for molecular epidemiology papers, in line with a strong repository base available to scientists in this discipline. The available data objects generally scored favourably for Findable, Accessible and Reusable indicators, but Interoperability was more problematic. Conclusions: None of the datasets assessed in this study met all the requirements set by the FAIR principles. Interoperability, in particular, requires specific skills in data management which may not yet be broadly available in the epidemiology community. In the discussion, we present recommendations on how veterinary research could move towards greater reusability according to FAIR principles. Overall, although many initiatives to improve data access have been started in the research community, their impact on the availability of datasets underlying published articles remains unclear to date. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

African swine fever (ASF) poses a major threat to swine health and welfare worldwide. After several European countries have reported cases of ASF, Greece confirmed officially the first positive case on 5 February 2020. The owner of a backyard farm in Nikoklia, a village in Serres regional unit, Central Macedonia, reported a loss of appetite, weakness, dyspnea, and the sudden death of 6 domestic pigs. Necropsy was performed in one gilt and findings were compatible with acute to subacute septicemic disease. Predominantly, hyperemic enlargement of spleen and lymph node enlargement and/or hemorrhage were observed. Description of vague clinical signs by the farmer suggested a limited resemblance to ASF-acute infection. However, the disease could not be ruled out once septicemic condition including splenomegaly, was diagnosed macroscopically at necropsy. In addition, considering the farm's location near to ASF protection zones, a further diagnostic investigation followed. Confirmation of the disease was obtained using a series of diagnostic tests on several tissue samples. Further clinical, molecular, and epidemiologic evaluation of the farm was performed. According to the contingency plan, authorities euthanized all 31 pigs on the farm, whilst blood testing revealed ASF virus infection. Further emergency measures were implemented to contain the spread of the disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Breed predispositions to canine digital neoplasms are well known. However, there is currently no statistical analysis identifying the least affected breeds. To this end, 2912 canine amputated digits submitted from 2014–2019 to the Laboklin GmbH & Co. KG for routine diagnostics were statistically analyzed. The study population consisted of 155 different breeds (most common: 634 Mongrels, 411 Schnauzers, 197 Labrador Retrievers, 93 Golden Retrievers). Non-neoplastic processes were present in 1246 (43%), tumor-like lesions in 138 (5%), and neoplasms in 1528 cases (52%). Benign tumors (n = 335) were characterized by 217 subungual keratoacanthomas, 36 histiocytomas, 35 plasmacytomas, 16 papillomas, 12 melanocytomas, 9 sebaceous gland tumors, 6 lipomas, and 4 bone tumors. Malignant neoplasms (n = 1193) included 758 squamous cell carcinomas (SCC), 196 malignant melanomas (MM), 76 soft tissue sarcomas, 52 mast cell tumors, 37 non-specified sarcomas, 29 anaplastic neoplasms, 24 carcinomas, 20 bone tumors, and 1 histiocytic sarcoma. Predisposed breeds for SCC included the Schnauzer (log OR = 2.61), Briard (log OR = 1.78), Rottweiler (log OR = 1.54), Poodle (log OR = 1.40), and Dachshund (log OR = 1.30). Jack Russell Terriers (log OR = −2.95) were significantly less affected by SCC than Mongrels. Acral MM were significantly more frequent in Rottweilers (log OR = 1.88) and Labrador Retrievers (log OR = 1.09). In contrast, Dachshunds (log OR = −2.17), Jack Russell Terriers (log OR = −1.88), and Rhodesian Ridgebacks (log OR = −1.88) were rarely affected. This contrasted with the well-known predisposition of Dachshunds and Rhodesian Ridgebacks to oral and cutaneous melanocytic neoplasms. Further studies are needed to explain the underlying reasons for breed predisposition or “resistance” to the development of specific acral tumors and/or other sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dermatophilosis is a form of dermatitis caused by the bacterium Dermatophilus congolensis. The disease usually presents as localized purulent dermatitis, crusty hair masses or widespread matting of the hair. This condition is most common in domestic ruminants; but it can also affect other wild animals and humans. Antimicrobial therapy is used in many regions to treat clinical dermatophilosis with varying results. In this study, we aimed to assess the antimicrobial susceptibility of D. congolensis isolates. Fifty-two isolates were obtained from animals showing clinical signs of the disease at farms in St. Kitts. The isolates were then confirmed as D. congolensis by phenotypic tests, PCR and MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry. Furthermore, minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 16 antimicrobial agents were determined, using the broth microdilution method. Although most antimicrobials showed MICs in line with published values, the tetracycline results displayed a clear bimodal distribution over the tested range, with most isolates showing low MICs and 6 isolates much higher values (+/− 100-fold increase). These results indicate the presence of acquired tetracycline resistance in D. congolensis on the island of St. Kitts. Whether the current observation has implications for efficacy of treating the disease must be confirmed in further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brucellosis is an important zoonotic disease caused by members of the genus Brucella. Camel brucellosis has been reported in almost all camel-rearing countries in Africa and Asia. A cross-sectional study was conducted between February 2020 and February 2021 in Galkayo, Garowe, and Bosaso districts in the Puntland State of Somalia to investigate the seroprevalence and risk factors of brucellosis in camels. A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) was used to detect anti-Brucella antibodies, while a structured questionnaire was used to collect epidemiological data. A total of 441 camel sera were screened against Brucella antibodies. Thirty-one (7%; 95% CI: 4.8–9.8%) samples were positive, and thirteen (54.2%; 95% CI: 32.8–74.4%) out of the twenty-four farms sampled had at least one seropositive animal. Galkayo district had the highest number of Brucella-seropositive camels (10.3%), followed by Bosaso district (8.6%), while Garowe district had the lowest number of seropositive camels (1.4%). The binary logistic regression model revealed that camels in Galkayo district (p = 0.015; OR: 9.428; 95% CI: 1.539–57.755), camels from large herd sizes of >50 animals (p = 0.019; OR: 5.822; 95% CI: 1.336–25.371), and those in contact with small ruminants (p = 0.011; OR: 10.941; 95% CI: 1.728–69.285) were significantly associated with seropositive cases of camel brucellosis in the Puntland State of Somalia. The present study shows that Brucella infections in camels are prevalent in the three districts covered by the study. This poses a public health risk, because milk from these camels is used for human consumption. Studies focusing on the isolation of Brucella strains in camels and investigating brucellosis in ruminants and humans are recommended in the study area. Validation of serological tests—including c-ELISA—for Brucella antibody detection in camels is also needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Risk perception, together with the adoption of measures to prevent tick bites, may strongly influence human exposure to ticks and transmitted pathogens. We created a questionnaire to evaluate how people perceive the health risk posed by ticks in an area recently invaded by these arthropods, in the western Italian Alps. Moreover, through a collaborative effort with park rangers and physicians, we investigated which tick species bite humans and their infection with pathogens (Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and spotted-fever group Rickettsiae). Apart from two Dermacentor marginatus bites, we identified Ixodes ricinus (n = 124) as the main species responsible for tick bites. The investigated pathogens infected 25.4% of tested I. ricinus. The evaluation of the engorgement rate of biting I. ricinus revealed that they had been likely feeding on humans for 24 h or more, suggesting a high probability of pathogen transmission. Indeed, the questionnaires revealed that people infrequently adopt preventive measures, such as inspecting the body for ticks, although most respondents claimed that ticks are a threat to human health. Having suffered from previous tick bites was positively associated with the adoption of personal protection measures. Given the increasing incidence of tick-borne diseases in the region, the public should be better informed about the possibility of being bitten by infected ticks in order to mitigate the risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leptospira spp. cause the zoonotic disease leptospirosis, which occurs in numerous mammalians worldwide. Isolation is still important for serotyping and genotyping of Leptospira, which in turn is essential for epidemiological surveillance of leptospirosis and the development of diagnostic tests and vaccines. However, isolation of Leptospira from clinical specimens is inherently insensitive. This study was conducted to examine the influence of selective agents, sample filtration, sample pH and the use of phosphate buffered saline (PBS) buffer for sample storage to improve the success of cultivation and isolation of Leptospira interrogans serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae from swine urine. EMJH (Ellinghausen McCullough, Johnson and Harris) medium including the selective agents sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, amphotericin, fosfomycin and 5-fluorouracil (STAFF) increased the success of Leptospira isolation from spiked swine urine samples. Sample filtration yielded only negative results. Isolation in EMJH-STAFF was successful from swine urine with a density as low as 104 Leptospira/mL, and urine with pH ≤ 7 impaired the cultivation rate. Cultivation and isolation were not improved by the addition of PBS to spiked urine samples prior to storage for 24 h at 4 ◦C. The results of the study demonstrate that cultivation and isolation of leptospires from swine urine can be improved by enhanced methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, pet animals are known to be asymptomatic carriers of Clostridioides difficile. This study was conducted to investigate the burden of toxigenic C. difficile among diarrheic dogs and cats using direct PCR on fecal samples to reveal better insights about the epidemiology of such toxigenic strains referring to its public health significance. For this purpose, fecal samples were obtained from 58 dogs and 42 cats experiencing diarrhea. Following DNA extraction, the extracted DNA was examined for the occurrence of C. difficile as well as toxigenic strains through the detection of C. difficile 16S rRNA and toxin encoding genes (tcdA, tcdB, cdtA and cdtB) using PCR. Moreover, partial DNA sequencing of toxigenic strains retrieved from dog and cat was carried out. Of 100 examined diarrheic animals, 90 (90%) were C. difficile positive, including 93.1% and 85.7% of dogs and cats, respectively. In addition, toxigenic strains were detected in 13 animals, giving an overall prevalence 13% with the following prevalence rates among dogs and cats 12.1% and 14.3%, respectively. Furthermore, the phylogenetic analysis of the obtained sequence revealed high genetic relatedness of tcdA sequence obtained from a cat to strains of human diarrheic cases to point out the public health threat of such sequence. In conclusion, the direct detection of toxigenic C. difficile using PCR among dogs and cats highlights the potential role of household pets as a source for such strains to human contacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The former albéitares and veterinarians of the Army, 250 years ago already in Spain, collaborated in the control and eradication of epidemic diseases of cattle (epizootics), not only in animals property of the Army itself but also in animals of the population in general. We present the activity carried out by two major marshals, D. Francisco González, major marshal and master albéitar, and D. Ramón Martín, major marshal and veterinarian, in their activity against glanders epizootics in Aragon and Mallorca, at the end from the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New research from the Royal Veterinary College (RVC) has found that Shar Pei dogs in the UK commonly suffer from in-turned eyelids and ear disorders due to their loose, thickened, and folded skin. This study emphasizes the need for urgent action to discourage the demand for dogs with extreme body shapes that threaten their welfare. The research also suggests breeding Shar Pei dogs with thinner, flattened skin to reduce future welfare issues. The study was conducted by the RVC's VetCompass Programme and analyzed the health of 1,913 Shar Pei dogs in the UK. [Extracted from the article]

Antecedentes: los parásitos de la familia Paramphistomidae (Trematoda: Plagiorchiida) corresponden a gusanos ruminales de rumiantes de los cuales se ha indicado la presencia en Colombia de Paramphistomum cervi y de Cotylophoron cotylophorum‚ de los cuales no existe mayor información sobre su distribución y ciclos biológicos‚ particularmente hábitats y caracoles huéspedes intermediarios. El hallazgo de este tipo de gusanos en examen post mortem en bovinos de Caquetá es frecuente y sus huevos no difieren. Objetivo: comparar sensibilidad (Se)‚ especificidad (Es) y fiabilidad diagnóstica de dos pruebas coprológicas para el diagnóstico coprológico de Paramphistomosis en bovinos del Caquetá. Métodos: el trabajo se desarrolló en el frigorífico de COFEMA S.A. ubicado en Florencia‚ Caquetá. Se examinaron 400 animales que llegaron a sacrificio (50 por semana)‚ los que se evaluaron para la presencia del trematodo en el rumen y se usaron dos técnicas para la detección de huevos en las heces; la sedimentación (Método de Dennis) y la filtración diferencial‚ usando filtros de tamaño (Mesh size) 120‚ 200 y 270. Se evaluó la precisión de cada prueba usando los programas TAGS y WinEpi. Resultados: se detectaron parásitos en el rumen de 31/400 (7‚8 %) animales examinados. En el examen coprológico la prueba de Sedimentación detectó 93 animales positivos (23‚3 %) y la filtración 110/400 (27‚5 %). Considerando como prueba estándar de oro la presencia de trematodos en el rumen‚ la prueba de Dennis arrojó Se = 38‚7 %; Es = 78‚1 % y Fiabilidad = 75 %; la filtración diferencial indicó: Se = 61‚3‚0 %; Se = 75‚3 % y Fiabilidad = 74‚3 %. Valores predictivos negativos fueron superiores en ambas pruebas. La concordancia entre ambas pruebas fue de 75‚8 % (Kappa = 0‚361). Conclusiones: la infección por trematodos del rumen es frecuente en bovinos que llegan a sacrificio en el departamento del Caquetá‚ con una frecuencia en animales de matadero del 31 %. La técnica de elección para el diagnóstico coprológico es la filtración diferencial. Se requiere de estudios epidemiológicos para mejorar el conocimiento sobre esta parasitosis en el departamento. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Italian and international outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), particularly in densely populated poultry areas (DPPAs), have increased over the past few decades. These emerging risks, which endanger both human and animal health and the entire poultry industry, can be effectively limited by biosecurity measures implemented at human-animal food chain interfaces. Some problems, however, persist in the application of these measures on the part of poultry farmers, prompting the need to explore those aspects and causes that limit their implementation. A qualitative approach was selected for the study and a semi-structured interview technique was applied to collect data among turkey farmers (n = 29) working in the north-east of Italy. The aim of this technique was to gather data on farms in order to understand the biosecurity practices adopted and the reasons for and impediments to farmer implementation, or lack thereof. This article presents and discusses the main data collected. The study revealed that farmers were familiar with the biosecurity measures necessary to contain avian influenza (AI) and other poultry diseases; personal disinfection and animal isolation practices were particularly prominent. Based on the reported procedures, managerial, economic, and psychosocial factors were among the barriers behind the failure to implement biosecurity measures. These obstacles were variously intertwined and associated with the different action settings. In particular management factors, such as lack of time to apply the rules and difficulties contingent on the farm's structural characteristics, mediate the application of biosecurity measures. In terms of communication channels, the company, particularly its technicians, proved to be the primary source of information for farmers in case of emergencies, as well as the primary source of information on the application of biosecurity measures. However, other sources of information were indicated, such as word of mouth among farmers or other non-institutional figures (relatives and acquaintances). What emerged, was the need to improve not only the biosecurity management skills, but also to implement forms of cooperation among the various key stakeholders in the poultry sector. The information presented in this pilot study needs to be discussed among competent authorities, public and company veterinarians, company technicians, and farmers. Furthermore, this information will help in participatory co-planning of risk prevention and communication strategies to implement a long-term, sustainable, effective approach to address future epidemic emergencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dr. George Perry has been awarded the 2024 IETS Distinguished Service Award for his contributions to the field of veterinary science. He has had a diverse career, starting as a mixed practice veterinarian in outback New South Wales before transitioning to roles in veterinary epidemiology and import risk analysis. Throughout his career, Dr. Perry has been involved in managing and eradicating disease outbreaks in poultry, foot-and-mouth disease, and equine influenza. He has also played a significant role in the International Embryo Technology Society (IETS), chairing committees and contributing to the development of the IETS Manual. Currently, Dr. Perry is working on collaborations with other organizations to enhance the international reputation of the IETS. [Extracted from the article]

With the in-depth development of China's market economy, animal husbandry has become an important industr. that affects China's economic form. In order to effectively promote the healthy development of animat husbandry, attention should be paid te the prevention of animat diseases. This paper made a detiled analysis from the main problems encountered in the process oO animal epidemic prevention work as an entry point, and put forward some effective measures foe stengtheniny animat epinemio prevention work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Poultry farming is widely practiced by rural households in Vietnam and the vast majority of domestic birds are kept on small household farms. However, smallholder poultry production is constrained by several issues such as infectious diseases, including avian influenza viruses whose circulation remains a threat to public health. This observational study describes the demographic structure and dynamics of small-scale poultry farms of the Mekong river delta region. Method Fifty three farms were monitored over a 20-month period, with farm sizes, species, age, arrival/departure of poultry, and farm management practices recorded monthly. Results Median flock population sizes were 16 for chickens (IQR: 10–40), 32 for ducks (IQR: 18–101) and 11 for Muscovy ducks (IQR: 7–18); farm size distributions for the three species were heavily right-skewed. Muscovy ducks were kept for long periods and outdoors, while chickens and ducks were farmed indoors or in pens. Ducks had a markedly higher removal rate (broilers: 0.14/week; layer/breeders: 0.05/week) than chickens and Muscovy ducks (broilers: 0.07/week; layer/breeders: 0.01–0.02/week) and a higher degree of specialization resulting in a substantially shorter life span. The rate of mortality due to disease did not differ much among species, with birds being less likely to die from disease at older ages, but frequency of disease symptoms differed by species. Time series of disease-associated mortality were correlated with population size for Muscovy ducks (Kendall’s coefficient τ = 0.49, p-value

Equine pregnancy loss is frustrating and costly for horse breeders. The reproductive efficiency of mares has significant implications for a breeding operation’s economic success, and widespread losses can have a trickle-down effect on those communities that rely on equine breeding operations. Understanding the causes and risks of equine pregnancy loss is essential for developing prevention and management strategies to reduce the occurrence and impact on the horse breeding industry. This PRISMA-guided scoping review identified 514 records on equine pregnancy loss and described the global spatiotemporal distribution of reported causes and syndromes. The multiple correspondence analysis identified seven clusters that grouped causes, syndromes, locations and pathology. Reasons for clustering should be the focus of future research as they might indicate undescribed risk factors associated with equine pregnancy loss. People engaged in the equine breeding industry work closely with horses and encounter equine bodily fluids, placental membranes, aborted foetuses, and stillborn foals. This close contact increases the risk of zoonotic disease transmission. Based on this review, research is required on equine abortion caused by zoonotic bacteria, including Chlamydia psittaci, Coxiella burnetii and Leptospira spp., because of the severe illness that can occur in people who become infected.

Background: Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is one of the crucial swine viral pathogens, caused porcine circovirus associated diseases (PCVAD). Shandong province is one of the most important pork producing areas and bears a considerable economic loss due to PCVAD. However, there is limited information on epidemiology and coinfection rate of PCV2 with other critical swine diseases in this area, such as porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), classical swine fever virus (CSFV), Pseudorabies virus (PRV), and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV). Results: Overall, 89.59% serum samples and 36.98% tissue samples were positive for PCV2 specified ELISA and PCR positive for PCV2, respectively. The coinfection rates of PCV2 with PRRSV, PRV, CSFV, and PEDV were 26.73%, 18.37%, 13.06%, and 3.47%, respectively. Moreover, genetic characteristic of PCV2 were analyzed based on the cap genes showing that PCV2d is the dominant sub-genotype circulating in the province. Conclusions: Our findings reveal that PCV2d, as the dominant strain, is prevailing in pig farms in Shandong province at high levels. There was a high frequency of coinfection of PCV2 and PRRSV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Effective control of avian diseases in domestic populations requires understanding of the transmission dynamics facilitating viral emergence and spread. In 2016–17, Italy experienced a significant avian influenza epidemic caused by a highly pathogenic A(H5N8) virus, which affected domestic premises housing around 2.7 million birds, primarily in the north‐eastern regions with the highest density of poultry farms (Lombardy, Emilia‐Romagna and Veneto). We perform integrated analyses of genetic, spatiotemporal and host data within a Bayesian phylogenetic framework. Using continuous and discrete phylogeography, we estimate the locations of movements responsible for the spread and persistence of the epidemic. The information derived from these analyses on rates of transmission between regions through time can be used to assess the success of control measures. Using an approach based on phylogenetic–temporal distances between domestic cases, we infer the presence of cryptic wild bird‐mediated transmission, information that can be used to complement existing epidemiological methods for distinguishing transmission within the domestic population from incursions across the wildlife–domestic interface, a common challenge in veterinary epidemiology. Spatiotemporal reconstruction of the epidemic reveals a highly skewed distribution of virus movements with a high proportion of shorter distance local movements interspersed with occasional long‐distance dispersal events associated with wild birds. We also show how such inference be used to identify possible instances of human‐mediated movements where distances between phylogenetically linked domestic cases are unusually high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the modern way of life, the global exchange of goods, more frequent contacts, and the closer life with pets, domestic and exotic animal species, different species are also more often exposed to various coronaviruses (CoVs). Most CoVs are species-specific and are not transmitted between different species. Many CoVs have been found to spread very rapidly after introduction into the susceptible population and have remained endemic despite vaccination attempts and other measures to prevent their spread. The majority of animal CoV are present in susceptible population and can cause from mild to a severe clinical picture of the disease, including high mortality. Very rarely strains of animal CoVs are transmitted to humans and then spread rapidly among humans like severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV-2 (SARS CoV-2). The epizootiological characteristics of coronavirus infections are a consequence of their unique characteristics that can be classified into three basic epizootiological determinants. First of all, the virus itself has its own characteristics in terms of genetic characteristics and sustainability in the environment. In relation to the second epizootiological determinant, the macro-organism, it is necessary to emphasize that coronaviruses, more often than other families of viruses, adapt to primary species o even to a new species of animal in nature. This, so-called "jumping" the species barriers, is primarily conditioned by the biology of the virus, which often changes the antigenic composition and thus not only avoids the host's immune response but also finds new species in nature for its maintenance. For thousands of years, the environment greatly contributes to the fact that coronaviruses are a companion of populations of many animal species since there are certain characteristics of the environment (third epizootiological determinant) as sharing the same ecological niche by different species of animals (and humans). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichophyton simii is an important zoophilic dermatophyte. It has two different names, one for the asexual form (the anamorph state) that occurs in the vertebrate host, and the other for the sexual form (teleomorph also called "perfect state") produced by mating between anamorphs. The sexual state of T. simii belongs to the genus Arthroderma in the family Arthrodermataceae of the phylum Ascomycota of the Kingdom fungi. Zoophilic Trichophyton species include Trichophyton equinum, T. bullosum, members of the T. mentagrophytes complex, T. simii, and T. verrucosum. The clinical lesions caused by T. simii in humans and animals are usually inflammatory and erythematous. It can be distinguished from other Trichophyton species by its faster growth on agar media, forming finely granular colonies with white-to-pale yellow color on reverse and distinctive to fusiform 3-7 septate macroconidia converting into chlamydospores in older cultures, and pyriform microconidia, and inability to perforate hair in-vitro, and produce the enzyme urease. Trichophyton simii is known to infect monkeys, chickens, dogs, and humans worldwide, though infections are sporadic and epidemic potential and zoonotic risk for humans is low; this dermatophyte is also known to occur as a geophilic species in several countries. The literature search generated a lot of data on T. simii infections from several countries, namely India, Sri Lanka, Japan, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Belgium, France, the USA, and Brazil; many of the reports lacked details of clinical lesions and did not mention about treatment/outcome of infections. The results are analyzed and presented concisely in the tables. There is need for investigating the epidemiology of T. simii infections in countries from where, human T. simii infections have been reported, and occurrence of this dermatophyte in soil by employing conventional mycological methods and a newly developed PCR technique based on ITS genomic sequences of this dermatophyte. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dichelobacter nodosus is the essential pathogen in ovine footrot, an important cause of lameness in sheep that reduces productivity and welfare. The aim of this study was to investigate the feasibility of using multiple locus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) developed to investigate isolates to understand the molecular epidemiology of Dichelobacter nodosus in ovine footrot by investigation of communities of strains. MLVA sensitivity was improved by optimizing PCR conditions to 100% specificity for D. nodosus. The improved MLVA scheme was used to investigate non-cultured DNA purified from swabs (swab DNA) and cultured DNA from isolates (isolate DNA) from 152 foot and 38 gingival swab samples from 10 sheep sampled on four occasions in a longitudinal study. Isolate DNA was obtained from 6/152 (3.9%) feet and 5/6 yielded complete MLVA profiles, three strains were detected. Two of the three isolate strains were also detected in isolate DNA from 2 gingival crevice cultures. Complete MLVA profiles were obtained from swab DNA from 39 (25.7%) feet. There were 22 D. nodosus community types that were comprised of 7 single strain and 15 multi-strain communities. Six community types were detected more than once and three of these were detected on the same four sheep and the same two feet over time. There were a minimum of 17 and a maximum of 25 strain types of D. nodosus in the study. The three isolate strain types were also the most frequently detected strain types in swab DNA. We conclude that the MLVA from swab DNA detects the same strains as culture, is much more sensitive and can be used to describe and differentiate communities and strains on sheep, feet and over time. It is therefore a sensitive molecular tool to study D. nodosus strains directly from DNA without culture.

In 2019, in the United States, over 220,000 and 350,000 dogs tested positive for exposure to Anaplasma spp. and Borrelia burgdorferi, respectively. To evaluate regional and local temporal trends of pathogen exposure we used a Bayesian spatio-temporal binomial regression model, analyzing serologic test results for these pathogens from January 2013 to December 2019. Regional trends were not static over time, but rather increased within and beyond the borders of historically endemic regions. Increased seroprevalence was observed as far as North Carolina and North Dakota for both pathogens. Local trends were estimated to evaluate the heterogeneity of underlying changes. A large cluster of counties with increased B. burgdorferi seroprevalence centered around West Virginia, while a similar cluster of counties with increased Anaplasma spp. seroprevalence centered around Pennsylvania and extended well into Maine. In the Midwest, only a small number of counties experienced an increase in seroprevalence; instead, most counties had a decrease in seroprevalence for both pathogens. These trends will help guide veterinarians and pet owners in adopting the appropriate preventative care practices for their area. Additionally, B. burgdorferi and A. phagocytophilum cause disease in humans. Dogs are valuable sentinels for some vector-borne pathogens, and these trends may help public health providers better understand the risk of exposure for humans.

Integrated antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance programmes require regular evaluation to ensure they are fit for purpose and that all actors understand their responsibilities. This will strengthen their relevance for the clinical setting, which depends heavily on continued access to effective treatment options. Several evaluation tools addressing different surveillance aspects are available. The aim was to understand the strengths and weaknesses of three evaluation tools, and to improve guidance on how to choose a fit-for-purpose tool. Three tools were assessed: (a) AMR-PMP—the Progressive Management Pathway tool on AMR developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, (b) NEOH developed by the EU COST Action 'Network for Evaluation of One Health' and (c) SURVTOOLS developed in an FP7-EU project 'RISKSUR'. Each tool was assessed with regard to contents, required evaluation processes including stakeholder engagement and resource demands, integration coverage across relevant sectors and applicability. They were compared using a predefined scoring scheme and a strengths–weaknesses–opportunities–threats (SWOT)-like format for commenting. All three tools address multiple decision-making levels and aspects of stakeholder engagement. NEOH focuses on system features, learning, sharing, leadership and infrastructure, and requires a description of the underlying system in which AMR develops. AMR-PMP focuses on four areas: awareness, evidence, governance and practices and assesses the implementation degree of pre-chosen aspects within these areas. This requires less of the evaluator, but warrants participation of multiple stakeholders. SURVTOOL provides information and references on how to evaluate effectiveness, process and comprehensiveness of surveillance programmes. All three tools require veterinary epidemiology expertise and varying levels of evaluation methodology training to use appropriately. The tools covered AMR surveillance and One Health aspects to varying degrees. This study provides guidance on aspects to consider when choosing between available tools and embarking on an evaluation of integrated surveillance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the distribution of Dermacentor spp. and their infection by zoonotic bacteria causing SENLAT (scalp eschar neck lymphadenopathy) in Turin province, northwestern Italy. We collected ticks in a mountain and in a periurban park, from vegetation and different animal sources, and we sampled tissues from wild boar. Dermacentor marginatus (n = 121) was collected in both study areas, on vegetation, humans, and animals, while D. reticulatus (n = 13) was exclusively collected on wild boar from the periurban area. Rickettsia slovaca and Candidatus Rickettsia rioja infected 53.1% of the ticks, and R. slovaca was also identified in 11.3% of wild boar tissues. Bartonella spp. and Francisella tularensis were not detected, however, Francisella-like endosymbionts infected both tick species (9.2%). Our findings provide new insights on the current distribution of Dermacentor spp. and their infection with a spotted-fever group rickettsiae in the Alps region. Wild boar seem to play a major role in their eco-epidemiology and dispersion in the study area. Although further studies are needed to assess the burden of rickettsial diseases, our results highlight the risk of contracting SENLAT infection through Dermacentor spp. bites in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dog and cat rabies cases imported from rabies enzootic countries represent a major threat for areas that have acquired rabies-free status and quantitative risk analyses (QRAs) are developed in order to assess this risk of rabies reintroduction through dog and cat movements. Herein we describe a framework to evaluate dog and cat rabies incidence levels in exporting countries along with the associated uncertainty for such QRAs. For enzootic dog rabies areas (EDRAs), we extended and adapted a previously published method to specify the relationship between dog rabies vaccination coverage and canine rabies incidence; the relationship between dog and cat rabies incidences; and then to predict annual dog and cat rabies incidences. In non-enzootic dog rabies areas (nEDRAs), we provided annual incidence based on declared dog and cat rabies cases. For EDRAs, we predicted an annual incidence potentially greater than 1.5% in dogs and about ten times lower in cats with a high burden in Africa and Asia but much lower in Latin America. In nEDRAs, the occurrence of rabies was lower and of similar magnitude in dogs and cats. However, wildlife could still potentially infect dogs and cats through spillover events. This framework can directly be incorporated in QRAs of rabies reintroduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sarcocystosis is considered one of the major parasitic diseases with a worldwide distribution. It is caused by the obligatory intracellular protozoan parasites of the genus Sarcocystis. Besides its public health issues, sarcocystosis results in significant economic losses due to its impact on productivity and milk yield. A wide range of final and intermediate hosts have been identified, including mammals, birds, and reptiles; however, few studies have investigated the contribution of camels to maintaining the epidemiological foci of the disease in countries such as Egypt. The present study was conducted to grossly and histopathologically identify the prevalence rate of Sarcocystis spp. in camels (N = 100) from the Aswan Governorate, Egypt. Furthermore, the major risk factors related to the development of sarcocystosis in camels were investigated. Samples from the diaphragm, cardiac muscle, esophagus, and testes of the slaughtered camels were collected. Interestingly, Sarcocystis was detected in 75% of the examined camels. Following the studied variable factors, camels aged 5 years or more were found to be at higher risk, with an infection rate of 87.7% (57 of 65) than those younger than 5 years. The infection rate was 81.4% (57 of 70) in males and 60% (18 of 30) in females. The esophagus was the most affected organ (49%), followed by the diaphragm (26%) and cardiac muscle (17%), whereas none of the testes samples were affected. Taken together, the present study demonstrates the high prevalence of Sarcocystis in the examined camels and suggests the importance of these animals in preserving the epidemiological foci of sarcocystosis in Egypt. Future research should map the circulating strains in Egypt and aim to raise public health awareness about the importance of sarcocystosis and other related zoonotic diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coronaviruses (CoV) have caused a number of major epidemics in humans and animals, including the current pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which has brought a renewed focus on the evolution and interspecies transmission of coronaviruses. Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADSCoV), which was recently identified in piglets in southern China, is an alphacoronavirus that originates from the same genus of horseshoe bats as severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV (SARS-CoV) and that was reported to be capable of infecting cells from a broad range of species, suggesting a considerable potential for interspecies transmission. Given the importance of the coronavirus spike (S) glycoprotein in host range determination and viral entry, we report a cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the SADS-CoV S trimer in the prefusion conformation at a 3.55-Å resolution. Our structure reveals that the SADS-CoV S trimer assumes an intrasubunit quaternary packing mode in which the S1 subunit N-terminal domain (S1- NTD) and the S1 subunit C-terminal domain (S1-CTD) of the same protomer pack together by facing each other in the lying-down state. SADS-CoV S has several distinctive structural features that may facilitate immune escape, such as a relatively compact architecture of the S trimer and epitope masking by glycan shielding. Comparison of SADS-CoV S with the spike proteins of the other coronavirus genera suggested that the structural features of SADS-CoV S are evolutionarily related to those of the spike proteins of the other genera rather than to the spike protein of a typical alphacoronavirus. These data provide new insights into the evolutionary relationship between spike glycoproteins of SADS-CoV and those of other coronaviruses and extend our understanding of their structural and functional diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High mortality events due to Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus (Streptococcus zooepidemicus) in swine have not previously been reported in the United States. In September and October 2019, outbreaks with swine mortality up to 50% due to S. zooepidemicus septicaemia were reported in Ohio and Tennessee. Genomic epidemiological analysis revealed that the eight outbreak isolates were clustered together with ATCC 35246, a Chinese strain caused outbreaks with high mortality, also closely related to three isolates from human cases from Virginia, but significantly different from an outbreak‐unrelated swine isolate from Arizona and most isolates from other animal species. Comparative genomic analysis on two outbreak isolates and another outbreak‐unrelated isolate identified several genomic islands and virulence genes specifically in the outbreak isolates only, which are likely associated with the high mortality observed in the swine population. These findings have implications for understanding, tracking and possibly preventing diseases caused by S. zooepidemicus in swine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

African Swine Fever (ASF) is a contagious disease of domestic and wild pigs caused by the African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV). The disease has spread globally in recent years with serious economic consequences to pork production. This report describes an ASF outbreak that occurred in a large‐scale Chinese commercial pig farm. The outbreak started in 2018 and presents the spatial and temporal spread of infection in an intensive pig farm. Pig houses adjacent to exit rooms had a higher risk of infection (Odds ratio = 14.4, 95%CI: 1.5–140). Introduction of disease is presumed to have occurred through a contaminated vehicle used in the sale of pigs with poor productivity. This investigation shows the process of ASFV infection and spread in a facility with presumed adequate biosecurity measures. These findings may benefit others in the control of ASF in large‐scale pig farms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Post-mortem surveillance in Ireland discloses skin-test negative cattle with presumptive evidence of infection of Mycobacterium bovis (lesions at routine slaughter (LRS)), the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis (bTB). Laboratory confirmation of lesions has impacts on trade restrictions for herds, therefore if laboratory capacity was diminished, how herds are treated would require an informed risk policy. Here we report the proportion of herds with subsequent evidence of within-herd transmission, based on skin-test results. We assess how herd-size, herd-type, and bTB-history affect the probability of additional reactors at follow-up test using univariable and multivariable random-effects models. The study represents a rapid response to developing an evidential base for policy demands during an extraordinary event, the COVID-19 epidemic in Ireland. A dataset from 2005 to 2019 of breakdowns were collated. Overall, 20,116 breakdowns were initiated by LRS cases. During the index tests of these breakdowns, 3931 revealed ≥1 skin-test reactor animals (19.54%; ≥1 standard reactors: 3827; 19.02%). Increasing herd-size was associated with reactor disclosure on follow-up. For small herds (<33 animals), 11.74% of follow-up tests disclosed ≥1 reactor; 24.63% of follow-up tests from very large herds (>137) disclosed ≥1 reactors. Beef (13.87%) and "other" (13%) herd production types had lower proportion of index tests with reactors in comparison with dairy (28.27%) or suckler (20.48%) herds. Historic breakdown size during the previous 3-years was associated reactor disclosure risk on follow-up. Our results are useful for rapid tailored policy development aimed at identifying higher risk herds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and the 1972 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) are key components of the international arms-control landscape. Yet the two conventions differ widely, particularly in the ways that are available to treaty parties to resolve any questions about compliance with the treaties. Both contain language concerning consultation and cooperation, but the CWC also has extensive procedures available to investigate allegations of noncompliance. This article reviews these differences in the conventions and explains, in part, how and why they came about. The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) has engaged in several consultations regarding compliance issues, but the OPCW publishes virtually nothing about the topics of the consultations or their frequency, findings, or conclusions. An exception, perhaps, is the OPCW's work regarding Syrian use of chemical weapons (CW). Moreover, thus far, no treaty party has called for a challenge inspection to officially investigate perhaps the most serious allegations of treaty violations: Syrian and Russian alleged use of CW. The BWC states parties conducted one formal consultation raised by Cuba, alleging that the United States dropped biological agents on the island nation from airplanes to cause an animal epidemic. The consultation reached no official conclusion. The article goes on to praise the work of Raymond Zilinskas debunking the allegations through a careful scientific review of the Cuban claims. The article discusses the consequences of secrecy surrounding the CWC consultation process and laments that the BWC does not have the institutional capacity to carry on the type of analysis that Zilinskas undertook discrediting the Cuban allegations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pseudorabies (PR) is a highly contagious disease affecting a wide range of animals, which annually causes great economic losses in China. In this study, a total number of 18,815 serum samples and 1,589 tissue samples were collected from 311 intensive pig farms (≥350 sows) located in eight cities in Heilongjiang province, and tested by ELISA and PCR. Overall, the serum positive rates of gE and gB protein were 16.3% and 84.5%, respectively. The PCR-positive rate of PR virus (PRV) in tissue samples was 17.8%. The coinfection rates of PRV with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), and classical swine fever virus (CSFV) were also measured. The rate of PRV coinfected with PRRSV was 36.0% followed by 12.9% with PCV2 and 1.8% with CSFV, respectively. These results clearly demonstrate PRV prevalence and its coinfection rate in Heilongjiang province, indicating high PR endemic in pig farms in this region. This study provides data for further epidemiological investigations and a reference for developing PRV control strategies in this region and in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Despite rigorous controls placed on herds which disclose ante-mortem test positive cattle to bovine tuberculosis, caused by the infection of Mycobacterium bovis, many herds in Northern Ireland (NI) experience prolonged breakdowns. These herds represent a considerable administrative and financial burden to the State and farming community. Methods A retrospective observational study was conducted to better understand the factors associated with breakdown duration, which was modelled using both negative binomial and ordinal regression approaches. Results Six explanatory variables were important predictors of breakdown length in both models; herd size, the number of reactors testing positive in the initial SICCT test, the presence of a lesioned animal at routine slaughter (LRS), the count of M. bovis genotypes during the breakdown (MLVA richness), the local herd-level bTB prevalence, and the presence of herds linked via management factors (associated herds). We report that between 2008 and 2014, mean breakdown duration in NI was 226 days (approx. seven months; median: 188 days). In the same period, however, more than 6% of herds in the region remained under movement restriction for more than 420 days (13 months); almost twice as long as the mean. The MLVA richness variable was a particularly important predictor of breakdown duration. We contend that this variable primarily represents a proxy for beef fattening herds, which can operate by purchasing cattle and selling animals straight to slaughter, despite prolonged trading restrictions. For other herd types, the model supports the hypothesis that prolonged breakdowns are a function of both residual infection within the herd, and infection from the environment (e.g. infected wildlife, contiguous herds and/or a contaminated environment). The impact of badger density on breakdown duration was assessed by including data on main sett (burrow) density. Whilst a positive association was observed in the univariate analysis, confounding with other variables means that the contribution of badgers to prolonged breakdowns was not clear from our study. We do not fully reject the hypothesis that badgers are implicated in prolonging bTB breakdowns via spillback infection, but given our results, we posit that increased disease risk from badgers is unlikely to simply be a function of increasing badger density measured using sett metrics.

Background: Vestibular disease (VD), central or peripheral, can be a dramatic primary‐care presentation. Current literature describes mostly dogs examined in referral centers. Hypothesis/Objectives: Describe the prevalence, presentation, clinical management, and outcomes of VD in dogs under primary veterinary care at UK practices participating in VetCompass. Animals Seven hundred and fifty‐nine vestibular cases identified out of 905 544 study dogs. Methods: Retrospective cohort study. Potential VD cases clinically examined during 2016 were verified by reviewing clinical records for signalment, presenting clinical signs, treatments, and outcomes. Multivariable logistic regression was used to evaluate factors associated with VD. Results: The overall prevalence of VD was 8 per 10 000 dogs (95% CI = 7‐9). Median age at first diagnosis was 12.68 years (interquartile range [IQR], 11.28‐14.64). Compared with crossbreeds, breeds with the highest odds of VD diagnosis included French Bulldogs (odds ratio [OR] = 9.25, 95% CI = 4.81‐17.76, P <.001), Bulldogs (OR = 6.53, 95% CI = 2.66‐16.15, P <.001), King Charles Spaniels (OR = 4.96, 95% CI = 2.52‐9.78, P <.001), Cavalier King Charles Spaniels (OR = 3.56, 95% CI = 2.50‐5.06, P <.001), and Springer Spaniels (OR = 3.37, 95% CI = 2.52‐4.52, P <.001). The most common presenting signs were head tilt (69.8%), nystagmus (68.1%), and ataxia (64.5%). The most frequently used treatments were antiemetics (43.2%), systemic glucocorticoids (33.1%), antimicrobials (25%), and propentofylline (23.25%). There were 3.6% of cases referred. Improvement was recorded in 41.8% cases after a median of 4 days (IQR, 2‐10.25). Conclusions: Our study identifies strong breed predispositions for VD. The low referral rates suggest that primary‐care data sources offer more generalizable information for benchmarking to help clinicians review their own clinical activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Infectious Diseases of East African Livestock (IDEAL) project was a longitudinal cohort study of calf health which was conducted in Western Kenya between 2007–2010. A total of 548 East African shorthorn zebu calves were recruited at birth and followed at least every 5 weeks during the first year of life. Comprehensive clinical and epidemiological data, blood and tissue samples were collected at every visit. These samples were screened for over 100 different pathogens or infectious exposures, using a range of diagnostic methods. This manuscript describes this comprehensive dataset and bio-repository, and how to access it through a single online site (http://data.ctlgh.org/ideal/). This provides extensive filtering and searching capabilities. These data are useful to illustrate outcomes of multiple infections on health, investigate patterns of morbidity and mortality due to parasite infections, and to study genotypic determinants of immunity and disease. Measurement(s) Health • disease • genotype • Phenotypic variability Technology Type(s) Examination • single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis Sample Characteristic - Organism Bos indicus Sample Characteristic - Environment farm Sample Characteristic - Location Kenya Machine-accessible metadata file describing the reported data: 10.6084/m9.figshare.12459737 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, cases of autochthonous hepatitis E (HE) have sharply increased in European countries where foodborne transmission is considered the main route of HE virus (HEV) transmission. Although rabbits are considered the main reservoir of the zoonotic HEV‐3ra subtype, information on the role of wild lagomorphs in the epidemiology of HEV remains scarce. The aim of this study therefore was to assess the circulation of HEV in European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis), the most important lagomorph species in Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems. Liver samples from 372 wild rabbits and 78 Iberian hares were analysed using a broad‐spectrum RT‐PCR that detects HEV genotypes 1–8. None of the 450 lagomorphs tested were positive for HEV infection. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to assess HEV circulation in wild rabbits in Spain and the first to evaluate HEV infection in Iberian hares. Our results indicate absence of HEV circulation in wild rabbits and Iberian hares in southern Spain during the study period, which suggests that the risk of transmission of HEV from wild lagomorphs to other species, including humans, is low. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]