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BACKGROUND: Enset (Ensete ventricosum, Musaceae) is an African crop that currently provides the staple food for approx. 20 million Ethiopians. Whilst wild enset grows over much of East and Southern Africa and the genus extends across Asia to China, it has only ever been domesticated in the Ethiopian Highlands. Here, smallholder farmers cultivate hundreds of landraces across diverse climatic and agroecological systems. SCOPE: Enset has several important food security traits. It grows over a relatively wide range of conditions, is somewhat drought-tolerant, and can be harvested at any time of the year, over several years. It provides an important dietary starch source, as well as fibres, medicines, animal fodder, roofing and packaging. It stabilizes soils and microclimates and has significant cultural importance. In contrast to the other cultivated species in the family Musaceae (banana), enset has received relatively little research attention. Here, we review and critically evaluate existing research, outline available genomic and germplasm resources, aspects of pathology, and explore avenues for crop development. CONCLUSION: Enset is an underexploited starch crop with significant potential in Ethiopia and beyond. Research is lacking in several key areas: empirical studies on the efficacy of current agronomic practices, the genetic diversity of landraces, approaches to systematic breeding, characterization of existing and emerging diseases, adaptability to new ranges and land-use change, the projected impact of climate change, conservation of crop wild relatives, by-products or co-products or non-starch uses, and the enset microbiome. We also highlight the limited availability of enset germplasm in living collections and seedbanks, and the lack of knowledge of reproductive and germination biology needed to underpin future breeding. By reviewing the current state of the art in enset research and identifying gaps and opportunities, we hope to catalyse the development and sustainable exploitation of this neglected starch crop. ispartof: ANNALS OF BOTANY vol:123 issue:5 pages:747-766 ispartof: location:England status: published

Seed bank (henceforth referred to as SB) refers to viable seed which is present on or in soil and associated with litter/humus. Under different land use/land cover systems and climatic regions, density of seeds in the soil is variable both in space and time. SB density decreases with increasing depth and age of seeds in the soil. Smaller seeds are more easily incorporated, moved to deeper soil layers and persist longer in the soil, whereas large sized seeds without hard seed coats lack persistence in the soil. Moreover, small and elongated seeds are more persistent than large and round seeds. In most vegetation types, grass and herbs have denser seeds in the soil than woody species. Due to shade intolerant properties, density of grasses and forbs are also higher in forest gaps and farmlands than under shade of trees. In most of vegetation types and under medium disturbances e.g. under grazing, density and diversity of species are higher than that of lower and higher disturbance intensities. Tillage practices also have negative impacts on density, composition and abundance of SB. Hence, seeds decline under conventional tillage than under conservational tillage practices. In several studies, seeds in the SB are not similar to above ground vegetation. Similarly, density and diversity of seeds in a SB exceeds that of standing vegetation. Persistence seeds in soil are essential in maintaining individual species and the plant community, conservation of genetic biodiversity and restoration of plant communities of degraded lands after disturbances under harsh environmental conditions, especially in arid regions. As a result, SB characteristics are used to elucidate seed dynamics in various vegetation types. Overall, scientific knowledge of SB is used for land use planning, to make recommendations for future cost effective measures and to establish policies for conservation or restoration programmes. Keywords: Seed bank (SB), dispersal, persistence, restoration, vegetation type.

This study assesses the effects of human disturbance on: (1) floristic composition, diversity, and plant community types; and, (2) the regeneration potential of woody species in the Debrelibanos Monastery forest patch in the North Showa zone of Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia. Fifty sample quadrats were placed on parallel transect lines along altitudes in the forest using a systematic sampling design. Quadrats of 1 m2, 100 m2 and 400 m2 were used for recording herbaceous/seedling, sapling and tree species, respectively, with symptoms of different human disturbance effects. One hundred and thirteen species belonging to 52 families were recorded in the forest patch. The results show 459.5 stems ha−1 of tree/shrub species present. Four community types, namely Juniperus procera–Acacia lahai, Carissa spinarum–Acacia abyssinica, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata–Euphorbia abyssinica and Ficus sur–Allophylus abyssinicus were identified. The overall Shannon–Wiener diversity index was 3.3. The regeneration patterns of some species were poor. Slope, altitude and human activities had significant effects on vegetation patterns and imply that current management practices are not satisfactory to sustain the forest. Unless improved management interventions are made, the sustainability of forest services will be at stake.

The vegetation of the plateaux of the Gerire Hills, of unique geology, represents an outlier of the Transitional semi-evergreen bushland of the eastern escarpment of the Ethiopian highlands...

In this study, we have modeled and examined future land use management effects on ecosystem services in the Wabe River catchment of the Gurage Mountain chain landscape, Ethiopia. In addition to the climate-resilient scenario designed to meet the strategic plan of Ethiopia, the business as usual (BAU) and an alternative agroforestry scenario were modeled for the year 2030 to align with the government long-term development plan. Through the statistical and biophysical modeling approach, this study quantified and mapped the food production, water provision, carbon storage, and sequestration and sediment retention ecosystem services. The land use land cover and the other datasets were obtained from various primary and secondary sources, and prepared according to the models requirement. The future scenarios were modeled through the Land Change Modeler for ArcGIS and InVEST Scenario Generator models. The simulated BAU scenario result revealed that all of the ecosystem services decreased from the baseline status. In contrast, implementation of the climate-resilient strategy could enhance the existing status of ecosystem services. In the agroforestry scenario, all of the quantified ecosystem services increased even more than the climate-resilient scenario. We conclude that landscape management activities described in the climate-resilient strategy could ensure sustainable production while conserving the environment. However, we recommend the enset-based agroforestry system expansion, which could boost food production and enhance other ecological services in the catchment. Further studies are suggested on the expansion of this system in the catchment and similar parts of Ethiopia.

Ethiopia is one of the biodiversity reach areas in the world. A study was conducted at Amoro Forest to determine the woody species composition, vegetation and population structure. Vegetation data were collected from 36 plots (900 m2) systematically laid along transects. A hierarchical cluster analysis with R software was used to identify plant communities. Structural analysis of the forest was performed based on frequency, density, DBH, basal area and importance value indices (IVI) of woody species. A total of 57 woody species belonging to 38 families were encountered, consisting of 19 tree (33.33%), 31 (54.38%) shrubs, and 7(4.37%) liana species. The vegetation of the forest was classified into four plant communities namely, Calpurnia aurea-Vernonia myriantha, Vernonia myriantha-Euphorbia abyssinica, Laggera tomentosa-Solanecio gigas, Allophyllus abyssinicus-Bersama abyssinica based on cluster analysis. The total basal area and density of woody plants were 18.5 m2/h and 2860.49 stems/h respectively. The DBH distribution showed a reverse “J” shaped curve, meaning that there is active regeneration and recruitment in the forest. Four representative woody plant population structures were identified, that is, inverted J, Gauss I, Gauss II and J- shaped patterns. There is high anthropogenic effect and high dependence of the local community in Amoro Forest so that forest conservation and restoration measures should be required. Key words: Ethiopia, Amoro Forest, vegetation communities, anthropogenic activities and population structure.

Background and Aims: Many African genera of the Amaranthaceae exhibit unique inflorescences that include sterile flowers modified to hooks or spines. Considering that the abundance of large terrestrial herbivores increased on the African continent with the expansion of grassland and savannah ecosystems, modified sterile flowers could have been an innovation that boosted the diversification of an African achyranthoid clade of Amaranthaceae, with large animals serving dispersal. Methods: We generated an extensively sampled phylogeny comprising 26 of the 31 achyranthoid genera as well as representatives of all other lineages of Amaranthaceae. Phylogenetic tree inference employed four genomic regions, using parsimony, likelihood and Bayesian inference methods. We estimated divergence times, evaluated trait-dependant changes and species diversification rates using state-dependent speciation and extinction models, and reconstructed ancestral character states for modified sterile flowers. Key Results: The achyranthoids were found to be a major clade of the Amaranthaceae, comprising mostly African members. Phylogenetic relationships within this clade were well resolved and supported two main subclades. Several genera were found to be polyphyletic. Our results indicate that the achyranthoids started to diversify ~28 million years ago, and that modified sterile flowers evolved multiple times. An asymmetry in transition rates towards the gain of sterile flowers was observed, whereas no trait-dependent increase in species diversification rates was detected. Bayesian rate heterogeneity analyses indicated that the achyranthoids diversified without significant rate shifts. Conclusions: The accumulation of modified sterile flowers within achyranthoids appears to result from the higher transition rates in favour of modified sterile flowers. Multiple gains suggest an adaptive value for this trait. However, epizoochory does not appear to fuel species diversification, possibly due to extensive gene flow through regularly migrating mammals, which limits the possibility of speciation by isolation.

The Afromontane forests of Ethiopia have been under a serious degradation threat. Assessment of floristic diversity and species composition in Biteyu forest of Gurage mountain chain in the central Ethiopia was conducted to examine the pattern of forest structure. Thirty plots of 30 m × 30 m were used to record the vegetation and environmental data using systematic sampling technique. The local name, plant scientific names, DBH, height, species abundance and percentage canopy cover of plant species were recorded. Shannon diversity index and Sorensen’s coefficients was used for comparison among communities and similar forests in the country. Threats to the forest biodiversity in Biteyu were determined by counting cattle interference and wood stumps as disturbance indicators. Relative Euclidean Distance measures by using Ward’s method (linkage) was applied for cluster analysis. Environmental variables were also recorded in each plot. Woody species population structure, basal area and importance value index were analyzed using spreadsheet programs. Data on species distribution and environmental variables in the forest were analyzed by canonical correspondence analysis. A total of 190 species in 154 genera under 73 families were identified. Twenty species were found to be endemic taxa to the Flora Area. Only three plant community types were identified from the cluster analysis due to the high human influence. The Sorensen’s coefficient showed the resemblance of the Biteyu forest with other Dry Evergreen Afromontane forests in the country. Moreover, altitude and slope strongly affect the species composition and structure of Biteyu forest. Given the high anthropogenic influence, high endemism, high dependence of the local community on the forest resources, forest conservation and restoration measures should be done by stakeholders.

Litterfall in the forest is essential for balanced ecosystem processes. The present study determined seasonal variations of litterfall in the Boter-Becho forest, Southwestern Ethiopia. Based on forest disturbance level, two sites were selected: Low and high. Litterfall production in the high and low disturbed forest sites averaged 6.6 and 10.8 t ha-1 year-1, respectively. Significant differences (P

PREMISE OF THE STUDY Qat (Catha edulis, Celastraceae) is a woody plant species cultivated for its stimulant alkaloids. Qat is important to the economy and culture in large regions of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Yemen. Despite the importance of this species, the wild origins and dispersal of cultivars have only been described in often contradictory historical documents. We examined the wild origins, human-mediated dispersal, and genetic divergence of cultivated qat compared to wild qat. METHODS We sampled 17 SSR markers and 1561 wild and cultivated individuals across the historical areas of qat cultivation. KEY RESULTS On the basis of genetic structure inferred using Bayesian and nonparametric methods, two centers of origin in Kenya and one in Ethiopia were found for cultivated qat. The centers of origin in Ethiopia and northeast of Mt. Kenya are the primary sources of cultivated qat genotypes. Qat cultivated in Yemen is derived from Ethiopian genotypes rather than Yemeni wild populations. Cultivated qat with a wild Kenyan origin has not spread to Ethiopia or Yemen, whereas a small minority of qat cultivated in Kenya originated in Ethiopia. Hybrid genotypes with both Ethiopian and Kenyan parentage are present in northern Kenya. CONCLUSIONS Ethiopian cultivars have diverged from their wild relatives, whereas Kenyan qat has diverged less. This pattern of divergence could be caused by the extinction of the wild-source qat populations in Ethiopia due to deforestation, undersampling, and/or artificial selection for agronomically important traits.

Background: Ethnic groups throughout the world have developed their own cultures expressed in the form of customs, taboos and traditional healthcare systems. Traditional medicine system is one of the widespread cultures known throughout the world which is very much tied to cultural practices of the community or ethnic group. Medicinal plant treasure found in Gurage and Silti Zones remained poorly characterized and understood. Therefore, this study was conducted in four ethnic groups (viz. Gurage, Qebena, Mareqo and Silti) which have lived in close proximity and contact for many centuries in the two Zones. In the present study unique and shared cultural elements in connection to traditional herbal medicine were examined through investigation of the diversity of medicinal plants. Moreover, attempts have been made to determine similarities among the society in the medicinal plants they have used in general and in medicinal plant species considered culturally most important.Methods: In a study that involved 320 randomly samples informants semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, participant observation were used and qualitative and quantitative data were collected. Descriptive statistics, rank order priority (ROP), Jaccard similarity coefficient and clustering were used for data analysis. Results: A total of 244 medicinal plant species and a fungal species used to treat human and/or livestock ailments were documented. The number of plants (80 plants, 33 %) with ROP value greater than 50% is considerably smaller than that of plants with ROP < 50% (164, 67 %). Jaccard similarity index and clustering analysis for all cited plants, among the respective studied districts, indicated that grouping generally followed the existing ethnic origin. On the contrary, clustering based on culturally important medicinal plant species (80 plant species, score ROP ≥ 50%) showed the influence of proximity and geographical orientation rather than ethnic relation. Conclusions: Culturally most important plants (80 spp.) are widely used and best shared with nearby communities and this could imply current (new) knowledge being practiced in the community. This knowledge must be documented and better utilized in a modern way including modernized use of traditional medicinal plants.

Additional file 1. List of medicinal plants used to treat human ailments: scientific name; plant family; vernacular name; growth form; plant parts used; ailment treated; methods of preparation / and additives (if any); routes of administration; study sites; voucher number

Additional file 4. Major use categories and list of ailments/symptoms include (for compurting ICF value)

Identification of conservation priorities is essential for conservation planning, especially as the biodiversity crisis develops. We aimed to support conservation prioritisation by addressing knowledge gaps for the genus Aloe in the Horn of Africa. Specifically, we developed a dataset of herbarium voucher specimens and occurrence data to estimate geographic distribution of 88 species of Aloe and used this to estimate extinction risk and establish the major threats to Aloe in this region. The resulting assessments, each published on the IUCN Red List, show that 39% of the species are threatened with extinction, and the principal threats are the expansion and intensification of crop farming and livestock farming, gathering of plants, and unintentional effects of logging and wood harvesting. We review ex situ conservation in botanic gardens and seed banks, revealing gaps in coverage and urgent priorities for collection, with 25 threatened Aloe species currently unrepresented in seed banks. Protected areas in the region offer limited coverage of Aloe distributions and the most recently designated protected areas are increasingly in regions that do not overlap with Aloe distributions. However, we show with a simple optimisation approach that even a modest increase in protected area of 824 square kilometres would allow representation of all Aloe species, although further data are needed to test the area required to ensure long-term persistence (resilience) of Aloe species.

Additional file 3. Rank order priority (ROP) values of culturally important species (ROP ≥50%) major uses, relative popularity level and study sites

Additional file 3. Major human and livestock diseases categories in Sheka Zone.

Additional file 2. List of medicinal plants used to treat livestock ailments: scientific name, family; vernacular name; growth form; plant parts used; ailment treated; methods of preparation; routes of administration; study sites; voucher number

The aims of the study were to analyze (1) the effects of Prosopis juliflora (Prosopis) on the spatial distribution and soil seed banks (SSB) diversity and density, (2) the effects of environmental factors on SSB diversity and density (number of seeds in the soil per unit area), and (3) the effects of animal fecal droppings on SSB diversity, density, and dispersal. Aboveground vegetation data were collected from different Prosopis-infested habitats from quadrats (20 × 20 m) in Prosopis thickets, Prosopis + native species stand, non-invaded woodlands, and open grazing lands. In each Prosopis-infested habitats, soil samples were collected from the litter layer and three successive soil layer, i.e., 0–3 cm, 3–6 cm, and 6–9 cm. Seeds from soil samples and animal fecal matter were separated in the green house using the seedling emergence technique. Invasion of Prosopis had significant effects on the soil seed bank diversity. Results revealed that the mean value of the Shannon diversity of non-invaded woodlands was being higher by 19.2%, 18.5%, and 11.0% than Prosopis thickets; Prosopis + native species stand and open grazing lands, respectively. The seed diversity and richness, recovered from 6–9-cm-deep layer were the highest. On the other hand, the density of Prosopis seeds was the highest in the litter layer. About 156 of seeds/kg (92.9%) of seeds were germinated from cattle fecal matter. However, in a small proportion of seedlings, 12 of seeds/kg (7.1%) were germinated from shot fecal matter. Thus, as the seeds in the soil were low in the study areas, in situ and ex situ conservation of original plants and reseeding of persistent grass species such as Cynodon dactylon, Cenchrus ciliaris, Chrysopogon plumulosus, and Brachiaria ramosa are recommended.

Background People’s classification, management, and use of plants represent attempt to attracting people from different academic disciplines. Many countries use traditional medicine for their primary healthcare system. Medicinal plants have been important components of healthcare systems since the time immemorial. The objective of this research was to document and analyze traditional medicinal plants used by the Sheka people and associated ethnobotanical knowledge. Methods Data was collected by administering pre-prepared semi-structured interview items to 414 informants. Market surveys, group discussion, and guided field walk were used. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics; determination of informant consensus factor, fidelity level, as well as ranking and scoring. Results A total of 266 plant species belonging to 192 genera and 74 families were identified. About 204 (77%) of the medicinal plants were used to treat human health problems. Only ten (4%) were used to treat livestock health problems and 52 (19%) of them were used to treat both human and livestock health problems. Croton macrostachyus, Prunus africana, Peperomia retusa, Lobelia giberroa, and Celosia schweinfurthiana were found to be high ranking medicinal plants against gastrointestinal problems based on simple preference ranking. Conclusion Very high number of medicinal plant species recorded from the study area indicates that vegetation of Sheka is reservoir of medicinal plants. Hence, the area needs attention for medicinal plant conservation priorities. Plant parts used as medicines also play vital role in the entire medicinal plant life cycle. Therefore, it is useful to consider harvesting impacts. Except well-experienced traditional healers, people of the study area use the medicinal plants haphazardly. There may be high risk of being victims of dosage and improper usage. High ranking medicinal plants are candidates for further phytochemical profiling, drug research, and development.

Enset (Ensete ventricosum) is a major starch staple and food security crop for 20 million people. Despite substantial diversity in morphology, genetics, agronomy and utilization across its range, nutritional characteristics have only been reported in relatively few landraces. Here, we survey nutritional composition in 22 landraces from three enset growing regions. We present mineral characterization of enset corm tissue, free amino acid characterization of raw and processed (fermented) tissues and genomic analysis of the microbial community associated with fermentation. We show that compared to regionally important tubers and cereals, enset is high in calcium, iron, potassium and zinc and low in sodium. We report changes in free amino acid composition due to processing, and establish that the bacteria generaAcetobacter,LactobacillusandBifidobacterium, predominate during fermentation. Nutritional and microbial variation presents opportunities to select for improved composition, quality or safety with potentially significant impacts in food security and public health.

Abstracts Background: Locally available and easily accessible, underused complementary foods including wild edible fruit species are affordable and potentially more acceptable than other options to address the problem of ‘hidden hunger’ or micronutrient deficiency. Study aimed to collect and determine the nutritional composition of wild edible fruits with its bioavailability collected from Temcha watershed. Methods: Semi structured interviews were administered to collect all wild edible plants and its associated knowledge through the participation of informants systematically selected from six sub districts in the study area. Mineral and pyhtate content and molar ratio of phytate to mineral ratio were determined using standard methods. Results: Based on the total use value of all wild edible plants, the top 18 wild edible fruits were selected for dietary analysis. The zinc contents of the analyzed fruits were ranged in between 0.06 ± 0.02 mg/100g -88.89 ± 0.42 mg/100g. The iron content of the analyzed fruits were ranged in between 5.84 ±0.00 mg/100 g – 148 ± 0.93 mg/100g and the calcium contents were in between 53.25 ± 0.45 mg/100g – 1280 ± 0.77 mg/100g. The phytate content of each fruits were ranged in between 6.9 ± 0.00 mg/100g – 51.4 ± 0.04 mg/100g. Conclusions: Combination of Ficus sycomorus and either of all wild edible fruits satisfy the daily-recommended allowance of calcium for male and female age 10-18 (1300 mg/100 g). Almost all WEFs provides optimum amount of iron for Children up to 10 years required 11.6 – 17.8 mg / day except Embelia schimperi, Ficus sur, Rossa abyssinica, Rubus studinary & Ximenia americana. The different amount of zinc (0.66 - 89 mg /100 g) contributes to control progressive stunting in children in the study area. The phytate concentrations of wild edible fruits do not have a negative impact on the bioavailability of calcium, iron and zinc. The micronutrient content of wild edible fruits provided a lot of contribution for the study area communities and those who shared similar feeding culture elsewhere in the country. Key words: Micronutrients, temcha watershed, wild edible fruits

Plant species distributions show patterns along elevation gradients. Regardless of the diverse Afromontane vegetation in Ethiopia (AFE), studies of elevation patterns of woody plants are limited and they are restricted to small areas or single/few Mountains. Moreover, there is no general consensus on the patterns of woody taxa distribution by elevation. The objectives of this study were to examine the elevation patterns of woody taxa richness and their relationship with elevation in the AFE. Data were collected and compiled from the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea (Vols. 1–7). About 5918 plant species of 243 families were examined and their elevational distributions were recorded. The distributional ranges of woody taxa were aggregated at 19 points (sites) at 100 m intervals starting from 1500 to 3400 m a.s.l. Single-factor analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis that mean species richness of woody taxa decreases from the lower to the upper limit of AFE. Simple linear correlation and regression were used to show the relationships of woody taxa richness with elevation. We documented the presence of 505 woody taxa (441 species, 31 subspecies and 33 varieties) representing 267 genera and 90 families in the AFE. In terms of habit, 279 taxa are shrubs, 178 are trees and 48 are lianas. The distribution of woody taxa (trees, shrubs and lianas) showed a slight increase at the lower portion and a monotonic decline with increasing elevation. Species richness of trees, shrubs and lianas was negatively and significantly correlated with elevation (r = −0.985, −0.984, −0.981, respectively; all p

To investigate the woody species composition, diversity and structure of Kuandisha Afromontane forest, vegetation and environmental data were collected from 53 plots of 10 m × 50 m for trees and shrubs and 265 subplots of 2 m × 4 m for seedlings were laid along eight transect lines. The local name, scientific name, abundance, DBH, height and percentage foliage cover of species were recorded. Environmental variables, namely altitude, latitude and longitude as well as disturbance levels were also recorded in each plot. Structure, basal area, importance value index (IVI) and species prioritization were analyzed using spreadsheet programs. Correlation coefficients, frequency, relative frequency, Shannon diversity index, Shannon evenness and vegetation classification were analyzed using an R package. Sixty-six species belonging to 40 families were recorded. Fabaceae was the most diverse family consisting of seven species, followed by Euphorbiaceae and Asteraceae. In terms of habit, 29 species were trees, 28 were shrubs, and 9 were lianas. The overall Shannon diversity index was 2.5. The frequency and relative frequency of woody species with DBH ≥2.5 cm ranged from 1.9 to 92.5 and 0.1 to 5, respectively. Seedling density varied among species ranging from five to 9938 individuals ha−1. The total basal area of woody species having DBH ≥2.5 cm is 15.3 m2 ha−1. The IVI of species ranged from 0.13 for Solanum giganteum Jacq. to 28.4 for Croton macrostachyus Del. The woody vegetation was classified into five community types. Species richness, diversity and evenness of communities were strongly positively correlated. On the other hand, the correlation between disturbance and seedling density, and species richness was strongly negative. Thus, among the recorded woody species, a significant portion was either lacking regeneration or selectively removed for various purposes. The lack of seedlings of those species is mainly attributed to anthropogenic disturbances particularly free grazing. As a result, 14 tree, seven shrub and one liana species were prioritized for conservation and management interventions.

A major challenge today and into the future is to maintain or enhance beneficial contributions of nature to a good quality of life for all people. This is among the key motivations of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), a joint global effort by governments, academia, and civil society to assess and promote knowledge of Earth's biodiversity and ecosystems and their contribution to human societies in order to inform policy formulation. One of the more recent key elements of the IPBES conceptual framework (1) is the notion of nature's contributions to people (NCP), which builds on the ecosystem service concept popularized by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) (2). But as we detail below, NCP as defined and put into practice in IPBES differs from earlier work in several important ways. First, the NCP approach recognizes the central and pervasive role that culture plays in defining all links between people and nature. Second, use of NCP elevates, emphasizes, and operationalizes the role of indigenous and local knowledge in understanding nature's contribution to people.

Forest contains one of the world’s largest terrestrial C pools and play vital role in combating climate change through carbon sequestration. This study was conducted on Tulu Lafto Forest and woodland complex (here after named as TLF) with the objective of investigating carbon stock density of the different carbon pools and its variation between vegetation units. Data were collected from a total of 75 nested plots. Diameter at breast height and total height were measured for all woody individuals (trees, shrubs and lianas) that attained a DBH of 2.5 cm and above. Woody plants that did not attained a DBH of 2.5 cm and herbaceous plants were destructively harvested from subplots of 1 m2 within the main plot. All dead woods were also measured for their length and diameter and samples were taken to determine its specific wood density and decomposition class. Above and below ground biomass was estimated using allometric equation, while the litter carbon was determined by loss on ignition (LOI) method. Soil samples were also collected in order to determine soil organic carbon. The mean above and below ground C stocks were 218.4 and 43.49 t C ha-1, respectively while, C stocks in soil organic matter, dead wood and litter were 128.95, 6.15 and 2.43 t C ha-1, respectively. The total C stock density of TLF was found to be 399.42 ± 265.15 t C ha-1 of which 54.68 and 32.28% was kept in the aboveground biomass and soil, respectively. Result indicated that there is significant C stock density variation between vegetation units in the study area.

This study aims to (i) evaluate the phenology of Prosopis juliflora (Prosopis), (ii) investigate the effects of climate variability (temperature and precipitation) on the phenology of Prosopis, and (iii) assess the critical months of seed dispersal for the species management. Monthly data for phenology events: leafing, flowering, green and mature pods were collected from 8 stems of Prosopis trees at each of two localities in Ethiopia during 2016/2017. In Amibara district we found that relative abundances of green leaves, flowering, green pods, and mature pods were 91, 15, 9, and 2% in order. However, these were less than by 8, 53, 91, and 90%, respectively in Awash Fenatle district. The lowest proportions of mature and green pods were recorded in the dry season and the highest in the spring season. We recorded the highest and lowest relative abundances of flowering between November and December, and January and February, respectively. In this study, both temperature (F = 2.01, P = 0.04) and precipitation (F = 2.85, P = 0.01) had shown significant effects on the relative abundances of green leaves but insignificant effects on other phenology stages. Higher green leaf abundances were recorded during high rainfall, whereas lower abundances of leaves were recorded in high temperatures. But, the relative abundances of Prosopis leaves showed inconsistent with the variations of precipitation. Thus, awareness creation for stake holders about the phenology calendar of Prosopis should be given to abandon the invasiveness of the species towards the prime grazing lands in the region.

Enset (Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman) is a multipurpose food security crop extensively cultivated in southern and southwestern parts of Ethiopia. In addition to its wide consumption as a source of food and feed, some enset landraces are also used as a traditional medicine in some parts of the country. However, the latter are becoming vulnerable to various human-related activities and environmental constraints. The main objective of this study was, therefore, to investigate the diversity that exist in enset landraces used for traditional medicine. A field study was conducted in four Administrative Zones and one special District in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region in Ethiopia. A total of 14 qualitative traits were employed to investigate the diversity in 40 landraces through field observation, color charts and focus group discussion. The data were analyzed using SAS and MINITAB softwares. Principal component analysis showed that the first four principal components accounted for 77% of the total variations and classified the landraces into four distinct groups. Similarly, cluster analysis grouped the landraces into four major clusters each containing 4–15 landraces. In general, the 14 phenotypic traits used in this study are important in discriminating the landraces indicating the existence of high genetic diversity among the landraces which needs to be conserved for the future.

A new species of Leucas, here described as L. gypsicola A. J. Paton, Friis & Sebsebe, was collected in 2015, on gypsum outcrops of the Gorrahei Formation at the Lele Hills between Ginir and Imi, Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia. The closest relatives of L. gypsicola are two species, which occur in the dry parts of Ethiopia and Somalia (L. abyssinica) and in the Rift Valley of Kenya (L. hirundinaris). Leucas gypsicola seems to be a narrow endemic, restricted to outcrops of gypsum dominated by the tree Commiphora guidottii in Acacia-Commiphora woodland and bushland east of the Ethiopian highlands, similar to the narrowly restricted ranges of two recently described species of Commicarpus, C. macrothamnus Friis & O. Weber and C. leleensis Friis & Sebsebe (Nyctaginaceae).

Traditional agricultural landscapes support substantial levels of biological and cultural diversity. Tropical homegardens, which represent sustainable agro-ecosystems, are important components of such landscapes. In this study, homegardens of Basketo Special Woreda of Southwestern Ethiopia have been investigated. The study aims at understanding organization of homegardens, their role in maintenance of biological diversity and also the impact of ongoing changes on the composition and function of the gardens. A total of 60 homegardens (households) were sampled from 12 k’ebele (the smallest administrative unit) selected by employing a combination of purposive and stratified sampling methods. In the study, issues that pertain to local resource perception, management, and use norms as well as plant diversity of the different land-use systems in the landscape are addressed. A total of 207 species, of which 149 are maintained in the homegardens, were recorded from the managed landscape. Biodiversity has been cultivated in these farming units as a result of the farmers’ innate perception of biodiversity value and also due to the characteristic organization of the gardens which promote concentration of plant species. Currently, Basketo homegardens are undergoing unusual dynamics mainly due to market-driven factors. Some crops such as coffee/ buna ( Coffea arabica L.), which bring better economic return, are expanding and displacing enset / uuts ( Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheeseman) (which traditionally forms the basic element of the garden) and other long-existed crops. Drastic alteration of these crop production units could lead to unwanted impacts including a serious deterioration of biological diversity and loss of the sustainability feature of the agro-ecosystems.

Question Evergreen bushlands in Ethiopia have been inadequately studied and mapped. We address the question whether there is a transitional semi-evergreen bushland on the eastern escarpment of the Ethiopian Highlands, with unique floristic characteristics that distinguish it from the evergreen bushlands in other parts of Ethiopia and eastern Africa. Methods Based on a review of the recent descriptions of evergreen bushlands in Ethiopia, we hypothesize that there is a distinct zone of natural semi-evergreen bushland, which is restricted to the eastern and southeastern escarpment of the Ethiopian Highlands. In contrast, evergreen bushlands in other parts of Ethiopia are considered to be of a secondary nature. To test this hypothesis, we carried out qualitative vegetation surveys in 354 locations across Ethiopia and classified the vegetation in these locations based on the occurrences of indicator species. Based on this data, we created predictive distribution models of the semi-evergreen bushland in Ethiopia using various environmental distribution models. We furthermore compared the occurrences of characteristic evergreen bushland species in Ethiopia with the occurrence of these species within the evergreen bushlands in Kenya and Uganda. Results The vegetation surveys confirmed the existence of a distinct type of evergreen bushland vegetation. The transitional semi-evergreen bushland forms a transitional zone between the Acacia–Commiphora woodland and bushland and the Afromontane forest on the eastern and southeastern escarpments of Ethiopia, but is also characterized by a number of species that, within Ethiopia, are unique to this zone. Most of the characteristic species of the transitional semi-evergreen bushland are not found or only in lower densities in western Ethiopia. There is, furthermore, a limited overlap in characteristic species of the evergreen bushlands of Kenya and Uganda. Conclusions Our results provide important information on the hitherto inadequately studied semi-evergreen bushland of Ethiopia. It highlights the unique character of this part of the evergreen bushlands in Ethiopia, which we argue should be taken into account for future conservation planning.

There are more than 50000 known edible plants in the world, yet two-thirds of global plant-derived food is provided by only three major cereals - maize (Zea mays), wheat (Triticum aestivum) and rice (Oryza sativa). The dominance of this triad, now considered truly global food commodities, has led to a decline in the number of crop species contributing to global food supplies. Our dependence on only a few crop species limits our capability to deal with challenges posed by the adverse effects of climate change and the consequences of dietary imbalance. Emerging evidence suggests that climate change will cause shifts in crop production and yield loss due to more unpredictable and hostile weather patterns. One solution to this problem is through the wider use of underutilised (also called orphan or minor) crops to diversify agricultural systems and food sources. In addition to being highly nutritious, underutilised crops are resilient in natural and agricultural conditions, making them a suitable surrogate to the major crops. One such crop is teff [Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter], a warm-season annual cereal with the tiniest grain in the world. Native to Ethiopia and often the sustenance for local small farmers, teff thrives in both moisture-stressed and waterlogged soil conditions, making it a dependable staple within and beyond its current centre of origin. Today, teff is deemed a healthy wheat alternative in the West and is sought-after by health aficionados and those with coeliac disease or gluten sensitivity. The blooming market for healthy food is breathing new life into this underutilised crop, which has received relatively limited attention from mainstream research perhaps due to its 'orphan crop' status. This review presents the past, present and future of an ancient grain with a potential beyond its size.

The relationships of the tropical and sub-Saharan African genus Zygotritonia Mildbr. (6 spp.) have until now been inferred solely by morphological comparison with other genera of subfamily Crocoideae as it has remained the only genus of the subfamily for which no molecular DNA sequences have been available. A recent molecular phylogenetic analysis of tribe Watsonieae resulted in substantial changes to the circumscription of several genera putatively allied to Zygotritonia , emphasizing the value of these data in understanding relationships in the subfamily. Zygotritonia benishangula Goldblatt & Demissew has now been sequenced for three plastid markers ( trnL intron, a portion of the matK gene, and the trnQ-5′-rps16 spacer) and the resulting molecular phylogenetic analysis confirms its placement in tribe Watsonieae among the Lapeirousia Pourr. group of genera, where it is most closely allied to Savannospihon Goldblatt & Marais and Cyanixia Goldblatt & J.C. Manning. The morphological assignment of Zygotritonia to tribe Watsonieae has now been confirmed by molecular data.

Invasive species are the second threat to global biodiversity loss next to land-use changes. The study aims to assess (1) the effects of Prosopis juliflora (Prosopis) invasion on diversity of plant species and floristic composition in the South Afar Region of Ethiopia, (2) the effects of Prosopis on ecological availability of woody species and regeneration potential of native woody species, and (3) the effects of physiographic and anthropogenic factors on plant diversity patterns, ecological availability and regeneration potential of native woody species. Sample collection was performed in habitats of Prosopis thicket, Prosopis mixed with other native species; non-invaded woodlands and open grazing lands. The preferential sampling design was selected for data collection. R and SAS environments are used for data analyses. Duncan's multiple range tests were applied to test differences among means. The invasion intensity of the Prosopis did not show significant effects on Shannon evenness (F=2.41, P=0.08), whereas the invasion levels showed significant effects on the Shannon diversity index (F=3.74, P < 0.02) and richness (F=3.52, P < 0.02). On the other hand, the mean value the Shannon diversity index and richness under PM (H’=2.22, N=13.9) and NIW (H’=2.23, N=13.4) were significantly higher than PT (H’=1.96, N=11.5) and (H’=1.84, N=9.6). Results also revealed that invasion of Prosopis had shown significant negative effects on native trees (F=211.4, P < 0.0001) and the higher number of trees 1203(96.1%) under PT canopy was contributed by Prosopis than 49 (3.9%) of native trees. The only slope had shown impacts on the Shannon evenness (F=2.0, P < 0.0 of the study landscapes. If the present land-use/cover change and the effects of invasion on LULC were to continue, coupled with a drier climate, people’s livelihoods will be highly affected and the pastoral production system will be under increasing threat.

Coffee farming provides livelihoods for around 15 million farmers in Ethiopia and generates a quarter of the country's export earnings. Against a backdrop of rapidly increasing temperatures and decreasing rainfall, there is an urgent need to understand the influence of climate change on coffee production. Using a modelling approach in combination with remote sensing, supported by rigorous ground-truthing, we project changes in suitability for coffee farming under various climate change scenarios, specifically by assessing the exposure of coffee farming to future climatic shifts. We show that 39-59% of the current growing area could experience climatic changes that are large enough to render them unsuitable for coffee farming, in the absence of significant interventions or major influencing factors. Conversely, relocation of coffee areas, in combination with forest conservation or re-establishment, could see at least a fourfold (400%) increase in suitable coffee farming area. We identify key coffee-growing areas that are susceptible to climate change, as well as those that are climatically resilient.

A new species of Kalanchoe, K. hypseloleuce Friis & M. G. Gilbert, was found during field work in Ethiopia in 2015, and is established here. It is characterised by its tall stature (2 – 3 m), entire, sessile, lanceolate leaves and pure white flowers with abaxially minutely papillose corolla lobes (otherwise, the plant is glabrous). It is not obviously related to any previously known species, but an earlier, incomplete specimen has been cited as K. prittwitzii Engl. in the literature. K. hypseloleuce was collected on limestone in Acacia-Commiphora woodland and bushland at c. 1400 m a.s.l. It occurs in the southern part of the eastern Ethiopian escarpment in the Arsi and Eastern Harerghe zones of the Oromo Regional State. K. hypseloleuce is documented with images and maps, its climate envelope has been modelled, and a conservation assessment made. With the current level of threat, this could be Vulnerable to Near Threatened (VU-NT). Given the threat from habitat degradation is not imminent, we recommend the species to be listed as Near Threatened (NT).

We undertook ethnobotanical study of forage/fodder plant species used by the Afar and Oromo (Kereyu and Ittu) Nations in and around the semi-arid Awash National Park (ANP), Ethiopia. The study aimed at investigating and documenting indigenous knowledge (IK) on forage/fodder plant species and threats to their survival. Ninety-six informants between 20 and 80 years old were selected using prior information. Data were collected using semi-structured interview, guided field walk, discussion and field observation. Preference ranking, Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity and priority ranking were used for data analysis. One hundred twenty-six forage/fodder species of 90 genera and 43 families were collected in the study area. More than 88% of the species were reported with their vernacular names, where 68% were reported by the Afar Nation and 70% by the Oromo Nation. Family Poaceae was represented by 25 species (20%), followed by Fabaceae 18 (14%). Preference ranking for the most preferred forage grasses as perceived by key informants revealed that Chrysopogon plumulosus was the most important forage/fodder species. Overgrazing was the major threat in the study area, scoring 22%.

This study used Landsat TM, Landsat ETM +, and OLI data from 1986, 2003, and 2017, and topographic attributes derived from ASTER digital elevation model respectively, to map land use/land cover (LU/LC) in a predominantly agricultural region of northwestern highlands Ethiopia. LU/LC maps were created using supervised classification, and LU/LC change the mapping for the 1986–2003 and the 2003–2017 period determined using post-classification comparisons. The study found the proportion of agricultural land increased from 85.4% of the total area in 1986 to 93.3% in 2017. This increase coincided with a 3.5% decrease in a forested area, a 1.9% decrease in grazing land, and a 1.8% decrease in shrubland. The LU/LC changes mostly occurred in areas having a slope between 0 and 30°. This study has the potential to provide new and practical information for managers and planners for an infrequently studied region and contribute to the growing literature on the topographic factors for LU/LC changes.

This research was aimed to investigate floristic composition and structure of Kelekal protected forest established since 1999. For plant data collection, 33 different quadrats having 400 m 2 along seven different line transects were used. The structural data like Frequencies, Density, DBH, Height , Relative dominance, Relative density and IVI values were calculated for each species and for the selected woody plants. The woody plant species having DBH ? 2.5 cm and height greater than 2.5 m were measured. A hierarchical cluster analysis was performed to classify different plant communities. Shannon winner diversity indices and Sorensen’s similarity indices were used to compare the identified plant communities. Endemic and economically important plants were identified from Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea books. This research resulted 103 different vascular plants. Eight (7.77%) plants are endemic and the “K” partitioning in the R program using hierarchical cluster analysis resulted three-plant community types. The general distribution pattern of these woody plants at different DBH and height classes showed an inverted “J” shape pattern. Four different population patterns were investigated from the density of these species recorded at different DBH class. The result of the structural data provides pertinent information for future forest management techniques in Kelekal protected forest.

Extreme morphological reduction and convergent evolution can obscure taxonomic relationships. This phenomenon is frequently encountered in Cyperaceae, where characters traditionally used to diagnose genera have been shown to have evolved independently multiple times. The Ethiopian high-altitude perennial first described as Cyperus clandestinus was subsequently moved to Ficinia because it has spiral glume arrangement, unlike typical Cyperus species, which have distichous glume arrangement. However, this position has remained uncertain as no nutlets have previously been studied to establish the presence or absence of the gynophore – the synapomorphy for Ficinia. We resolve this 140-year-old puzzle by describing the morphology of the nutlet, which lacks a gynophore, and use DNA sequence data to resolve the taxon within Cyperus. Cyperus clandestinus was found to be closely related to Remirea maritima and Cyperus cyperoides in the C4Cyperus clade, whose members predominantly have distichously arranged glumes. This provides further evidence for the unreliability of glume arrangement as a character to distinguish between members of the Cyperus and Ficinia clades, whereas gynophore presence is more congruent with molecular data.

A cytogenetic survey of 17 species in the succulent-leaved genus Aloe L. (Xanthorrhoeaceae subfamily Asphodeloideae) in Ethiopia was undertaken towards a more complete genetic characterisation of the genus throughout its distribution in Africa, Arabia and Madagascar. Somatic metaphase chromosomes of all species studied showed the same diploid chromosome number of 2n = 14, consisting of four pairs of long and three pairs of short chromosomes. Symmetry was characterised as Stebbins type 2B and the asymmetry indices AsK%, TF%, A1 and A2 revealed minor karyotypic variation common in closely related species. The metrics showed that A. benishangulana has a marginally higher degree of asymmetry than is typical, and the pubescent-flowered A. trichosantha has a more symmetrical karyotype than most other species. We suggest that the stable karyotype morphology in Aloe indicates that structural genome changes and ecological factors play a more prominent role in speciation in Aloe.

On field trips to southeastern Ethiopia in 2012 the authors collected a semi-prostrate shrub of the genus Commiphora and matching the taxon named “Commiphora sp. = Friis et al. 3160” in the Flora of Ethiopia (1989). In the Flora of Somalia (1999) “Commiphora sp. = Friis et al. 3160” was considered a synonym of Commiphora oddurensis Chiov. However, in 2006 “Commiphora sp. = Friis et al. 3160” was described as a distinct species endemic to southeastern Ethiopia and named Commiphora suffruticosa Teshome. Although validly published, that scientific name has not been included in international data bases. After field observations and examination of almost all existing material in herbaria, it is concluded that the two taxa are best treated as subspecies, with some overlap in certain characters and a population of specimens in Central Somalia intermediate in leaf morphology: Commiphora oddurensis subsp. oddurensis, widely distributed in northeastern Kenya and northeastern and central Somalia, and subsp. suffruti...

Question How well does the forest classification system of the 1:5,000,000 vegetation map of Africa developed by Frank White correspond with classification systems and more extensive information on species assemblages of higher resolution maps developed for Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia? Methods We reviewed various national and sub-national vegetation maps for their potential in increasing the resolution of the African map. Associated documentation was consulted to compile species assemblages, and to identify indicator species, for national forest vegetation types. Indicator species were identified for each regional forest type by selecting those species that, among all the species listed for the same phytochorion (regional centre of endemism), were listed only for that forest type. For each of the national forest types, we counted the number of indicator species of the anticipated regional type. Floristic relationships (expressed by four different ecological distance measures) among national forest types were investigated based on distance-based redundancy analysis, permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) using distance matrices and hierarchical clustering. Results For most of the national forests, the analysis of indicator species and floristic relationships confirmed the regional classification system for the majority of national forest types, including the allocation to different phytochoria. Permutation tests confirmed allocation of national forest types to regional typologies, although the number of possible permutations limited inferences for the Zambezian and Lake Victoria phytochoria. Two forest types from Ethiopia and Kenya did not correspond to regional forest types. Conclusions Our analysis provides support that as the classification systems are compatible, the resolution and information content of the vegetation map of Africa can be directly improved by adding information from national maps, probably leading to improved liability of its application domains. We found statistical evidence for a distinct Afromontane phytochorion. We suggest expanding the regional forest classification system with ‘Afromontane moist transitional forest’. Among the various application domains of the higher resolution maps, these maps allow for an enhanced phytochoristic analysis of eastern Africa.

Qat (We sampled 17 SSR markers and 1561 wild and cultivated individuals across the historical areas of qat cultivation.On the basis of genetic structure inferred using Bayesian and nonparametric methods, two centers of origin in Kenya and one in Ethiopia were found for cultivated qat. The centers of origin in Ethiopia and northeast of Mt. Kenya are the primary sources of cultivated qat genotypes. Qat cultivated in Yemen is derived from Ethiopian genotypes rather than Yemeni wild populations. Cultivated qat with a wild Kenyan origin has not spread to Ethiopia or Yemen, whereas a small minority of qat cultivated in Kenya originated in Ethiopia. Hybrid genotypes with both Ethiopian and Kenyan parentage are present in northern Kenya.Ethiopian cultivars have diverged from their wild relatives, whereas Kenyan qat has diverged less. This pattern of divergence could be caused by the extinction of the wild-source qat populations in Ethiopia due to deforestation, undersampling, and/or artificial selection for agronomically important traits.

During field trips in 2013 and 2014, two distinctive plants belonging to the genus Commicarpus were collected in the Lele Hills, Bale Zone, eastern Ethiopia, on outcrops of sedimentary rock belonging to the Gorrahei Formation with high contents of gypsum. The plants are here described as two new species: Commicarpus macrothamnus Friis & O. Weber sp. nov. is unique among all hitherto described species of Commicarpus, being a robust free-standing shrub, almost a small tree up to 3½ m high, with woody stems up to c. 12 cm in diam. Commicarpus leleensis Friis & Sebsebe sp. nov. is also unusual in Commicarpus, being a small self-supporting shrub to 0.8 (– 1) m high. Both new species occur in small populations with restricted distribution; models based on the available information show that the potential distribution is also restricted. C. macrothamnus is here evaluated as Vulnerable (VU), while C. leleensis, only known from the type, should remain Data Deficient (DD). Outcrops of gypsum with restricted-range species are well known from eastern Ethiopia and Somalia, but the locality with the two new species of Commicarpus is the most north-western and one of the highest sites recorded so far for gypsum endemics.

Yams (Dioscorea spp.) rank as the fourth most important root and tuber crop after potatoes, cassava and sweet potatoes. They are an economic crop in most of the tropics especially in West Africa, which produces over 95 % of the world output. Despite their cultural and economic importance there is taxonomic confusion regarding Guinea yams. The currently used classification scheme, which relies on vegetative and inflorescence characters, does not consistently delimit species boundaries between members of Guinea yams (D. cayenensis Lam.–D. rotundata Poir. complex), their wild relatives (D. abyssinica Kunth and D. praehensilis Benth.,) and D. sagittifolia Pax. Establishing the taxonomic identity of the germplasm and understanding the systematic relationships among crops is vital to the management of genetic resources and the utilization of accessions. In this study, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) genetic fingerprinting was used to evaluate and characterize 43 individual plants, belonging to different populations of wild and cultivated Guinea yams. The three primer combinations used in the AFLP analyses generated 158 scorable bands, with an overall polymorphism of 78 %. Ordination and cluster analyses of AFLP data failed to produce any clear species boundary between either the Guinea yam accessions or between them and their wild relatives. The average genetic similarity between the study individuals of Guinea yams and their wild relatives ranged from 60 to 100 %. The first, second and third principal coordinates axes cumulatively account for 77.45 % of the total variation. AFLP analyses also revealed a higher genetic divergence among cultivated Guinea yam accessions of the Sheko cultivars. Ordination and cluster analysis using UPGMA revealed no clear species boundaries between members of the complex. Thus, the taxonomy of these “species” needs to be revisited using other markers.