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This article addresses how NASA uses inquiry in the classroom so that students can see learning in a whole new light. The goal is to increase scientific literacy among Americans and to entice a greater number of students to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Although NASA offers a diverse array of programs that incorporate inquiry learning through a well-established distribution network, this article examines two programs: the Virtual Design Center (VDC), created by the Classroom of the FutureTM, and the NASA Explorer Schools program, one of four pathfinder initiatives that the Agency launched to inspire the next generation of space explorers.

Twenty-eight students (aged 9 to 17) freely explored a science Web site structured either in an outline (linear) format or “puzzle” (non-linear) format for 2.5 hours. Subjects then engaged in tasks involving locational memory and informational recall. The results indicate that presence of metacognitive skills was a necessary but not sufficient condition for learning in hypermedia environments; the navigational structure of the Web site also was important. Metacognitive skill (as measured by the Junior Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (Jr. MAI) (Sperling, Howard, Miller, & Murphy, 2002) and the How I Study Questionnaire (HISP) (Fortunato, Hecht, Tittle, & Alvarez, 1991) was not a significant predictor of measures of retention within an outline structure (where the conventional structure did not stimulate meta-cognitive knowledge), while metacognition was a significant predictor of informational recall within the puzzle structure (which required active meta-cognitive knowledge to make meaning within the unfamiliar structure). The results point to the need for instructional designers to consider the structure of Web sites, with particular emphasis on the use of recognizable conventions, in order to reduce the metacognitive demands upon working memory involved in deciphering the structure.

This study compared the problem-solving skills required for solving well-structured problems and ill-structured problems in the context of an open-ended, multimedia problem-solving environment in astronomy. Two sets of open-ended questions assessed students' abilities for solving well-structured and ill-structured problems. Generalized, rubric scoring systems were developed for assessing problem-solving skills. Instruments were also developed and administered to assess cognitive and affective predictors of problem-solving performance. By regressing the scores on the cognitive and affective predictors onto students' scores on the well-structured and ill-structured problems, we concluded that solving well-structured and ill-structured problems require different component skills. Domain knowledge and justification skills were significant predictors of well-structured problem-solving scores, whereas ill-structured problem-solving scores were significantly predicted by domain knowledge, justification skills, science attitudes, and regulation of cognition. Implications for problem solving in science education are presented. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 40: 6–33, 2003

Likelihood ratios are one of the best measures of diagnostic accuracy, although they are seldom used, because interpreting them requires a calculator to convert back and forth between “probability” and “odds” of disease. This article describes a simpler method of interpreting likelihood ratios, one that avoids calculators, nomograms, and conversions to “odds” of disease. Several examples illustrate how the clinician can use this method to refine diagnostic decisions at the bedside.

The purpose of this study was to measure changes in students' science proficiency produced by a multimedia learning environment, Astronomy Village: Investigating the Solar System, developed at Wheeling Jesuit University's Center for Educational Technologies with funding from the National Science Foundation. The inquiry-based design of Astronomy Village supports middle school students in learning fundamental concepts in life, earth, and physical science. Astronomy Village was compared to an alternative treatment that simulated elements of traditional science instruction using web site access to background materials and content in Astronomy Village. The results indicate sizable treatment effects for two groups of Astronomy Village students, as well as for the alternative treatment group. Differences in the treatment effect sizes among the three treatment groups reveal the relative merits of different approaches to using technology. The Linear Logistic Model for Change applied in this study is beneficial for comparing alternative uses of technology, since it separates effects due to treatments from natural trend effects and eliminates drawbacks of traditional statistical designs for pretest-posttest changes.

Background In patients with red eye, traditional teachings suggest that photophobia, visual blurring, and eye pain indicate serious eye disease; in patients with presumed conjunctivitis, the finding of purulent drainage traditionally indicates a bacterial cause. The accuracy of these teachings is unknown. Methods A MEDLINE search was performed to retrieve articles published between 1966 and April 2014 relevant to the bedside diagnosis of serious eye disease and bacterial conjunctivitis. Results In patients with red eye, the most useful findings indicating serious eye disease are anisocoria (with the smaller pupil in the red eye and difference between pupil diameters >1 mm; likelihood ratio [LR], 6.5; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.6-16.3) and photophobia, elicited by direct illumination (LR, 8.3; 95% CI, 2.7-25.9), indirect illumination (LR, 28.8; 95% CI, 1.8-459), or near synkinesis test ("finger-to-nose convergence test," LR, 21.4; 95% CI, 12-38.2). In patients with presumed conjunctivitis, complete redness of the conjunctival membrane obscuring tarsal vessels (LR, 4.6; 95% CI, 1.2-17.1), observed purulent discharge (LR, 3.9; 95% CI, 1.7-9.1), and matting of both eyes in the morning (LR, 3.6; 95% CI, 1.9-6.5) increase the probability of a bacterial cause; failure to observe a red eye at 20 feet (LR, 0.2; 95% CI, 0-0.8) and absence of morning gluing of either eye (LR, 0.3; 95% CI, 0.1-0.8) decrease the probability of a bacterial cause. Conclusions Several bedside findings accurately distinguish serious from benign eye disease in patients with red eye and, in patients with presumed conjunctivitis, distinguish bacterial from viral or allergic causes.

Dizziness is a common presenting concern in primary care practice. The most useful diagnostic approach in distinguishing different types of dizziness is a thorough history and physical examination; additional tests are rarely necessary. Effective treatments exist for many causes of dizziness, and these treatments are often accomplished in the clinic or at home without the need for medication.

This project examined the effects of text genre on both situational and individual interest. Middle school students completed a three-session web-based learning module in the domain of ecology wherein they were randomly assigned to either narrative or expository readings that were matched on key idea units and other variables. Students reported individual interest in ecology on the day before and after their exposure to the module. Affective and cognitive situational interest was measured after the readings on each day of the module. The results showed that expository readings were perceived as more helpful for learning than were narrative readings, but this varied somewhat by initial individual interest. Although the narrative versions did not facilitate situational interest, there was a small effect on individual interest suggesting that learners exposed to narrative readings came to perceive the domain of ecology as a more meaningful discipline than did those exposed to expository readings.

Sternberg's (1985) triarchic theory of human intelligence distinguished among three types of intellectual abilities: analytic, creative, and practical. Our study explored the relationships between student abilities and the cognitive and attitudinal outcomes that resulted from student immersion in a computer-based inquiry environment. In particular, we examined outcome variables related to content understanding, problem solving, and science-related attitudes. Results indicated that more practical abilities predicted greater content understanding and transfer of problem-solving skills. High analytic abilities were predictive of content understanding but not transfer of problem-solving skills. High creative abilities predicted problem solving, but were not predictive of performance on content understanding. In terms of science-related attitudes, students who were dominant in practical abilities had significantly more positive posttest attitudes than those dominant in analytic abilities. The results from this study were used to make recommendations regarding design principles used in the subsequent development of computer-based inquiry environments.

The NASA Classroom of the FutureTM sponsored a residential training course to help teachers learn to use computer-based educational tools and explore constructivist instructional approaches. We hypothesized that creating a living-and-learning environment for the training would foster rapid changes in teachers’ epistemological beliefs. Pretest—posttest differences on an epistemology inventory indicated that teachers changed significantly on three of four factors related to constructivist teaching philosophies (Simple Knowledge, Quick Learning, and Certain Knowledge). The fourth factor (Fixed Ability) did not reveal significant changes. These findings have two implications: (1) constructivist approaches to training teachers may promote epistemological change, and (2) epistemology may be a less stable trait than was previously supposed.

Objective To explain why investigations of the measurement of central venous pressure (CVP) usually reveal a discrepancy between the clinician's estimate of CVP from physical diagnosis and supine measurement with a catheter. Data from MEDLINE search, personal files, and bibliographies of textbooks on physical diagnosis and cardiology were used. Results The most important reasons for this disagreement are the failure to standardize the external reference point used by the clinician to indicate "zero" venous pressure and the failure to recognize that venous pressure often depends on the position of the patient during examination. During physical examination clinicians tend to underestimate the CVP, as measured by a catheter in the same patient positioned supine, especially when the measured value is high. This occurs because the venous pressure of patients with heart failure, in contrast to that of healthy individuals, demonstrates an exaggerated postural fall when the patient is in the more upright positions that are necessary to visualize the elevated neck veins. The cause of this postural instability, increased venoconstriction from sympathetic tone, also helps explain two other physical findings of the jugular veins, the abdominojugular test, and Kussmaul's sign. Conclusions Clinicians should avoid making decisions about degrees of CVP elevation that are imprecise and difficult to reproduce. Instead, they should determine during physical diagnosis merely whether the CVP is elevated. Until further research is done, the best definition of elevated CVP is that of Sir Thomas Lewis-when the top of the external or internal jugular veins is >3 cm of vertical distance above the sternal angle, the CVP is abnormally high.

BACKGROUND: It is unknown whether echocardiography can provide insights into the origin of systolic murmurs and the modern value of bedside cardiovascular diagnosis. METHODS: The author examined 376 inpatients and compared their physical findings to transthoracic echocardiography, exploring the associations between echocardiography and systolic murmurs and investigating the diagnostic accuracy of physical examination for pathologic murmurs. RESULTS: Four echocardiographic variables predict the presence of systolic murmurs: peak aortic velocity (P .001); mitral regurgitation severity (P .001); mitral valve E-point velocity (P.09); and absence of pericardial effusion (P.09). When diagnosing murmurs, the most helpful finding is its distribution on the chest wall with respect to the 3 rd left parasternal space, a landmark that distinguishes murmurs into 6 patterns. The “apical-base” pattern indicates increased aortic velocity (likelihood ratio [LR] 9.7; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 6.7-14): a delayed carotid upstroke (LR 6.8; 95% CI; 4.0-11.5); absent S2 (LR 12.7; 95% CI; 5.3-30.4); and humming quality to the murmur (LR 8.5; 95% CI; 4.3-16.5) further increase the probability of aortic valve disease. The “broad apical” murmur pattern suggests significant mitral regurgitation (LR 6.8; 95% CI; 3.9-11.9); and the “left lower sternal” murmur pattern indicates significant tricuspid regurgitation (LR 8.4; 95% CI; 3.5-20.3): additional bedside observations refine these diagnoses. Nonetheless, this study shows that some classic physical findings are no longer accurate, that physical examination cannot reliably distinguish severe aortic stenosis from less severe stenosis, and that classic physical findings, despite having proven value, are absent in many patients with significant cardiac lesions. CONCLUSIONS: In the diagnosis of systolic murmurs, physical examination has limitations but also unappreciated value. A simple system using onomatopoeia and classifying systolic murmurs into 1 of 6 patterns is diagnostically helpful.

The Journey to El Yunque program was designed using the cognitive apprenticeship model. Students analyze the same data that scientists in the rainforest use for their research, while at the same time, covering all of the national middle school ecology standards. In this study we seek to build a framework that integrates design-based research methods with traditional evaluation. The resulting enactment of the curriculum provides formative feedback about the curriculum as well as about the design model itself. An ecology assessment was developed using publicly released state assessment items. A quasiexperimental design study was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the beta version of the program. The results show that Journey to El Yunque was more effective at helping students learn population dynamics, while the traditional ecology curriculum was more effective at helping students understand energy flow definitions. This difference in performance is consistent with the underlying design based on the cognitive apprenticeship model.