Search

The development of L2 utterance fluency has been extensively researched, whereas that of cognitive fluency has rarely been examined. This study investigated the longitudinal development of L2 utterance and cognitive fluency and their relationship. Thirty-one Chinese learners of English completed speaking tasks and a set of tasks for cognitive fluency before and after 5 months' study abroad. The results showed that participants made a significant improvement in mean syllable duration, end-clause pause frequency, and the speed of syntactic encoding and articulation but not in mid-clause pause frequency or lexical retrieval speed. Mixed-effects modeling confirmed a significant relationship between syntactic encoding speed and mean syllable duration and mid-clause pausing. Furthermore, the significant relationships were maintained over time. The findings highlight (a) the differences between mid-clause and end-clause pausing in terms of their developmental patterns and relationship with cognitive fluency and (b) a significant role of syntactic encoding speed in L2 utterance fluency.

This study investigates the impact of task-induced involvement and time on task on incidental second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition. Utilizing a 3 (task-induced involvement) × 2 (time on task) × 2 (post-test time) research design, three task-induced involvement conditions were employed based on the Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH): reading and gap-fill task, reading and sentence-making task, and reading and translation task, with corresponding involvement load (IL) indices of 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Two time-on-task conditions were implemented: uncontrolled time on task, where participants in different groups completed tasks with varied durations, and controlled time on task, where participants in different groups completed tasks with roughly equal durations. Five intact classes comprising 256 Chinese middle school students participated and were randomly assigned to one of five designed tasks aimed at learning 10 carefully selected target words. The results of a three-way repeated measures ANOVA indicate a significant three-way interaction effect among task-induced involvement, time on task, and post-test time, as well as a significant two-way interaction effect between task-induced involvement and time on task. These findings demonstrate that task-induced involvement and time on task interact to significantly influence both initial acquisition and retention of incidental L2 vocabulary. Specifically, under uncontrolled time conditions, tasks with higher ILs and longer durations yield better initial vocabulary gains and retention, partially supporting the ILH. Conversely, under controlled time conditions, tasks with lower ILs exhibit superior initial vocabulary gains and retention, contradicting the predictions of the ILH. Relevant implications are also discussed.

This study examined how Chinese native speakers (NSs) and second language (L2) learners process compound words. The findings showed that they used the hybrid model of coexistence for whole word and morphemes; and were influenced by word frequency, semantic transparency, and word structure. The results revealed that two groups of participants used hybrid representation when identifying high-frequency words and whole-word representation when identifying low-frequency words. Besides, semantic transparency might impact word structure awareness, and subject-predicate words were the most difficult to process. The research also showed that L2 learners' word frequency effect was more robust than NSs'; morpheme location information might affect NSs, but L2 learners could not process it. There was variation in NSs' speed in recognizing transparent and obscure words, but there was no difference among L2 learners. Besides, L2 learners' word recognition speed could not reach the levels of NSs.

Evaluating other people's moral character is a crucial social cognitive task. However, the cognitive processes by which people seek out, prioritize, and integrate multiple pieces of character-relevant information have not been studied empirically. The first aim of this research was to examine which character traits are considered most important when forming an impression of a person's overall moral character. The second aim was to understand how differing levels of trait expression affect overall character judgments. Four preregistered studies and one supplemental study (total N = 720), using five different measures of importance and sampling undergraduates, online workers, and community members, found that our participants placed the most importance on the traits "honest, helpful, compassionate, loyal," and "responsible." Also, when integrating the information that they have learned, our participants seemed to engage in a simple averaging process in which all available, relevant information is combined in a linear fashion to form an overall evaluation of moral character. This research provides new insights into the cognitive processes by which evaluations of moral character are formed.

Statistical learning enables humans to involuntarily process and utilize different kinds of patterns from the environment. However, the cognitive mechanisms underlying the simultaneous acquisition of multiple regularities from different perceptual modalities remain unclear. A novel multidimensional serial reaction time task was developed to test 40 participants' ability to learn simple first-order and complex second-order relations between uni-modal visual and cross-modal audio-visual stimuli. Using the difference in reaction times between sequenced and random stimuli as the index of domain-general statistical learning, a significant difference and dissociation of learning occurred between the initial and final learning phases. Furthermore, we used a negative and positive occurrence-frequency-and-reaction-time correlation to indicate implicit and explicit learning, respectively, and found that learning simple uni-modal patterns involved an implicit-to-explicit segue, while acquiring complex cross-modal patterns required an explicit-to-implicit segue, resulting in a X-shape crossing of regularity learning. Thus, we propose an X-way hypothesis to elucidate the dynamic interplay between the implicit and explicit systems at two distinct stages when acquiring various regularities in a multidimensional probability space.

With the increased sophistication of technology, humans have the possibility to offload a variety of tasks to algorithms. Here, we investigated whether the extent to which people are willing to offload an attentionally demanding task to an algorithm is modulated by the availability of a bonus task and by the knowledge about the algorithm's capacity. Participants performed a multiple object tracking (MOT) task which required them to visually track targets on a screen. Participants could offload an unlimited number of targets to a "computer partner". If participants decided to offload the entire task to the computer, they could instead perform a bonus task which resulted in additional financial gain - however, this gain was conditional on a high performance accuracy in the MOT task. Thus, participants should only offload the entire task if they trusted the computer to perform accurately. We found that participants were significantly more willing to completely offload the task if they were informed beforehand that the computer's accuracy was flawless (Experiment 1 vs. 2). Participants' offloading behavior was not significantly affected by whether the bonus task was incentivized or not (Experiment 2 vs. 3). These results combined with those from our previous study (Wahn et al. in PLoS ONE 18:e0286102, 2023), which did not include a bonus task but was identical otherwise, show that the human willingness to offload an attentionally demanding task to an algorithm is considerably boosted by the availability of a bonus task - even if not incentivized - and by the knowledge about the algorithm's capacity.

This study investigates the hypothesis that non-isomorphic syntax-semantics mappings pose a greater challenge for non-native (L2) than for native (L1) speakers, focusing on a previously understudied phenomenon. We carried out an antecedent judgment task with L1 German and L1 Russian-speaking, proficient L2 learners of German to examine Condition C connectivity effects in German pseudoclefts. Binding Condition C constrains the interpretation of cataphoric pronouns such that they cannot be interpreted as coreferential with a referential expression within their scope. In specificational pseudoclefts such as "What she liked was Jane's office," Condition C effects can be observed in the absence of the required structural configuration, indicating that these effects result from the computation of a non-isomorphic semantic representation. For superficially similar -- but semantically different -- predicational pseudoclefts, no connectivity effects are expected. While the L1 speakers' judgements showed the expected selective Condition C effect, the L2 speakers showed an across-the-board effect, with their antecedent judgements based on surface-level cues to cataphoric pronoun resolution and not affected by the semantic differences between the two types of pseudocleft. These findings support the claim that establishing syntax--semantics mappings is more difficult in a non-native than in a native language if there is no one-to-one correspondence between form and interpretation.

This study investigates whether there are different first-language-second-language (L1-L2) dependency resolutions by focusing on less-studied crosslinguistic variances in L2 acquisition of Chinese, a null-subject language, by speakers of English, a non-null-subject language. The overt subject pronoun of a Chinese main clause has free orientation and its antecedent can be the subject or object of the preceding causal subordinate clause, depending on pragmatic biases. The null subject of a Chinese main clause, however, is subject-oriented, and this subject orientation is not affected by any pragmatic bias. English does not allow null subjects and, like Chinese, overt subject pronouns in English have free orientation. An acceptability judgement task and an interpretation task were adopted, and the results suggest that only the free orientation of overt subjects, but not the subject orientation of null subjects, is acquirable for English-speaking learners; they are found to be influenced by the pragmatic bias. This provides evidence for the cue-based model (Cunnings, 2017), which states that L1-L2 differences in dependency resolution can be explained in terms of L1-L2 differences in susceptibility to interference and L2ers' over-reliance on discourse-based/pragmatic cues. It is also observed that in L1 Chinese, competition between the target antecedent and distractors occurs during the reading of the sentence, while in L2 Chinese, this occurs after the reading of the sentence. These findings add to our growing understanding of different mechanisms in L1 vs. L2 dependency resolutions.

This study reports syllable position effects on second language (L2) Portuguese speech perception, revealing that L2 segmental learning may be prone to an influence from the suprasegmental level. The results show that first language (L1) Mandarin learners had diminished performance on the discrimination between the target Portuguese liquids (/l/ and /[voiced alveolar tap or flap]/) and their position-dependent deviant productions, suggesting that the cause of their perceptual confusability differs across syllable positions. Another syllabic position effect was attested in the acquisition order (/l/[subscript onset] > /l/[subscript coda], /[voiced alveolar tap or flap]/[subscript coda] > /[voiced alveolar tap or flap]/[subscript onset]), demonstrating that an L2 sound is not mastered equally in all positions. Furthermore, we also observed that an increase in L2 experience affected only the perceptual identification accuracy of [l], but not of [[voiced alveolar tap or flap]]. This seems to suggest that L2 experience may exert different degrees of impact, depending on the L2 segments. Both theoretical and methodological implications of these results are discussed.

Using self-paced reading, the present study compared native English and adult L1-Korean-L2-English speakers' processing behaviors during online comprehension of underinformative scalar sentences and non-scalar sentences like "Some/All elephants have trunks and ears." Results indicate that native speakers showed online sensitivity (i.e. slower reading) to underinformative scalar sentences relative to non-scalar sentences, but second language (L2) speakers did not. These results are interpreted in support of the Relevance Theory claim that scalar implicature generation is modulated by contextual and individual factors, in particular by the language condition, that is, whether sentences are presented in L1-English versus L2-English.

Korean learners of English are known to repair consonant clusters, which are not allowed in their native language, with an epenthetic vowel [close central unrounded vowel]. The purpose of the present study is to examine whether the perception-production link of such an illusory vowel in a second language (L2) is only within and not across processing levels, as proposed in a previous study regarding L2 segments. We assessed the perception and production of English onset clusters by Korean learners and native English speakers at the prelexical (AX discrimination and pseudoword read-aloud tasks) and lexical (lexical decision and picture-naming tasks) levels, using the same participants and stimuli across the tasks. Results showed that accuracy in not producing an epenthetic vowel between the two consonants of onset cluster was not significantly associated with accurate perception of the cluster either within or across processing levels. The results suggest that production and perception accuracy in L2 phonotactics are independent to a certain extent.

This study investigates for the first time the comprehension of rhetorical questions (RhQs) in bilingual children. RhQs are non-canonical questions, as they are not used to request information, but to express the speaker's belief that the answer is already obvious. This special pragmatic meaning often arises by means of specific prosodic and lexical-syntactic cues. Being childhood learners, children have to acquire the concept of rhetoricity, but being bilinguals, they further need to acquire the different cues marking RhQs in their two languages. We tested 85 bilingual children (aged 6-9 years) with Italian as heritage language (HL) and German as majority language (ML) in both of their languages, using a forced-choice comprehension task. Our results show that RhQ comprehension improves with age in both languages. Bilingual children are able to exploit prosodic and syntactic cues to comprehend RhQs in their ML and HL with a slight advantage in the ML. This advantage could be either an effect of the cues used in the experiments in the two languages or of a higher proficiency in the ML. In addition, our results point to a later acquisition of prosodic rhetorical cues, which has implications for bilingual acquisition of non-canonicity in general.

Background: Self-assessment serves to improve learning through timely feedback on one's solution and iterative refinement as a way to improve one's competence. However, the complexity of the self-assessment process is widely recognized, as well as that students can benefit from it only if their assessment is accurate enough. Objectives: In order to gain more insight into the self-assessment process we analysed students' behaviour, accuracy, and question-related characteristics that influence the capability of self-assessment in two studies. Methods: The initial study examined 131 undergraduate students using voluntary self-assessment questions in an online course in a B.Sc. Computer Science program while a year later a replication study with the same research settings was applied to a different cohort of 264 undergraduate students with minor modifications to the question design, in the light of the original findings. Results and Conclusions: Results from both studies show that similar patterns could be observed for usage and of accuracy and score distribution for almost all questions. Item difficulty and comprehensiveness of the sample solution were identified as features of self-assessment questions affecting student's self-assessment capability. The replication study showed that task design can be modified to affect students' accuracy. Recommendations to make self-assessment tasks effective and efficient for learning are provided.

Previous studies have identified patterns of coordinated control when adults combine gait and grasping. What remains unclear is whether the coordination of these two tasks differs between adolescent and adult groups. Groups of adults and adolescents were asked to walk across an instrumented gait mat in three conditions: walk forward, walk and grasp a small target, and walk and grasp a large target. Spatiotemporal measures of gait/gait variability and grasp/grasp variability were quantified. Both adolescents and young adults exhibited decreased velocity, decreased step-extremity ratio, and increased percent of gait cycle spent in double support when grasping compared to walking alone. The major influence of grasping was seen during the final step before grasp in both groups. Change scores between walk forward and walk and grasp conditions were larger for adolescents. Furthermore, spatiotemporal measures of gait and grasping were more variable in adolescents. These results suggest that superimposing grasp onto gait is more challenging for adolescents than young adults. The challenges associated with combining these two tasks is particularly evident in the last step prior to object contact and suggests that the increased planning and execution demands required to perform these coordinated skills affects adolescents to a greater extent than young adults.

An external focus of attention and autonomy support are identified as key factors to optimize motor learning; however, research in children is limited. Moreover, research has failed to examine these factors in ecologically valid motor learning settings, like physical education. Therefore, the present study examined the effects of external focus of attention when delivered using autonomy-supportive or controlling instructional language on children's motor learning. Thirty-three novice participants (10.30 ± 0.52 years) practiced a land-based curling task under supportive (external-focus instructions delivered with supportive language), controlling (external-focus instructions delivered with controlling language), or neutral (external instructions embedded in the task aim) conditions before completing a retention and transfer test. The supportive group produced higher positive affect after practice and greater accuracy in the retention test compared with the other groups. The findings provide support for the OPTIMAL (optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning) theory of motor learning that combining an external focus and autonomy support conditions improves motor learning.

When young children evaluate their confidence, their monitoring is often overoptimistic, that is, inaccurate. The present study investigated a potential underlying mechanism for kindergarteners' and second graders' overconfidence within a paired associates learning paradigm. We implemented a pre-monitoring phase motivating children to differentially evaluate their confidence for each alternative "before" children could choose an answer in the subsequent recognition phase. For one, we intended to weaken the influence of one single and prepotently selected memory trace. For another, we motivated and enabled children to evaluate all four answer alternatives concerning their certainty before evaluating their final recognition choice by giving a confidence judgment. We compared monitoring discrimination and monitoring bias with a control condition whose task sequence did not include a pre-monitoring judgment. Contrary to our expectations, the pattern of results indicated that being instructed to pre-monitor did "increase" and not decrease overconfidence in young children. The present results will be discussed against the background of memory-metamemory interaction, confirmation bias, and methodological issues.

The study aims to measure the effect of Task-based language teaching on grammatical achievement and the motivation of EFL learners at Dong Nai Technology University. The research will conduct a quick grammar test to administer 48 students at the school to achieve this goal. After sitting the test, the learners will undergo a 6-week course applying task-based language teaching. Before the treatment, one certified instructor-made grammar test about the learning units will be encompassed as the pre-test. Furthermore, a motivation questionnaire will be carried out in this group at the research's beginning and end. Afterward, the learners will learn through the treatment, which is learning through the implementation of Task-based language teaching. After six weeks of treatment, the group will take the same teacher-made grammar test as the post-test. After that, the writer will analyze the data through paired sample t-test. The results demonstrated a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test in the student's performance on grammar acquisition and the enhancement in learners' motivation. Based on the findings of this research, it is believed that task-based language teaching can be used in English classes to enhance learners' grammar achievements and motivation among Vietnamese university learners.

The benefits of technological and theoretical scaffolding were observed when pre-service teachers aiming to teach upper elementary grades were given three learning-based geometrical inquiry tasks involving inscribed circles. They were asked to collaboratively examine the accompanying geometrical illustration and data for some new or interesting feature and then propose a hypothesis resulting from their observations and prove them. Due to the difficulty generally involved in proposing and proving geometrical hypotheses, two forms of scaffolding were provided: theoretical scaffolding based on revising previous learning or specific attributes of the given data and technological scaffolding in the form of specifically designed GeoGebra applets that allowed dynamic observation of the attributes of the geometrical shapes and the changes they underwent during modification. We found that the two forms of scaffolding led to relatively pre-service teachers' high levels of success. They exhibited high levels of interest and participation, were engaged in the tasks, and underwent high-quality learning processes. In follow-up interviews, they confirmed that the exercise improved their inquiry skills, and developed their pedagogical and technological knowledge.

The aim of this study is to investigate both the planning and implementation process of a modelling task by a middle school mathematics teacher. The participant of the study, which was conducted as a single case study, is a middle school mathematics teacher who have knowledge and experience in modelling. The data collecting tools of this study were the lesson plans of the teacher, the observation notes taken by the researchers during the implementation of the modelling task,the video records of the implementation, students' solution papers and the voice records of the pre- and final-interview conducted with the teacher. Whole data were analyzed according to a framework for modelling implementations developed by the authors through descriptive analysis. The teacher planned his in-class implementation to consolidate the circle concept and revised an existing modelling task by developing appropriate materials for the task. He asked students to arrange their desks appropriate to group work, decided to enable students to evaluate both the implementation and their peers, and announced their students that they would present their group solution and evaluate each other at the end of the lesson. During the implementation, he first reminded prior knowledge about circle and then presented the materials. He shared instructions about group work in the context of sharing social norms and gave information about the peer assessment form, which the students filled at the end of the lesson. During the students were solving the task, he intervened about enabling self-assessment in the groups, considering realistic values and comparing mathematical results with the problem context. In addition, during the solution, he tried to establish socio-mathematical norms by making explanations. After the solution process ended, student groups presented their solution approaches and discussed different solutions by comparing each solutions. Peer assessment form and affective evaluation form regarding the implementation were filled by the students at the end of the implementation. This study contributed the literature regarding modelling implementations and presented a different view about teacher actions in planning and implementing a modelling task.

Creativity is not only for gifted students, but also for regular ones. This case study was aimed to analyze the appropriateness of tasks and the elaboration of multiple solutions to occasion fourth-graders' mathematical creative thinking through a documentary multiple-solution counting task in a figurative setting. The data came from the written report of 48 fourth graders in two classes in Taiwan, China. The appropriateness of creativity was reflected in the appropriateness of tasks and solutions, particularly suitable for complex problem solving. Elaboration was detail-dependent, and visualization was beneficial to the analysis of elaboration. The regular students who had just entered the fourth grade could show their creative thinking through different angles (horizontally or vertically) and starting points (holistic or partial), but with slightly more partial and horizontal than holistic and longitudinal, more adaptation than transformation. These fourth-grade students have had the basic mathematical creative thinking capability of adaptation, combination, change, rearrangement, extension or going back by using counting, combining, adding and reducing, overlapping, moving, and diagonal division strategies.

Mathematical literacy has an important role in solving students' real-life problems in supporting literacy skills, teachers can use real contexts as outlined in tasks in-class learning. The Bengkulu context can be used because it is closely related to the environment and students' daily live. This study aims to produce math literacy tasks in the Bengkulu context which are valid and potential impact on student literacy. The research employed a development design with a formative evaluative model using stages of self-evaluation, expert reviews, one-toone, small group, and field tests. The subjects of the research were students in the eighth grade of a Junior High School in Bengkulu City. Data were collected through questionnaires, documentation, tests, and interviews. This study produced four mathematical literacy tasks with the Bengkulu context that met the criteria of being valid and having a potential impact. Mathematical tasks that are designed with the context can improve students' mathematical literacy activities. The use of tasks with context can be a learning resource that strengthens the introduction of students' local culture.

Games are often used to foster student engagement and motivation to learn content, such as mathematics. Although digital games dominate game-based learning research, the table games commonly used in classrooms warrant investigation. Especially for mathematics learning, prior research has not taken into account content-specific frameworks. Integer arithmetic (i.e., calculations with negative numbers) is a difficult topic that is crucial for later mathematics. Thus, this study synthesized multiple theoretical perspectives to understand students' experiences playing games during an integer unit. A mixed methods design study was conducted to answer the primary question: How was student experience (motivation to learn and engagement) related to game features? Student perspectives about the three integer games they played and observations of student engagement during gameplay were analyzed using perspectives from game design and the Cognitive Demand framework for mathematical tasks. Overall, students positively perceived playing games, however, individuals' motivation and engagement varied in relation to game features. Students provided valuable insights for research and practice as to which game features were engaging or motivating and why. Speed-based synchronous games that exclusively used skill, rather than a chance-skill balance induced stress and decreased motivation for many students. Thus, a critical implication was to first do no harm by selecting or designing classroom games that have features of turn-taking and chance. We suggest recommendations for mathematics learning and provide the STEM Classroom Games Features Framework to benefit research and practice of any STEM content area.

This qualitative study explores how a group of preservice teachers make sense of task-based language teaching principles and characteristics, especially amidst remote instruction. We draw on the analysis of 13 preservice teachers' lesson plans and teaching guides as they transitioned from in-person to remote instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic. An analysis of the lesson plans using task-based language teaching principles as a framework revealed that preservice teachers implemented principles differently during in-person and remote teaching. Interestingly, the use of the principles sometimes contrasts with what the participants report in their reflections. We discuss the challenges English as a foreign language teachers face when adapting methods such as task-based language teaching to the demands of new teaching contexts.

Background: Many students struggle with mathematics difficulties, such as arithmetic problem-solving, intuitive geometry concepts and learning disabilities. Currently, there is an increasingly interesting in applying neuroscientific research paradigms to elucidate mathematical thinking and neural mechanisms that underlie academic achievement. On this matter, eye-tracking technology has been a valuable option for educational research. It provides a non-invasive and real-time measurement of participants' eye movements and pupil sizes during cognitive tasks. Moreover, the eye-tracker device is portable, allowing more ecological educational experimentations. Aim: Our main goals are to provide an overview and different opportunities for educational eye-tracking research to investigate mathematical thinking at schools. Setting: This study was conducted in Sao Bernardo do Campo, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Methods: This is a perspective article that briefly introduces the eye-tracking technique and describes its possible use in educational research. Results: We present the popular measures and the trends of this technology that could enable educational practitioners and scientists to apply the eye-tracking system to benefit teaching and learning mathematics in naturalistic research. Conclusion: The eye-tracking provides insights for innovative approaches to promote evidence-based practices and new interventions through self-directed learning and metacognition skills that could be helpful in mathematics education. Contribution: This article provides insight into eye-tracking system utility in educational research regarding the mathematics teaching-learning process.

Local tour guides' English speaking competence determines inbound international tourists' travel experiences. This study investigated student tour guides' English learning by adopting role-play tasks. The communicative tasks were designed to explore how real interactions prepared English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners to become cultural ambassadors who introduce Taiwanese features to the world. Twenty-nine students were recruited from an "English for Tourism Purposes" course to interact with international students who acted as tourists. The student tour guides took turns introducing a topic unique to Taiwan. Data included recorded conversational interactions between the international and local students, comments on tour-guiding performances, and reflective notes. Adopting conversation and thematic analysis, the researcher analyzed the objective learning outcomes by observing how students performed in the tour-guiding tasks and examined the subjective viewpoints from the participants' reflective notes. The results revealed distinctive spoken features for communicative competence and the benefits of gaining a deeper intercultural understanding of how to communicate Taiwanese culture in English and developing various communication skills for interacting with foreigners. Pedagogical implications are discussed in terms of the design of English for Tourism teaching.

Visual literacy, which is the ability to effectively identify, interpret, evaluate, use, and create images and visual media, is an important aspect of science literacy. As molecular processes are not directly observable, researchers and educators rely on visual representations (e.g., drawings) to communicate ideas in biology. How learners interpret and organize those numerous diagrams is related to their underlying knowledge about biology and their skills in visual literacy. Furthermore, it is not always obvious how and why learners interpret diagrams in the way they do (especially if their interpretations are unexpected), as it is not possible to "see" inside the minds of learners and directly observe the inner workings of their brains. Hence, tools that allow for the investigation of visual literacy are needed. Here, we present a novel card-sorting task based on visual literacy skills to investigate how learners interpret and think about DNA-based concepts. We quantified differences in performance between groups of varying expertise and in pre- and postcourse settings using percentages of expected card pairings and edit distance to a perfect sort. Overall, we found that biology experts organized the visual representations based on deep conceptual features, while biology learners (novices) more often organized based on surface features, such as color and style. We also found that students performed better on the task after a course in which molecular biology concepts were taught, suggesting the activity is a useful and valid tool for measuring knowledge. We have provided the cards to the community for use as a classroom activity, as an assessment instrument, and/or as a useful research tool to probe student ideas about molecular biology.

Language Instruction, especially teaching and learning English for specific purposes (ESP) with Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has grown in popularity for over a decade. Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) is one of the appropriate teaching approaches used to make CALL more effective. This study attempts to develop, implement, and compare Computer-Assisted English Lessons for Logistics with Task-Based Language Teaching used for enhancing learners' receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge of English for Logistics in an experimental group, and a control group. A randomized pretest and posttest design was used. The participants included 48 Thai EFL college learners, and they were placed randomly into the control group (N = 24) and the experimental group (N = 24). Then, both groups took a pretest, the experimental group received the treatment through CALL-based instruction with TBLT while the control group was taught based on traditional approaches. Data were collected via posttest and pretest scores. The finding of one-way MANOVA indicated that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group on both receptive and productive vocabulary posttest. This study implied that EFL Thai learners could improve their receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge through an ESP course designed for the integration between CALL and TBLT. This gave EFL practitioners a guideline for ESP course design, and it would also demonstrate the benefit of CALL implementation with TBLT in real-world teaching in the Thai EFL context.

Concerns have long been raised regarding the constraints of CLT. The study aims to discern the exact as opposed to the supposed problems that are taken for granted as obstacles. A total of 95 in-service Korean, North American, Chinese, Uzbek English teachers participated in the study. The results reveal that none of the non-teacher-related external factors such as educational policy, class size, classroom layout, learners' English proficiency, and learners' motivation, was found to be significant for CLT. Amongst teacher-related internal factors such as teachers' language proficiency, teacher's motivation to teach, years in service, teacher competence, and training in instructional methodology, teacher competence was found to be significant. In addition to the influence of the constraints on the teaching methods, the study further investigated teachers' perception of their teaching. The results that teaching methods were selected for 'convenience' and external teaching environments as the No.1 precondition for their change to CLT suggest a need for a shift in teacher perception.

The purpose of the study is to evaluate how prospective mathematics teachers (PMTs) modify tasks to facilitate students' learning of pattern generalization through the use of their mathematical knowledge for teaching. Case study, which is a type of qualitative research method, was used to determine the mathematical characteristics that PMTs use when modifying a mathematical task. The knowledge from which PMTs draw to modify the task has also been outlined. Accordingly, data were collected from PMTs' task modifications and reflection reports. When PMTs worked on two or more forms of modification, as compared to just using one type of modification, they modified tasks more effectively and comprehensively. The PMTs who make condition modifications need to utilize specialized content knowledge through the use of models or tables. They aimed to help middle school students understand using these modifications, and thus they also utilized their knowledge of content and students. They also used their knowledge of content and teaching, especially while making modifications to questions and context. Task modification activities can be used to help prospective teachers notice the mathematical and pedagogical affordances and limitations offered by tasks.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of cognitive training (CT) using mobile applications on attentional control and impulsivity among pre-service teachers. Pre-service teachers were divided into two groups: experimental (n=25) and control (n=14) groups, they were selected from a large sample (n=718). Over 28 sessions, the training group engaged in CT tasks (the tower of Hanoi [TOH] and simple reaction time [SRT]), whereas the control group did not participate in training sessions or understand the main goal of the study. In the criterion tasks (matching familiar figures and numerical Stroop), all participants were pre- and post-tested. CT using mobile applications helps us see how the trained group's attentional control and impulsivity had influenced. we also observed the progress of trained group as measured by number of moves or time for TOH, and reaction time (RT) for SRT. Other effects were observed in comparison to a control group that underwent no training. There were changes in impulsivity in post-test in favor of training group according to number of moves, and time component of matching familiar figures test. Corresponding to attentional control, the finding indicated that there were changes in (number and size) RT component in post-test in favor of training group.

This study aimed to reveal the solutions of pre-service teachers to contextual problems related to number bases other than the base ten. Furthermore, it was intended to investigate which issues pre-service teachers discussed about their learning in the problem-solving process, including context, and about student learning in their future teaching practices. To achieve this, task-based interviews were held with 12 pre-service primary school teachers. During semi-structured one-on-one task-based interviews, some questions were asked to reveal preservice teachers' way of thinking about the problems and their reflection on the learning. In this context, data were obtained from the audio recordings and the students' written responses. Besides, researchers' notes are used as supporting documents for the validation of the data collection process. The main findings of the study revealed that context is a facilitator for preservice teachers in understanding number bases other than base ten. They gained insight and provided instructional explanations on how to teach the student by understanding the different number bases. Furthermore, context enabled preservice teachers to reflect on how to teach better by considering their own learning processes.

In L2 pragmatics, only a few studies have examined task complexity. Furthermore, the existing studies have predominantly focused on the cognitive dimension and have lacked consistent findings. González-Lloret and Ortega (2018) and Pallotti (2019) have thereby contended that socio-interactional features be incorporated into task design. Along this line, this study investigated perceptions of L1 and L2 speakers of English regarding the difficulty of four role-play tasks with differentiated degrees of (dis)preference and imposition. Participants included 33 L1 speakers and 63 Korean L2 speakers at intermediate-level (n = 32) and high-level (n = 31). Results showed that participants' perceived difficulty matched the design intentions exclusively affected by request size, responsibility for the problem, and persuasion across complex versions of the tasks. Moreover, the linguistic consequences of such factors entailed challenges among L2 speakers. There were also various factors that emerged for task difficulty other than the manipulated task design features, underscoring the importance of participants' explanatory comments in L2 pragmatics.

This study compared Korean adult learners' English speech in dialogic and monologic tasks, measuring 57 college students' oral proficiency in terms of holistic and analytic grades. The statistical analyses were focused on two questions: (1) how much do the holistic grades of oral proficiency and analytic grades of the four linguistic features function differently across the tasks? and (2) which linguistic feature has the strongest correlation with the holistic grades of English oral proficiency? The study found significant differences between the two tasks in five aspects (English oral proficiency, topic development, fluency, range, and accuracy). It also showed that a monologic task resulted in lower achievements in those five aspects. In the comparison of the correlations with English proficiency, the range reached the top in both tasks, followed by topic development. The study provides some helpful information regarding which types of speech tasks and linguistic features of EFL oral proficiency are more desirable for targeting in teaching and assessment.

Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is one of the most effective approaches to language teaching. Teachers should provide students with task-based activities which will motivate students to learn. Task-based writing instruction provides educators with effective ways to integrate social and emotional skills with writing skills. The contemporary philosophy of teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) encourages collaboration, participation, and engagement. Teachers who advocate collaboration embrace conflicting opinions, strategies, and inquiries constructively while promoting the development of leadership and interpersonal skills. A collaborative educational setting provides tools and techniques that facilitate the interaction of the students with teachers, fellow students, and eventually society. Accordingly, teachers of all disciplines, particularly EFL teachers, must create a collaborative environment that is free of fear to enable the students to develop their skills and abilities. One of the important writing problems faced by second-language (L2) learners is the lack of self-efficacy and epistemic beliefs. The widespread use of task-based writing in EFL classes, as well as the growing interest in the role of self-efficacy and epistemic beliefs, beg the question of whether or not such an approach to writing instruction contributes to the learners' self-efficacy, epistemic belief, and eventually their sense of identity and confidence. This study aimed to address this concern. To the best knowledge of the researcher, few, if any, studies have been conducted on the effect of task-based writing instruction on EFL learners' self-efficacy and epistemic beliefs. Accordingly, this study aimed to address this gap by investigating the mentioned effect on the Iranian Intermediate EFL learners.

This study investigated the relationship between a metaphor-based approach to teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) and involvement of the brain's right hemisphere. Specifically, it examined learners' understanding of three levels of sureness associated with different expressions in English -- those that are "certain," "probable," and "possible" items. The three target items were chosen because they are frequently used by native English speakers although Japanese EFL learners often fail to distinguish between them. The metaphor-based learners and the control group engaged in computer-based explicit learning based on the meaning of the target expressions with three-dimensional (3D) animated illustrations. The images were based on the spatial concept of distance for the metaphor-based learners and a list of target items for the control group. At post-test, it was found that the metaphor-based learners performed better than the control group in both comparison and speaking tests. Obviously, the participants better understood the degrees of certainty in relation to distance. This shows that teaching the degrees of certainty by applying the spatial concept of distance could help in second-language (L2) learning. The metaphor approach allowed participants to link the spatial concept of distance to the degree of certainty associated with expressions of certitude. In addition, recordings of lip movements showed that participants remembered the target items better by opening the left side of their mouths more than the right side. This indicates that the brain's right hemisphere is involved in deep processing of expressions that reflect different levels of certitude and creating stronger memory traces.

Background: 'Snack writing' is a term coined to describe regular short bursts of writing on a larger academic writing task. There is extensive research on academic writing, but research on 'snack writing' is limited. Moreover, the idea of 'snack writing' in an online environment is not evident in the literature. Objectives: The study objectives were: (1) to evaluate the effectiveness of an online 'snack writing' group; and (2) to identify what might enable or constrain productive academic writing amongst group members. Method: A reflective evaluation approach was used, in which participant researchers studied online chat data over a 6-month period. The study was framed by Activity Theory, in which digitally connected writing is understood as a new mediational means within an academic writing system. Results: 'Snack writing' in a digital environment was found to be effective when the writing task was focused, appropriate to the time available, and connected to a larger writing task. Goal setting, debriefing, and reflecting kept writers focused, while seeing a writing task develop over time enhanced confidence. Including writers with different levels of experience was effective for developing and sharing writing practices. Conclusion: Regular participation in digitally connected 'snack writing' is effective as it builds a supportive writing culture. Contribution: The study contributes to an understanding of how short bursts of writing in a digitally connected space could benefit academic tasks. The findings are therefore of use to postgraduate scholars, academics, and all those who want to progress an academic writing task when time is limited.

Task design is an important element of effective mathematics teaching and learning. Past research in mathematics education has investigated task design in mathematics education from different perspectives (e.g., cognitive and cultural) and offered a number of (theoretical) frameworks and sets of principles. In this study, through a narrative research in the form of autoethnography, I reflected on my past teaching and research experience and proposed a (theoretical) framework for task design in mathematics education. It contains four main principles: (a) inclusion, (b) cognitive demand, (c) affective and social aspects of learning mathematics, and (d) theoretical perspective(s) toward learning mathematics. This framework could be used as a tool for critically reflecting on current practices in terms of task design in teaching mathematics and research in mathematics education. It may also contribute to ongoing research in mathematics education about task design and enable or enhance opportunities for dialogue between lecturers, teachers, and researchers about how to design rich mathematical tasks for teaching and research purposes.

Number-recognition tasks, such as the how-many task, involve set-to-word mapping, and number-creation tasks, such as the give-n task, entail word-to-set mapping. The present study involved comparing sixty 3-year-olds' performance on the two tasks with collections of one to three items over three time points about 3 weeks apart. Inconsistent with the sparse evidence indicating equivalent task performance, an omnibus test indicated that success differed significantly by task (and set size but not by time). A follow-up analysis indicated that the hypothesis that success emerges first on the how-many task was, in general, significantly superior to the hypothesis of simultaneous development. It further indicated the how-many-first hypothesis was superior to a give-n-first hypothesis for sets of three. A theoretical implication is that set-to-word mapping appears to develop before word-to-set mapping, especially in the case of three. A methodological implication is that the give-n task may underestimate a key aspect of children's cardinal understanding of small numbers. Another is that the traditional give-n task, which requires checking an initial response by one-to-one counting, confounds pre-counting and counting competencies.

In our investigation of university students' knowledge about real numbers in relation to computer algebra systems (CAS) and how it could be developed in view of their future activity as teachers, we used a computer algorithm as a case to explore the relationship between CAS and the knowledge of real numbers as decimal representations. Our work was carried out in the context of a course for university students who aim to become mathematics teachers in high schools. The main data consists of students' written responses to an assignment of the course and interviews to clarify students' perspectives in relation to the responses. The analysis of students' work is based on the anthropological theory of the didactic (ATD). Our results indicate that simple CAS-routines have a potential to help university students (future teachers) to apply their university knowledge on certain problems related to the decimal representation of real number which are typically encountered but not well explained in high school.

This qualitative research project aims to determine the impact that Task-Based Instruction had on fifteen Intermediate English language students´ writing skills in online classes at a private institute in Cartagena. A journal, a questionnaire, and a checklist were used as instruments to collect information during the diagnostic stage. During the action stage, six workshops were implemented, each with a different writing strategy: webbing, peer-editing, asking questions to revise writing, revising and editing, using templates, and reorganizing ideas. At this stage, the same instruments were used to measure the impact of the strategy and to achieve the research objectives. Results show that implementing six online workshops predicated on the task-based instruction helped the students to improve their writing, learning new vocabulary, use ICT tools, and writing strategies, thus having a positive impact on their English language learning process not only in writing but also in other skills. TBI was favorably accepted by learners and affected positively their writing skills.

The goal of this study is to examine which word order is dominant in colloquial Buginese-Indonesian, 1) to find out which word-order pattern is more acceptable between SVO and VSO, 2) to find out which word-order pattern is more acceptable between VO and OV, and 3) to find out what internal linguistic characteristics and social factors motivate such acceptability. The data were collected through an online survey via Monkey Survey that employed Acceptability Judgment Task (AJT) to determine which word order is more acceptable in Buginese Indonesian (SVO or VSO and VO or OV). A total of 50 Buginese-Indonesian bilinguals rated the acceptability of 48 target items (and 48 fillers) for patterns such as SVO/VSO and VO/OV in a 1-5 Likert Scale (1=completely unnatural; 5=compeletely natural). Target items were controlled for linguistic factors and social factors. ANOVA analysis was used to analyze the data. The results indicate that both SVO and VSO are equally acceptable though VSO was slightly more favorable than SVO. When the subject is omitted, VO was farther favorable than OV. L1, age, and residence had a significant effect on the acceptability of VSO while grammatical person, education level, and residence contributed greatly to the acceptability of VO. The results also reveal that the acceptability of different word orders in Buginese-Indonesian is both linguistically and socially constrained. Thus, the results are situated within a discussion of Backus' (2014) notion of entrenchment and conventionalization.

Teacher knowledge is one of the main factors in the quality of mathematics learning. Many mathematics teachers have difficulty using proportional reasoning. Proportional reasoning is one of the essential aspects of the middle school mathematics curriculum to develop students' mathematical thinking. Teachers should realize that developing proportional reasoning is not an easy task. In this study, we investigated how teachers give proportional reasoning about the concept of proportional and nonproportional situations, especially in making sense of them. The research subjects were mathematics teachers who had taught proportional-related material. Data was collected using task-based interviews outside the teacher's working hours. Data analysis and interpretation were completed using a framework meaning-based approach. The results of the data analysis showed that the teacher is careful in understanding information, is aware of multiple meanings, and knows key information in understanding the contextual structure of proportional and non-proportional situations. Furthermore, they are also able to identify additive and multiplication relationships, have flexibility in understanding proportional and non-proportional situations separately or collectively, and understand problem-solving systematics in detail.

A critical part of supporting the development of students' algorithmic thinking is understanding the challenges that emerge when students engage with algorithmatizing tasks--tasks that require the creation of an algorithm. Knowledge of these challenges can serve as a basis upon which educators can build effective strategies for enhancing students' algorithmic thinking skills. This paper presents three illustrative cases of emergent challenges evident as students grapple with the process of creating an algorithm. The first challenge highlights discrepancies between the method with which students solve a problem and the algorithm they create, and claim would, when implemented, solve the same problem. The second challenge pertains to the persistence of students' normatively incorrect algorithms, despite going through multiple iterations of testing and revising. Finally, the third challenge concerns issues around the use of test problems for supporting students in their creation of generalized algorithms. These three challenges are discussed using student data (illustrative cases) from three different mathematical algorithmatizing tasks. Suggestions are put forth for addressing some of these challenges, with a particular emphasis on practical pedagogical suggestions for cultivating students' mathematical thinking in the context of algorithmatizing tasks.

One of the main generic competencies in Higher Education is "Learning to Learn". The key component of this competence is the capacity for self-regulated learning (SRL). For this competence to be developed, peer feedback seems useful because it fosters evaluative judgement. Following the principles of peer feedback processes, an online peer feedback proposal was created in the context of complex tasks in several degree courses (n = 448 students) at the University of Barcelona. A specific didactic sequence supported by digital technologies through Moodle was designed and validated after a deep analysis of the theoretical underpinnings of SRL models. A peer review proposal was ratified by the students, who pointed out the benefits of both receiving and, especially, giving feedback. The integration of Moodle tools with external tools such as Personalized Learning Design was highly valued by reviewers (n = 3 expert judges) and the possibilities for students to monitor their own progress through task completion was revealed as a positive aspect. Furthermore, the creation of personalized alerts to support learning processes also received a very high rating. The final model includes the changes derived from the validation process and suggests a reliable technology-supported intervention in an LMS, which is transferable to a larger scale.

Although there is robust research on vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs), little is known about the strategies that learners use in pair work. Therefore, this study examines the VLSs employed by 40 Saudi undergraduate students whilst working in pair tasks. This study also investigates whether there is a relationship between using certain strategies and the type of task undertaken. Two tasks were used: reading comprehension with multiple-choice questions and reading comprehension with 'filling in the gaps'. All the pairs' conversations were audio recorded. The results showed that there were mainly three VLSs used in the pair tasks: "asking for help from the other student", "guessing the meaning from context" and "using a dictionary". Also, there was a statistically significant relationship between the task type and certain strategies including asking for help and guessing the meaning from context strategies.