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Immature migrant waders have more complex patterns of primary moult than adults, but these have been described only fragmentarily. The Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola breeds in the taiga region of the Palearctic and part of the population migrates to southern Africa. We selected this population for a study of the primary moult strategies of an immature wader. After analysing the moult formulae of 674 immatures, we discuss potential factors that influence the choice of moult strategy. All moulters replaced two to six outer primaries; 91% moulted four or five. We used the Underhill–Zucchini model to estimate the timing and duration of moult in immatures replacing different numbers of primaries. A slow moult of five or six primaries, adopted by 29%, lasted on average 98–111 days, beginning on average 8–16 December. Moult of four primaries (63%) began on 6 January and averaged 73 days. A rapid moult of three primaries (7%) began on 24 January and averaged 55 days. All groups ended their moult between 19 and 28 March. GLM models showed that heavier immatures were more likely to start moulting than leaner birds. This tendency was more pronounced in November–January than in later months. The later the moult started, the fewer feathers were replaced and the faster the process. Departure time set the limit for the end of moult. We suggest the ability to choose different strategies allows immature Wood Sandpipers to adjust their moult to the variable conditions they encounter at wetlands in southern Africa.

Migrant waders using freshwater habitats are hypothesized to have slower primary moult than waders using coastal habitats. We chose the Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola as a representative species using the freshwater habitats and compare its moult pattern with a range of fresh-water and coastal wader species to test the habitat hypothesis. Only fragmentary descriptions of Wood Sandpipers' primary moult in their sub-Saharan non-breeding quarters had existed. We analysed the primary moult formulae of 1496 adult Wood Sandpipers obtained in southern Africa. The Underhill & Zucchini moult model was used to estimate the timing and duration of moult for all 10 primaries combined and for each primary individually. We also estimated the rate of production of feather material during moult. Adult Wood Sandpipers arrive in southern Africa between late July and November, and depart from mid-March to April. Suspension of moult was observed in 56 birds (7.5%) after two to nine primaries had been replaced. The remaining birds performed a continuous complete primary moult, with average start and completion dates of 21 August and 30 December, respectively; estimated duration was 131 days. The overall rate of production of primary feather material was uniform, achieved by growing up to five small inner primaries simultaneously at the beginning of the moult but only one or two simultaneously while the large outer primaries were growing. Primary moult of adult Wood Sandpipers took longer but ended earlier than in similar-sized waders using coastal habitats. Compared with waders using coastal habitats, Wood Sandpipers prolonged moult by shedding their primaries at longer intervals and by extending the growth period of each primary. The longer primary moult and its earlier ending compared with coastal waders are probably adaptations to Wood Sandpipers' use of freshwater habitats, which in southern Africa provide unpredictable food supplies and might require nomadic movements between ephemeral inland wetlands.

Biosphere Sr isotope composition data from Iceland and Scotland suggest that terrestrially feeding birds from these two countries will have significantly different 87Sr/86Sr isotope composition in their tissues. The aim of this study is to test if these differences can be measured within the bone and feather of migratory wading birds, who feed terrestrially as juveniles, thus providing a provenance tool for these birds. The study shows that birds can be distinguished on the basis of the Sr isotope composition of their bone. The field for Icelandic birds is defined by data from juvenile common redshank (Tringa totanus) and whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) which give 0.7056 ± 0.0012, (2r, n = 7). The majority of Scottish birds in this study are from coastal regions and have a signature close to that of seawater of 0.7095 ± 0.0006 (2r, n = 9). The Sr ratios in the body tissue of these two populations of all Icelandic and Scottish adult and juvenile birds analysed are significantly different (p < 0.001, at 95% confidence limits). Scottish birds from inland areas such as a common snipe (Gallinago gallinago) record 87Sr/86Sr values as high as 0.7194 which reflect their non-marine diet. Icelandic redshank (Tringa totanus robusta) that have flown to Scotland and returned to Iceland show the effect of the Scottish contribution to their diet with elevated values of 0.7086 ± 0.0004, (2r, n = 6). Redshank found in Scotland that cannot be classified on the basis biometric analysis are shown to be of Icelandic origin and analysis of the primary feathers from two birds demonstrates that isotope variation between feathers could be used to track changes in diet related to the timing of individual feather growth.

Different scoring systems have been developed for assessing fat stores in birds. Most have been used with passerines, and there is no widely used standard for studies of shorebirds. I developed a new fat-scoring classification scheme for shorebirds that was tested in Poland with juvenile Dunlins {Calidris alpina) during autumn and Wood Sandpipers ( Tringa glareola) during spring migration. My proposed fatness scale is based on a qualitative assessment of the amount of fat in the axillary region and, if necessary, the furcular region. The resulting fat scores do not predict the actual amount of fat carried by a bird, but can be used to assign birds to a particular state of fatness and allow comparison of birds with different scores. Analysis revealed that the relationship between fat scores and predicted fat mass was approximately linear for both Dunlins and Wood Sandpipers. Although the scale I propose was tested with 20 species of shorebirds, sample sizes for larger species were small and consisted exclusively of lean and moderately fat birds. As a result, my proposed fat-scoring system should be evaluated using larger and fatter shorebirds because it has only been validated for one small and one medium-sized species.

Published accounts of the Carpinteria avifauna, collected from an upper Pleistocene asphalt deposit near Carpinteria, California, were based on only a small portion of the collection. The present paper is a complete review of the avifauna, including information on previously unpublished and unidentified material. The avifauna contains 79 species, twenty-seven of which have been added to the published avifauna from the deposits. Included among these are the first fossil records of Rallus limicola, Tringa melanoleuca, Tyrannus verticalis, and Piranga ludoviciana. Specimens from the deposit previously assigned to Corvus caurinus are referred to C. brachyrhynchos.

China is located centrally in the East Asian–Australasian Flyway, and a large proportion of the migratory shorebird population of the Flyway uses its extensive wetlands during migration. However, little is known about the abundance and distribution of shorebirds in China during the non-breeding season. In the non-breeding seasons of 2002–03 to 2006–07 we surveyed shorebirds in coastal and inland areas of eastern China, covering an estimated 2500 km of inland waterways and 3500 km of coastline. We document the abundance and distribution of the main species of shorebirds occurring in the region during the non-breeding season, and present the first population estimates for this period, discuss the accuracy of published population estimates of the Flyway, and describe extensions of range of some species. The total shorebird population in eastern China during the non-breeding season is likely to exceed 1 million birds. There were sufficient data for satisfactory population estimates to be made for six of the 27 different species encountered during the surveys (Pied Avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta; Grey Plover, Pluvialis squatarola; Kentish Plover, Charadrius alexandrinus; Eurasian Curlew, Numenius arquata; Spotted Redshank, Tringa erythropus; and Dunlin, Calidris alpina), and suggestions are made for reviews of the population estimates in the Flyway of four of these species and of the Eurasian Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), one of the less common species encountered. The new distributional data obtained extend the non-breeding ranges for nine species and it is believed that the Common Redshank (Tringa totanus) is not as widely distributed in eastern China as previously suggested.

Predators that feed on clustered prey tend to have an ‘area-restricted search’ (ARS), characterized by a combination of a slow and tortuous movement in prey-rich areas, and a fast and straight movement in poorer areas. Waders that forage in intertidal areas usually prey upon buried macroinvertebrates, whose distribution is often clustered. However, wader species differ in the strategy used to find their prey: some rely mainly on visual cues, some rely on tactile cues, and others follow a more generalist method, simply sweeping the sediment surface with the bill. We hypothesized that these strategies influence the adoption of an ARS by waders. We analysed this hypothesis by comparing the fine-scale movement of a ‘tactile’ predator (black-tailed godwit, Limosa limosa ), with that of a ‘visual’ predator (redshank, Tringa totanus ) and a ‘sweeper’ (avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta ). We filmed 190 individuals of the three species and, using GIS facilities, obtained more than 12 000 spatial positions, along with detailed records of feeding activity. We analysed several parameters of fine-scale movement of waders, such as foraging and searching speeds, tortuosity, and the relationship between these parameters and foraging success. Only the tactile predator, the black-tailed godwit, followed an ARS, reducing searching speed and increasing spatial turning rate whenever the prey intake was higher. Furthermore, its foraging strategy involved short-term adjustments of movement that maximized the likelihood of finding subsequent prey, suggesting a prior knowledge or an ability to perceive rapidly the distribution pattern of its prey.

Tens of thousands of shorebirds use saline lakes as migratory stopovers in the Southern Great Plains, USA. To assess their foraging strategies and understand how they replenish energy reserves during spring and summer/fall migrations, we examined diets, prey taxa selection, and prey size selection of American Avocets (Recurvirostra americana), Least Sandpipers (Calidris minutilla), Wilson's Phalaropes (Phalaropus tricolor), and Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes). Migrant shorebirds foraged opportunistically by taking most prey taxa according to their availability. Least Sandpipers preferred small prey (2–5 mm), whereas American Avocet, Wilson's Phalaropes, and Lesser Yellowlegs generally preferred intermediate and large prey (6–20 mm). By consuming prey taxa according to their availability and prey sizes that require minimum energy to capture and ingest, shorebirds increase their ability to replenish energy reserves while migrating through interior North America. Drought and drying of freshwate...

Capsule Negative forest edge effects were detected for Willow Ptarmigan (Red Grouse) Lagopus lagopus and Dunlin Calidris alpina. Aims To investigate the effects of distance to forest on the abundance and changes in abundance of four key peatland breeding bird species, and to measure changes in predatory bird numbers, in the peatlands of northern Scotland. Methods Bird surveys were carried out in 2000 at 34 plots, covering 197 km2 of peatland, and 80 forestry point‐count sites, first surveyed in 1988. Habitat data were also collected in 2000. We used multi‐model inference to investigate the associations between forest distance and other habitat variables, and the abundance, and changes in abundance, of four bird species of economic or conservation importance: Red Grouse, European Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria, Dunlin and Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia. Results There was strong evidence that distance to forest was negatively associated with Dunlin abundance and changes in Red Grouse abundance, but o...

Aim Many wader populations around the world are declining as a consequence of habitat degradation or loss. It is therefore important to identify species-specific habitat demands accurately and to define the important factors explaining species distribution, in order to develop tools that can be used in conservation planning. The aim of this study is to create reliable, functional and ecologically interpretable predictive distribution models for five breeding wader species. Location The archipelago of SW Finland in the Baltic Sea. Methods We used multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS) to create single-species and multiresponse distribution models based on 525 study islands and 12 abiotic and biotic environmental variables. Model evaluation was carried out on independent data not used in model building (100 + 116 islands). The models were tested for discrimination with receiver-operating characteristic statistics and for calibration with Millers calibration statistics (MCS). Results The single-species models for the turnstone (Arenaria interpres), redshank (Tringa totanus) and oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) showed good predictive abilities, regarding both discrimination and calibration, when evaluated on independent data. The multiresponse models for the less prevalent species, common sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos) and the common ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula) had better discriminative abilities than the single-species models. The most influential predictor overall was occurrence of small larids. Exposure, area of forest and low and flat areas were also important, as well as shore habitats. Main conclusions We found that the ability of MARS to fit non-linear and multiresponse models makes it a useful method to quantitatively relate species occurrence to environmental characteristics of a complex environment.

Due to being a virtually monomorphic wader species, migration dynamics and sex-related migration patterns in the Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola) have rarely been investigated. We captured spring migrants at an important stopover site in northeastern Austria. Birds were individually color-marked, and sex was determined by an analysis of DNA from tail feather material. Among temporary residents (birds seen again after day of capture), males migrated on average 3 days earlier than females. However, since sexes did not differ in fat score, the length of stay and the proportion of transients (birds not seen again after day of capture) and temporary residents, we suggest that males and females adopt similar migration strategies in the spring. The large number of transients captured as well as shorter stopover durations in later temporary residents indicate that Wood Sandpipers minimize time at this stage of their northbound migration. Temporary residents earlier in the season exhibited lower fat stores than later ones. Nevertheless, since the fat stores of transients and temporary residents were similar even after the progress of the season had been accounted for, we assume that Wood Sandpipers may afford to exhibit individual flexibility in migration strategy and the use of stopover sites, especially early in the season. This variability may be a necessary adaptation to cope with possible varying environmental conditions at dynamic and unpredictable inland stopover sites. After having reached North Mediterranean regions, mean body mass of spring migrants gradually increases during successive stopovers, indicating that Wood Sandpipers follow a ‘hopping’ migration strategy. This emphasizes the high conservation value of even small artificial mudflat pools as important stepping stones in order to maintain a continuous network of wetland habitats for this continental migrant.

One agreed to use the denomination 13 de Julho-Atalaia mangrove the mangrove extension of 13 de Julho up to the Districtof Atalaia, Aracaju (SE). In this study area, 6 fixed points were established, of which we did the identification and the counting of thenumber of individuals of each species and the characterization of the type of activity they engage in. From July 2003 to July 2004 atotal of 44 observation journeys were carried out with a minimum duration of 1 hour and a maximal of 4 hours and 20 minutes (meanduration ±2 2 h 36 m). We identified 19 families and 46 birds species, being that 17 of these were migrant coming from the Northhemisphere. Among the observed migrant species four belonged to the Charadriidae family: Charadrius semipalmatus, Charadriuswilsonia, Pluvialis squatarola, Pluvialis dominica; eleven to Scolopacidae: Calidris alba, Calidris pusilla, Calidris fuscicollis, Calidriscanutus, Arenaria interpres Numenius phaeopus, Tringa flavipes, Tringa melanoleuca, Actitis macularia, Catoptrophorus semipalmatus,Limnodromus griseus. Ardeidaes observed in mangroves can be considered residents, in spite of the variations presented by some speciessuch as Egretta thula, Florida caerulea, Casmerodius albus, Butorides striatus, Nyctanassa violaceus and Bubucus ibis.

at theTyninghame Estuary, Firth of Forth, Scotland, provide an example of how the starvation–predation risk trade-off results in mortality. In this trade-off, animals cannot always optimizeanti-predation behaviour because anti-predation behaviours, such as avoiding predators, areusually incompatible with foraging behaviours that might maximize intake rates. Therefore,as animals compensate for starvation risk, predation risk increases. Sparrowhawks are themain direct cause of death in Redshanks at Tyninghame. Sparrowhawk attack rate is deter-mined by Redshank vulnerability, and vulnerability decreases as group size and distance tocover increase, and probably as spacing decreases. But reduction of predation vulnerabilityreduces feeding rate because areas away from cover are less food-profitable and groupingresults in increased interference competition. Increased starvation risk in midwinter meansRedshanks are forced to feed on highly profitable prey

Despite great variation in breeding, social and migration systems, there have been few long-term (more than 5 years) studies of waders. This paper describes a 27-year study of breeding Greenshanks Tringa nebularia, and briefly reviews the scope for long-term work on breeding waders in the Western Palaearctic. Between 1964 and 1990 a Greenshank population in NW Scotland varied threefold in number but declined during the 1980s. Some territories were occupied almost every year whereas others became unoccupied. The increase up to the mid 1970s coincided with good summer weather likely to improve breeding success and subsequent adult recruitment. The decline occurred despite no adverse change in weather, an increase in over-winter numbers on British and Irish estuaries, and no increase in nest predation. Afforestation in the Flow Country of northern Scotland may have exacerbated the decline by reducing numbers of potential recruits from what were once productive areas. Habitat for broods has deteriorated considerably in the study area because of the impact of all-terrain vehicles: pool complexes have deteriorated to a greater degree in unoccupied than in occupied territories. Territories with most disturbance have been occupied less regularly. There has been a decline in habitat structural complexity likely to render chicks more prone to predation and less likely to find preferred food. Habitat is now set to recover, and predictions are made about the Greenshank's response. Of 47 wader species breeding regularly in the Western Palaearctic, none have had lifetime reproductive success measured and long-term population dynamics have been studied in only nine. We provide a list of species that might be appropriate for addressing six important ecological issues. Five emerge as common targets for further long-term work: Dotterel Charadrius morinellus, Lapwing Vanellus vanellus, Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta. Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos and Curlew Numenius arquata.

Advancement of spring migration in response to recent global climate change is well documented for a vari- ety of bird species, but the pattern for autumn migration is rather equivocal. During a 42-year period (1964-2005) the changes in timing of spring and autumn migration of eight wader species were studied at multiple inland sites in Central Europe (Czech Republic and Slovakia) using ringing data. While a clear pattern was found for the advancement of the spring passage, there were variable trends in the timing of the autumn passage. Three species significantly advanced (Wood Sandpiper, Common Sandpiper and Dunlin), three species delayed (Ruff, Snipe and Little Ringed Plover), and two species did not change the timing of the autumn passage (Little Stint and Green Sandpiper). Earlier studies had predicted that long-distance migrants wintering south of the Sahara would advance the timing of autumn migration, while short-distance migrants would postpone it. However, our findings do not fully conform to these pre- dictions. Across species, the timing of both the spring and autumn passages was negatively associated with the winter North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index, suggesting that even in long-distance migrants the timing of migration might be under direct environmental control. In conclusion, phenological responses of birds to recent changes in climate are quite coherent for the early phenological phases; however, the responses to later phases are not so straightforward, and the present study contributes to this diverse pattern.

Raptor predation on waders was studied by direct observation of raptors hunting a known wader population and subsequent recovery of dead waders. In each of three winters, raptor predation was shown to be the most significant cause of mortality in most small wader species, Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus, Merlins Falco columbarius and Peregrines F. pere-grinus attacked waders with a success rate of 11.6%. 8.8% and 6.8%, respectively. Most waders attacked or found dead were Redshank Tringa totanus and Dunlin Calidris alpina; most were killed by Sparrowhawks. Kleptoparasitism of raptors carrying prey by Carrion Crows Corvus corone significantly increased the winter mortality of some waders. Redshank populations were most affected by raptor predation: over 50% of the total population (which was found to be closed during most of the winter) and over 90% of the juvenile population were taken in two winters: juvenites were more likely to be killed by raptors.

The regression methods frequently used to estimate the parameters associated with primary moult in birds are unsatisfactory. Results obtained using least squares regression, and various ad hoc adaptations, are so obviously incorrect that many authors have fitted lines ‘by eye’ (Newton 1968, Thomas & Dartnall 1971, Elliott et al. 1976, Morrison 1976, Appleton & Minton 1978). In a comparison of seven regression methods, estimates of the average starting date varied between 29 June and 31 July, completion date between 2 and 24 October, and duration of moult between 72 and 109 days for the Redshank Tringa totanus, in spite of the very large sample of 1482 observations (Summers et al. 1983). In this paper we present a new approach to the analysis of primary moult and develop a mathematical model specifically designed for moult data.

The average wing-lengths of male and female Redshanks differ, allowing one to estimate the probabilities of males being larger in pairs whose measurements are known. Using these probabilities in a large number of simulations we showed that larger ‘female’ Icelandic Redshanks nested earlier than smaller ones. The results support Hale's suggestion that size selection in Redshanks operates on the breeding grounds. There was no evidence of assortative mating.

The presence of a Sparrowhawk induces short-term abandonment of territories by wintering Redshank and increases both the density within flocks and the ranging behaviour of wintering Turnstone. The latter effect is thought to be due to the disturbance caused by hawk attacks, and the results suggest benefits for flocking beyond predator detection.

The results of a long-term capture-mark-recapture ringing programme carried out on a coastal population of breeding Redshanks Tringa totanus between 1974 and 1988 are presented. Both sexes were equally likely to be recaptured in subsequent years, as were birds captured for the first time compared with those that had been captured previously. Older birds were more frequently recaptured than were young birds. There was no significant difference in male and female adult survival rates, with a mean of 72% of females and 75% of males surviving each year. The breeding population fluctuated annually with estimated breeding densities of 122–285 pairs per km2. Variation in breeding numbers (males), but not survival, was partially attributable to winter air temperature.

Summary The percentage (45.6%) of colour-marked Redshanks which return to Banks Marsh NNR retain the pair from the previous year. whilst 6.9% of the previous year's pairs separate and take new mates. In 29.8%, of the previous year's pairs only the male returns and in 17.7%, only the female returns. Usually pairs are established by the male performing a display flight and pair maintenance is facilitated by means of an alighting ceremony. Two main peaks occur in the performance of these displays which are associated with two physiological groups within the population. early and late breeders.

Adult and post-natal breeding-dispersal movements of Redshank Tringa totanus, Dunlin Calidris alpina and Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula were quantified in west Scotland. Data from 373 returning birds marked as breeding adults and 142 returning birds marked as chicks are presented. Unlike most previous studies, this study measured dispersal movements up to 40 km and attempted to overcome distance-related biases. For each species, adult males were significantly more nest site-faithful between years than were adult females. Likewise, first-time breeding males bred significantly closer to their natal site than did females. The settlement intensity per unit area of habitat showed marked differences between species, age classes and sex in the relative attractiveness of potential areas at different distances to settling birds. Adult dispersal was negatively and significantly related to breeding success in the previous year and positively related to capture on the nest in the previous year. Dispersal movements of adult Ringed Plover breeding on unstable cultivated habitats were significantly related to habitat quality (measured in terms of nest survival) and were always to habitat of better or equal quality.

This paper presents the results of a study carried out on breeding Redshank in the Ribble Marshes, Lancashire, England. Redshank tend to return to the same breeding area year after year. There was no detectable sex bias in return rates. Experienced birds were more site faithful than inexperienced birds, with previously successful birds exhibiting the highest degree of breeding site fidelity. Older, more experienced birds were more successful at hatching eggs than inexperienced birds. Breeding dispersal was the same both within and between years. Faithful pairs and males nesting with a new mate dispersed significantly shorter distances than females nesting with a new partner. Dispersal distances in female Redshank were affected by breeding success: unsuccessful females, nesting with a new mate, dispersed significantly farther than successful females. A pair's breeding success influenced the following year's mate fidelity. However, other factors such as overwintering survival and date of return may also have influenced mate fidelity. Redshank were highly faithful to their natal area; a high proportion of birds that survived post-fledging mortality returned to breed in their area of birth. No sex bias in natal dispersal was detected. Approximately 50% of Redshank breed in their first year of life.

A study was carried out in northeastern Venezuela to determine whether or not shorebirds feed at night in tropical environments. Results show that some Neotropical residents and Nearctic winter migrants feed during darkness. During daylight, Black-winged Stilts Himantopus himantopus, mexicanus group, were predominantly visual foragers (75% attempts were pecking), performing a tactile type of feeding technique (immersion of the whole head and portion of the neck while searching for food through soft mud) on other occasions. During night-time, they were almost equally visual (pecking) and tactile (multiple scythelike sweeps) foragers. Greater and Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa melanoleuca and T. flavipes foraged visually during daylight and tactilely (sidesweeping) at night. Short-billed Dowitchers Limnodromus griseus were tactile feeders (probers) both by day and by night while Semipalmated Plovers Charadrius semipalmatus during daylight and at night and Wilson's Plovers C. tvilsonia by night were sight feeders (peckers). Prey abundance was higher at night than during daylight. Black-winged Stilts and yellowlegs seemed to feed at night on food items at least partly different from those they fed upon during daylight.

In total, 30 lesser yellowlegs, Tringa flavipes (Charadriiformes), 24 from southwestern United States and 6 from Alaska, were examined for metazoan parasites. Ten species of helminths (4 cestodes, 4 trematodes, and 2 nematodes), and 5 species of ectoparasites were collected. Cestodes were the most prevalent and abundant taxon. The dominant cestode was an undescribed species of Choanotaenia. The cestode Kowalewskiella totani was the only helminth recovered from Alaskan hosts, and it was also present in birds from the southwest. It appears to be a specialist in lesser yellowlegs. The mallophagans Quadraceps falcigerus and Actornithophilus totani and the nasal mite Colinoptes cubanensis were common to birds from both geographic regions. Characteristics of the helminth community from the southwest and ectoparasite communities of this region and Alaska were low mean species richness, low mean abundance, medium diversity, and uneven distribution of parasites.

Seven specimens of cyclocoelids (6 specimens representing Haematotrephus selfi n. sp. and 1 specimen representing a second unidentified species of Haematotrephus) collected by the late Dr. J. Teague Self, former professor, Department of Zoology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, U.S.A., from the body cavities of 3 lesser yellowlegs, Tringa flavipes, (2 birds collected from Roger Mills County, Oklahoma on 23 and 29 August 1963, and 1 collected from Manitoba, Canada on 3 June 1964) and deposited in the Manter Laboratory of Parasitology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska are described. Haematotrephus selfi n. sp. can be distinguished from all other species in the genus that lack an oral sucker except Haematotrephus limnodromi by having intertesticular uterine loops. It most closely resembles H. limnodromi but differs from it by having a smaller body, a smaller pharynx, smaller testes, a shorter cirrus sac, and somewhat smaller eggs. In addition, H. selfi n. sp. lacks a uterine semina...

We show that, as previously described, there are conflicts between areas used by people and shorebirds. However, we propose that burrowing organisms add complexity to the shorebird–human interaction that should be taken into account for management and conservation. This is because SW Atlantic mudflats are dominated by high densities (up to 60 crabs m−2) of a strong bioturbator, the burrowing crab Neohelice granulata (=Chasmagnathus granulatus). These crabs affect the habitat use and foraging performance of shorebird species. The two-banded plover Charadrius falklandicus feed more in burrow areas whereas the yellowlegs Tringa spp. and the white-rumped sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis tend to avoid burrow areas. We evaluated the effect of human recreational activities on shorebirds, taking into account shorebird–crab interaction, during shorebird migratory periods (November to April) of 2001, 2002, and 2003. This study was performed at the Mar Chiquita coastal lagoon (37° 40′ S, Argentina). Results showed that people only rarely used the extensive soft bottom intertidals dominated by burrowing assemblages of N. granulata because the soft sediments make walking difficult. Therefore, human impact is reduced for the two-banded plover. However, for several migratory shorebirds that also avoid burrow areas, these areas act as suboptimal alternative areas when human impact is important in their preferred habitats. When human activity is low, shorebirds remain foraging in the area but they decrease their feeding intakes. The extensions of burrow areas differ among estuaries and are likely to generate between-estuaries differences as stopover sites for shorebirds. Also, other species that form large burrowing assemblages can have a similar impact on shorebird–human interactions.

We recorded and compared diurnal and nocturnal time-activity budgets of American Avocet (Recurvirostra americana), Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes), Least Sandpiper (Calidris minutilla), and Wilson’s Phalarope (Phalaropus tricolor) on 21 saline lakes in the Southern Great Plains, USA, during spring and summer/fall 2002 and 2003 to examine importance of saline lakes as migratory stopover sites. All four species spent most of their time feeding (47-70%) and resting (7-37%) by day and at night during spring and fall migrations. Little time was spent in other behaviors. Time budgets differed among species and between seasons, likely due to different energy needs. Time spent foraging varied seasonally between saline lakes and freshwater playas for American Avocets and Least Sandpipers, likely due to differences in vegetation cover and availability of prey between these wetland types. For most species, time spent foraging and resting differed between day and night. Therefore, extrapolating diurnal a...

The initiation of agri-environmental schemes (AES) to improve habitats for breeding waders may not show expected benefits in all situations. We show this, using results from a study of breeding waders on 469 grassland fields in the Danish Wadden Sea area. Numbers of breeding waders were not restored to levels of the recent past, even though Lapwings Vanellus vanellus, Black-tailed Godwits Limosa limosa and Redshanks Tringa totanus were drawn to wet permanent grasslands with AES. We had expected that more waders would be attracted by improved surface water retention during the breeding period due to the AES. However, AES were not introduced to all fields, and this measure did not dramatically change the water regime in part of the breeding fields. Furthermore, dry grasslands and fields that had been cultivated or drained before did not attract more waders, despite the introduction of the AES. The results suggest that the interplay between surface water retention and former farming history are important determinants of the habitat choice for breeding waders. The study emphasises the need for pre-defined success criteria, thorough analysis of the nature of the habitat and consideration of population processes before initiation of an AES, so that realistic management goals are defined and expected benefits can be achieved.

The use of metal and colour-rings or bands as a means of measuring survival, movements and behaviour in birds is universal and fundamental to testing ecological and evolutionary theories. The practice rests on the largely untested assumption that the rings do not affect survival. However this assumption may not hold for several reasons, for example because the ‘oddity effect’ predicts predators select prey that appear different to their neighbours in order to avoid the ‘confusion effect’. We compared the foraging behaviour and the death rates of redshanks Tringa totanus conspicuously marked with six colour rings and one metal ring each to unmarked birds in a study system, where routinely up to 50% of the total population are killed by avian predators during a winter. If avian predators selectively target and/or have a higher capture success of ringed birds then we would predict the proportion of colour-ringed birds in the population to decline through a winter. The proportion of colour-ringed birds in the population did not change over the course of three separate winters, and in one winter the ratio of marked:unmarked birds found killed by sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus was the same as the ratio of marked birds alive in the population. In the year with largest sample size, power was sufficient to detect a greater than 2.2% difference in predation rate between ringed and unringed groups. The average kill rate difference between ringed and unringed birds across the three winters was less than 1% (0.73±2.2%) suggesting that even if there were differences in predation rate that were not detected because of low statistical power they were extremely small. There were no differences in any foraging measures comparing ringed and unringed birds, suggesting that the rings did not affect the ability of birds to meet their daily energy budgets. The results showed that colour-ringed birds were not preferentially targeted or killed by avian predators, and suggest that the presence of a metal and even several large colour-rings is unlikely to affect behaviour and predation mortality even under extreme selection.

Ground-nesting birds have declined world-wide, probably partly due to high nest predation. A non-lethal method for decreasing predation uses protective cages at nests. Tests have mainly looked at the effect of such nest exclosures on hatching success and adult predation, but several additional aspects need to be explored for a comprehensive evaluation of this conservation technique. Here, we test the effect of nest exclosures in two common European shorebirds: northern lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus ) and redshank ( Tringa totanus ), measuring hatching success, incubation length, hatching synchrony, hatchability, partial clutch loss, chick condition, and adult predation. In both species, protected nests had higher hatching success than unprotected nests. Taking into account incubation time, nest abandonment, hatchability and partial clutch loss, protected nests still hatched more young than unprotected controls. In lapwings, but not in redshanks, protected nests were incubated longer, but this did not impair the condition of lapwing chicks. Protected redshanks suffered increased predation on incubating adults, which often sit on the nest until a predator is close by. Our results emphasize the need for caution in the use of nest exclosures, particularly in redshanks and other species with similar incubation behaviour. Exclosures can, however, be a useful management tool in shorebirds that leave their nest early, when an approaching predator is still far away.

We measured resting and peak metabolic rates (RMR and PMR, respectively) during development of chicks of seven species of shorebirds: least sandpiper (Calidris minutilla; adult mass 20 22 g), dunlin (Calidris alpina; 56-62 g), lesser yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes; 88-92 g), short-billed dowitcher (Limnodromus griseus; 85-112 g), lesser golden plover (Pluvialis dominicana; 150-156 g), Hudsonian godwit (Limosa haemastica; 205-274 g), and whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus; 380 g). We tested two opposing hypotheses: the growth rate-maturity hypothesis, which posits that growth rate in chicks is inversely related to functional maturity of tissues, and the fast growth rate-high metabolism hypothesis, which suggests that rapid growth is possible only with a concomitant increase in either RMR or PMR. We have found no evidence that chicks of shorebirds with fast growth rates have lower RMRs or lower PMRs, as would be predicted by the growth rate-maturity hypothesis, but our data suggested that faster-growing chest muscles resulted in increased thermogenic capacity, consistent with the fast growth-high metabolism hypothesis. The development of homeothermy in smaller species is a consequence primarily of greater metabolic intensities of heat-generating tissues. The maximum temperature gradient between a chick's body and environment that can be maintained in the absence of a net radiative load increased rapidly with body mass during development and was highest in least sandpipers and lowest among godwits. Chicks of smaller species could maintain a greater temperature gradient at a particular body mass because of their higher mass-specific maximum metabolic rates.

In Europe, lowland wet grasslands have become increasingly fragmented, and populations of waders in these fragments are subject to unsustainably high levels of nest predation. Patches of taller vegetation in these landscapes can support small mammals, which are the main source of prey for many predators. Providing such patches of habitat could potentially reduce levels of nest predation if predators preferentially target small mammals. However, predator attraction to patches of taller vegetation for foraging, shelter, perching and/or nesting could also result in local increases in predation rates, as a consequence of increased predator densities or spill-over foraging into the surrounding area. Here we assess the influence of taller vegetation on wader nest predation rates, and the feasibility of managing vegetation structure to alter predator impacts. Between 2005 and 2011, the nest distribution and hatching success of Northern Lapwings Vanellus vanellus, which nest in the open, and Common Redshanks Tringa totanus, which conceal their nests in vegetation, were measured on a 487-ha area of wet grassland in eastern England that is primarily managed for breeding waders. Predation rates of Lapwing nests increased significantly with distance from patches of taller vegetation, and decreased with increasing area of taller vegetation within 1 km of the nest, whereas neither variable influenced Redshank nest predation probability. These findings suggest that the distribution and activity of nest predators in lowland wet grassland landscapes may be influenced by the presence and distribution of areas of taller vegetation. For Lapwings at least, there may therefore be scope for landscape-scale management of vegetation structure to influence levels of predation in these habitats.

Resident Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca) were monitored over a fiveyear period (2010-2014) at four sites within a selected 30 km by 30 km section on the Eastern Shore of Nova Scotia, Canada, to see if the sites are regular annual breeding territories. Three sites were occupied every year, while the fourth was only occupied in one year. There is evidence that adults arrive on site as bonded pairs, arriving as early as the third week of April, which is in advance of the peak in the seasonal continental migration. Brooding and chick rearing through May and early June enable fledgingby the third week of June. Adults leave by about mid-July; juveniles have remained on site until late August. Encroachment by forestry and recreational activities appears to have been accommodated by nesting pairs.

A study was conducted to investigate the relationship between the physical morphology of shorebirds and water birds (i.e., Lesser adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus), Common redshank (Tringa totanus), Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), and Little heron (Butorides striata)) and their foraging behavior in the mudflats area of Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia, from August 2013 to July 2014 by using direct observation techniques (using binoculars and a video recorder). The actively foraging bird species were watched, and their foraging activities were recorded for at least 30 seconds for up to a maximum of five minutes. A Spearman Rank Correlation highlighted a significant relationship between bill size and foraging time (R=0.443,p<0.05), bill size and prey size (R=-0.052,p<0.05), bill size and probing depth (R=0.42,p=0.003), and leg length and water/mud depth (R=0.706,p<0.005). A Kruskal-Wallis Analysis showed a significant difference between average estimates of real probing depth of the birds (mm) and species (H=15.96,p=0.0012). Three foraging techniques were recorded: pause-travel, visual-feeding, and tactile-hunting. Thus, morphological characteristics of bird do influence their foraging behavior and strategies used when foraging.

1. In the Netherlands, agri-environment schemes are an important tool for halting the ongoing decline of meadow birds and, in particular, waders breeding on wet meadows. The effectiveness of the main scheme, postponed mowing, is heavily debated because it does not result in higher breeding densities. Recently, agri-environmental collectives have become involved in the co-ordination of scheme applications and additional measures have been introduced. One of them is per-clutch payment: farmers are paid per wader clutch without being restricted in their farming practices. 2. We evaluated the effectiveness of the combination of the two measures, postponed mowing and per-clutch payment, by determining the number of birds and territories on 12.5-ha plots where both measures (on average 1.6 ha postponed mowing and 10.9 ha per-clutch payment) were being implemented. Conventionally managed grasslands served as controls. Additionally, on a field with postponed mowing and a paired control field, we measured a number of environmental factors that might influence wader distribution. 3. On plots operating a combination of postponed mowing and per-clutch payment, more territories of all bird species were found and more redshanks Tringa totanus were observed. The same pattern occurred on fields with per-clutch payment alone. On fields with postponed mowing alone, we found more territories of the most abundant wader species but on conventional fields we observed more lapwings Vanellus vanellus. 4. The positive effects of postponed mowing on wader territories were probably caused by small differences in soil moisture and groundwater level between the two field types, as inclusion of these factors in a general linear model rendered all scheme effects insignificant. 5. Postponed mowing affected the form and amount of fertilizer applied to the fields as well as available nitrogen, but none of the other environmental factors that were measured. Additional analyses identified groundwater depth, penetration resistance and prey density (earthworms, Lumbricidae, and leatherjackets, Tipulidae larvae) as the main factors determining wader density. 6. Synthesis and applications. Our results show that conservation measures consisting of postponed mowing and per-clutch payment implemented by agri-environment collectives do not support a higher abundance of waders but do support marginally higher breeding densities of waders compared to conventional farms. These results are probably due to differences in soil moisture and groundwater depth. The effectiveness of agri-environment schemes directed towards conservation of waders might be enhanced by including raised groundwater levels into scheme prescriptions.

The breeding birds of four low alpine plots in Sweden were surveyed at Ammarnäs (65°50'N; two plots, each 100 ha, for 38 and 36 years), Abisko (68°18'; 130 ha, 12 years), and Anjan (63°45'; 150 ha, 11 years). Mean number of species of each plot was between 8 and 12 per year. Mean densities were between 37 and 89 pairs/ km2. Anthus pratensis was the most abundant species in all plots (33–52% of all pairs). Pluvialis apricaria had a mean density of between 3 and 4 pairs/km2 in all plots, hence a density that may be typical for very large mountain areas. Calcarius lapponicus, endemic to low alpine habitats, varied much between the plots, from 24 pairs/ km2 to none. Long-term trends at the Ammarnäs plots included increases of Pluvialis apricaria, Lagopus lagopus and L. mutus, and declines of Anthus pratensis, Eremophila alpestris, Gallinago media and Tringa glareola, but only that of E. alpestris being known to be more than local. The stable bird community accords well with the observed habitat stability.

An individuals-based model, MORPH, was used to assess the quality of Poole Harbour, UK, for five overwintering shorebirds: dunlin Calidris alpina, redshank Tringa totanus, black-tailed godwit Limosa limosa, oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus and curlew Numenius arquata. Site quality, and the effect of environmental change, was measured as predicted overwinter survival. Dunlin had the highest prey biomass densities and were the least likely to be affected by reductions in their food supply, lower temperatures or loss of terrestrial habitats. Black-tailed godwits and curlew had the lowest prey biomass densities and were the most likely to be affected by reductions in their food supply, lower temperatures and loss of terrestrial habitats. All five shorebird species were seriously affected by simulated sea-level rise. Conservation issues identified for the Poole Harbour SPA were the relatively low densities of larger size classes of polychaete worms, the importance of maintaining and managing surrounding terrestrial habitats and the effect of sea-level rise on the length of time for which intertidal food supplies are available.

Measures of annual breeding success are an important component of species monitoring programmes. It has been suggested that effective monitoring of breeding productivity for arctic breeding waders may be achieved from an analysis of annual variation in the proportion of juveniles in winter flocks. Here, we attempt to generate a recruitment index for Dunlin Calidris alpina caught during the winter in north Wales. This index revealed significant annual variation and we show that this is strongly correlated with summer temperature (but not rainfall) on the breeding grounds. Years with high recruitment were also correlated with increases in the national winter population estimate. In years of intermediate summer temperature, the recruitment index was highest and we discuss the possible implications this has for Dunlin under scenarios of future climate change. We were unable to generate a significant index for Common Redshank Tringa totanus and discuss possible reasons for this.

Habitat loss and degradation of wetland ecosystems, principally through large-scale drainage and conversion to arable farmland, have been implicated in the widespread, dramatic declines of breeding waders across Europe. Managing the remaining wetlands to reverse these declines will require a detailed understanding of their habitat requirements. In the UK, grazing marshes are key components of the remaining wetlands in both coastal and inland sites, and the structure of grazing marsh habitat can differ between these locations. Redshank Tringa totanus is a declining wader species that breeds in both marsh types. We quantified the habitat features that influence redshank selection of breeding and nest site locations, across coastal and inland marshes, in eastern England. On both marsh types, breeding location and breeding densities within fields were positively related to the lengths of pool edge and all wet features, respectively. Nest site location was principally influenced by vegetation characteristics, with soil penetrability also important on inland sites but proximity to wet features and vegetation type at the nest important on coastal sites. Hatching probability was higher when the surrounding soils were more penetrable. Synthesis and applications. The wet features of critical importance for breeding redshank are common on coastal marshes and can be deliberately established on inland sites. Coastal marshes are often rare and frequently threatened by dynamic coastal processes, whereas inland marshes are more abundant but largely unsuitable for breeding waders at present. These analyses highlight the scope for improving the management of inland marshes for breeding redshank. As habitat suitable for breeding redshank frequently supports a range of other wader species, this information can also direct management efforts to improve breeding wader populations in the wider countryside.

Summary 1 Recent theoretical modelling has provided important insights into how habitat loss may affect local populations through impacts on individual fitness (survival, body condition, fecundity). Despite this, attempts to provide empirical evidence of such impacts on displaced individuals have been limited. Using a before-after-control-impact (BACI) approach, we report how a sudden loss of wintering habitat impacted on the body condition and survival of redshank Tringa totanus. 2 The intertidal mudflats of Cardiff Bay, UK, were inundated with freshwater in November 1999 following impoundment by a barrage, resulting in the displacement of c. 300 redshank to adjacent habitat on the Severn Estuary. Movements and the survival of these birds were monitored through observations of colour-marked individuals. Comparative survival rates were calculated for marked populations at the main recipient site, Rhymney, and a control site. 3 Displaced redshank had difficulty maintaining their mass in the first winter post-barrage closure: adults previously only recorded at Cardiff Bay were significantly lighter than those previously recorded at Rhymney. 4 Survival rates of displaced redshank also declined. The estimated annual survival of adult Cardiff Bay redshank fell from 0·846 in the 2 years pre-barrage closure to 0·778 in the 3 following years because of a significant decline in winter survival (P = 0·0006). In comparison, there was no significant change in the survival of adult Rhymney redshank, and adult survival at the control site was actually greater post-barrage closure than beforehand. The lack of decline in these rates and the similarity between those of Cardiff Bay adults pre-barrage closure and Rhymney adults indicate that the increase in winter mortality of Cardiff Bay birds resulted from their displacement. 5 Synthesis and applications. This study provides the first conclusive empirical evidence that habitat loss can impact individual fitness in a bird population. Adult redshank displaced from Cardiff Bay experienced poor body condition and a 44% increase in mortality rate. Without an increase in the recruitment of first-winter birds, such a change is likely to reduce substantially local population size. The results reported here should help to inform governments, planners and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) seeking to understand how developments might impact on animal populations.

Survey data on breeding wader densities and grazing intensity on coastal meadows on the Baltic island of Oland from 1988, 1998 and 2003 were used to evaluate density and density-changes of four common and widespread wader species, lapwing Vanellus vanellus, redshank Tringa totanus, oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus and ringed plover Charadrius hiaticula in relation to grazing intensity. Population trends over time and changes in densities in relation to changes in grazing management were evaluated. Both wader densities and the environmental variable grazing intensity demonstrated significant spatial autocorrelation, but all main results were unaffected when accounting for spatial structure in the statistical tests. Breeding densities of investigated species were positively related to grazing intensity and local changes in grazing management affected the local change in wader densities. However, average grazing intensity increased over time whereas wader numbers generally remained constant or declined. Thus, changes in grazing intensity could not explain changes in overall breeding numbers. One explanation for this is probably that grazing mainly affected distribution of birds. Some evidence of a buffer effect was found in the redshank and ringed plover, in which breeding densities declined proportionally more in non-shore than in shore habitat. This was probably due to a redistribution of birds to shore habitat. It is concluded that grazing management is essential for the occurrence of waders, but might not be sufficient to ensure long-term viability of wader populations on coastal meadows.

Arne saltmarsh, an RSPB reserve, is situated in Poole Harbour on the English south coast. In recent years, there has been concern about possible changes in the suitability of the site for Redshank (Trigna totanus) due to sika deer (Cervus nippon) grazing. In order to assess these changes, 50 plots were established in three different locations: 20 in grazed areas, 20 in ungrazed areas and 10 fenced enclosures. Deer grazing was found to significantly affect structural and species diversity of the saltmarsh vegetation. Spartina anglica dominated in ungrazed areas whilst Salicornia ramosissima and, to a lesser extent, Puccinellia maritima dominated in grazed sites. In grazed areas the vegetation cover was significantly lower, as was vegetation height and volume. In addition, significant changes were observed in the root biomass, which was lower in grazed areas. Infaunal diversity was generally low throughout the survey area. However, significant variations were observed. Invertebrates abundance was more abundant in grazed plots than in ungrazed plots, and least abundant in fenced plots. The study indicated that in its current condition, localised areas of Arne saltmarsh do not provide adequate habitat requirements for Tringa totanus.

Coastal regions are important habitats for migratory shorebirds. The aim of the study is to understand habitat use by migratory shorebirds and to develop a conservation strategy in the sustainable use of wetlands. From March 2004 to January 2005, we conducted a seasonal shorebirds census in ten coastal habitats along the South Yangtze River mouth and North Hangzhou Bay, simultaneously examining the relative seasonal abundance of shorebirds and their spatial distribution. A total of 25 species were identified, the dominant seasonal species were Great Knot ( Calidris tenuirostris ), Sharp-tailed Sandpiper ( Calidris alpine ) and Red-necked Stint ( Calidris ruficollis ) in spring; Kentish Plover ( Charadrius alexandrinus ), Common Greenshank( Tringa nebularia ) and Lesser Sand Plover ( Charadrius mongolus ) in summer; Kentish Plover, Red-necked Stint and Common Greenshank in autumn; Dunlin( Calidris alpine ), Kentish Plover and Marsh Sandpiper ( Tringa stagnatilis ) in winter. These species accounted for more than 85% of the total shorebirds. The numbers of shorebirds counted was highest in spring and then in autumn, winter and summer respectively. Among the four seasons, there were few significant differences in the number of bird species between the sites outside the seawall (intertidal mudflat) and the sites inside the seawall (artificial wetland), but the average density of shorebirds was obviously different. The habitat-selection analysis of the environmental factors (outside and inside the seawall) impacting on the shorebird community was made in the 10 study sites with Canonical Correspondence Analysis. The study results indicated that: (1) Outside the seawall, the widths of the total intertidal mudflat and bare mudflat were the key factors affecting the shorebirds; the proportion of bulrush ( Scirpus×mariquete ) covering and supertidal mudflat width had a positive correlation with the abundance of birds, while human disturbance and the proportion of both reed ( Phragmites communis ) and smooth cord-grass ( Spartina alterniflora ) covering in total surveyed areas had negative impacts on bird numbers; (2) Inside the seawall, the proportions of areas with shallow water and mudflats occupying the total surveyed area were key factors influencing the number of birds; the size of the bulrush area should have a positive impact on the appearance of shorebirds. Habitats with heavy human disturbance, dense reed and smooth cord-grass or a high water level were not conducive to be inhabited by shorebirds.

Capsule Nest survival rates could not be explained by distance to habitat edges or other features used by predators. Aims To investigate if predation on Redshank nests was affected by habitat characteristics at a local scale. Methods We examined survival rates of Redshank nests on coastal meadows on the Baltic island of Gotland, Sweden, over two breeding seasons. We analysed nest survival rates in relation to several habitat characteristics that may benefit predators searching for nests. We examined existing studies concerning predation rates on wader nests in relation to edges and habitat features potentially used by avian predators. Results We found no significant effects of distance to habitat edge or to nearest potential lookout for avian predators or to shoreline. Abundance of Lapwings Vanellus vanellus, an aggressive species with active nest-defence, did not have any significant effect on nest survival rate, nor did vegetation concealment of nests. Nest survival rates were significantly different be...