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This article seeks to analyze the evolving development and contestations regarding the interplay of Islam and politics in Malaysia's public space for a period of 60 years (1957-2017) since its independence as a nation-state. A crucial element in this discourse is the official position of Islam as the "religion of the federation" in the Malaysian Constitution, which simultaneously guarantees the freedom of other religions embraced by almost half of the country's population. The population became even more diverse ethnically and religiously upon the formation of the Federation of Malaysia, which replaced Malaya, on September 16, 1963. Closely related to the discourse of political Islam in Malaysia, the evolving concepts of "religion" and "secularism" in Malaysia's Islamic context have undergone considerable shifts as a result of constant public engagement by an assortment of politicians, commentators, scholars, bureaucrats, and civil society activists. As the argument develops, Malaysia's interaction with Islam has been essentialized by political interests such that boundaries are hardened between what is considered Islamic and un-Islamic. The increasingly rigid positions adopted by Islamic stakeholders have arguably worsened both interreligious and intra-Muslim relations, with progressive Muslim voices increasingly finding themselves marginalized in the state-controlled political environment.

Salafi thoughts and the phenomenon of violent extremism are frequent subjects in political and international studies. A comprehensive study in the field of international relations that based on the interaction between structure and agency, can explain the issue. The main objective of this paper is to study the Salafi- Extremist Islam. Salafist- Extremist groups tend to perform violent struggle to gain power and overthrow governments in order to restore the Islamic caliphate. The main question of this article is that: how International System has affected Salafi- Extremist Islam, during the post-cold war era? Theoretical framework of this paper is Constructivism. Research method in qualitative content analysis. In this regard, we tried to analyze this extremist movement and show how the international system affected these groups.

"Book Review" Suudi Arabistan’ın Selefi/Hanbeli ilim geleneğinin yetiştirdiği önde gelen isimlerden olan Âiz el-Karnî, sadece Arabistan’da değil aynı zamanda tüm Arap dünyasında saygınlığı olan bir ilmi şahsiyettir. Onun etkinliğinin ülke sınırları dışına taşmasında ilmi ve edebi yönünü vaiz/davetçi kişiliği ile mezcetmesinin rolü büyüktür. Zira el-Karnî, sayısı binleri aşan vaaz ve derslerinde dinleyicisinin duygularına hitap ederek sözünü tesirli kılmasında ilmi birikimi kadar edebiyatçı yönünü de kullanmıştır. Onun edebi yönünü yansıtan eserlerinden birisi de Makâmâtu’l-Karnî’dir. el-Karnî bu eserinde, klasik Arap edebiyatında “makâme” olarak bilinen edebi türe öykünmüş ve İslam dünyasının günümüz meseleleri karşısında kendi görüşlerini güçlü bir edebi dille aktarmaya çalışmıştır. Ā’iḍ el-Qarnī who is one of the leading scholars in the Saudi Arabia’s Salafi/Hanbeli tradition is a respected figure not only in Saudi Arabia but also in the entire Arab World. He integrated his scientific and literary aspect with his preacher/inviter personality, hence this played a major role in his effectiveness extending beyond the borders of the country. In his preaching and lessons that exceeded thousands, al- Qarnī used the literary aspect as well as his scientific knowledge to appeal to the listener's feelings and influence his words. One of his works reflecting his literary competence is Maqāmāt al-Qarnī. In this work, al-Qarnī emulated the literary genre known as "maqam" in classical Arabic literature and tried to convey his own views on today’s issues of the Islamic world in a strong literary language.

This study focuses on the history of the Muslim Students’ Society of Nigeria (MSSN) and its involvement in the processes of religious change among “Yoruba Muslims” in Southwest Nigeria from 1954 to 2014. It posits that the notion of being a “good Muslim” has changed significantly especially among Western educated Yoruba Muslims since the colonial period and that the MSSN not only play a key role in this change but also part of this change. The main questions that guide the study are thus, how has the MSSN contributed to religious change and the ways of being Muslim in Yorubaland and how is the MSSN itself subject to change? The study argues that central to this change is the fact that the MSSN developed from a religiously affiliated students’ club into an Islamic reform movement. This includes its own fragmentation caused by different discourses that shaped its reform as well as to the foundation of other Islamic movements which promoted ways of being Muslim that both intersect and differ from the position of MSSN. The study adopts a multidisciplinary approach largely situated in the fields of history, religious studies and anthropology of Islam. This approach is reflected in the type of sources and methods employed which include fieldwork, archival study, and analysis of literature. The conceptual framework of the study is based on the notion of Islam as a “discursive tradition” and its interlinkages with the concepts of “Islamic reform,” “religious change,” and “Christian-Muslim encounters.” These additional concepts not only help to understand discursive tradition as fragmented but also give voice to the different actors and dynamic positions involved. The study has four central results: firstly, it reveals that the reasons for the formation of the MSSN in 1954 are closely linked to the Yoruba Muslims’ encounter with Christianization and the social change that was facilitated by colonialization since the mid-nineteenth century. While the encounter motivated the formation of MSSN by students and the way its objectives were promoted in Nigeria, the students also aimed to promote a way of life that fits into their changing world. Secondly, the study explains that the reform in the MSSN was inspired by historical and epistemological developments that were connected to the Yoruba Muslim communities and the globalized Muslim world. These developments paved way for critical discourses on Islam and the MSSN practices as well as the revival of prophetic traditions called sunna. But while the discourses shaped new ways of being Muslim in the MSSN, they also inspired its factionalisation by the 1990s. Thirdly, the study points out that despite the quest for reform, the Islamic discursive tradition was neither uniform nor reducible to a fixed understanding of Islam among Muslim students. Rather different existential and social realities in Yorubaland and Nigeria forced the MSSN to construct its ideals of reform on interpretations of Islam that emphasised “moderation,” “tolerance,” “flexibility,” and a “gradual” embodiment of Islam. Fourthly, the study reveals how the MSSN is involved in the transmission of Islamic knowledge and posits that its involvement is one of the ways in which the ‘classical’ Islamic education has changed in Yoruba society and the Muslim world in Nigeria. New forms of learning were introduced by the MSSN that reveal its own contribution and an understanding of this change. In general, the study demonstrates the manifold contributions of MSSN to religious change and new ways of being Muslim, which include the formation of national and transnational Muslim organizations, revival of sunna, introduction of new forms of religious education and the production of new Muslim elite. Overall, the case study presented in this study helps to understand how the confluence of local contingencies and global entanglements contribute to processes of religious change.

Birgivī (Birgilī) Meḥmed Efendī (929–81/1523–73) was one of the Ottoman scholars who was known with his works and opinions both during his period and after his death. In addition to his character and scholarly personality, his books on Arabic grammar, especially ʿAwāmil and Iẓhār, al-Ṭarīqa al-Muḥammadiyya on morality and Islamic mysticism, and his works on Islamic law gained him a good reputation. His most notable side was that he prioritized religious, moral and social issues of this time and could boldly state his opinions and criticism over these issues. It is accepted that Birgivī is Ḥanafī in terms of fiqh and is Māturīdī in terms of ʿaqidah. In this assertion, Birgivī’s denominational identity has been discussed within the context of discursive topics in the book named al-Ṭarīqa al-Muḥammadiyyaand the book named Dāmigha al-mubtadiīʾn, which was published in response to the former. Kalāmī opinions put forward and argued in al-Ṭarīqa al-Muḥammadiyya and Dāmigha al-Mubtadiīʾnare compatible with the fundamental standpoints of Māturīdīyya. In this regard, it can be said that he adopted the Māturīdī religious approach. The scholarly sources that he utilized reveal his relationship with Ḥanafī-Māturīdī scholars. It is known that he addressed to Māturīdī theologian, Abū Isḥāq al-Ṣaffār al-Bukhārī (d. 534/1139) and to his work, Talkhīṣ al-adilla li-qawāʿid al-tawḥīdby referring him as “Shaykh al-Imām al-Zāhid Hujjat al-Ḥaqq wa al-dīn Ibrāhīm b. Ismāīl al-Ṣaffār”. The chapter of al-Ṭarīqa al-Muḥammadiyya, in which he pointed out that the views of some sects, such as Qadarriya, Kaysāniyya, Rāfiẓīs, Khawārij, Yazīdīs, Najjāriyya are acts of blasphemy, tally with the relevant chapter in Talkhīṣ al-adilla. Accordingly, it has been found out that one of the sources of Birgivī on Māturīdī discourse was Talkhīṣ al-adilla. However, the fact that he considered ʿIlm al-Kalām (Islamic Theology) among the disciplines that were forbidden in his disciplinary classification as “al-Maʾmūr biha(what is ordered)”, “Manhiyy ʿanha(what is forbidden)”, and “Mandūb ileyhā (whichbring reward to the doer but lead not to punishment when omitted)” in al-Ṭarīqa al-Muḥammadiyya, and the fact that he claimed any redundant study on these disciplines were forbidden does not comply with the Māturīdī understanding. His opinion towards this discourse is an understanding voiced byBukhārāḤanafīs and differs from the religious understanding of SamarqandḤanafīs, Māturīdīs led by Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī (d. 333/944). Therefore, defining the religious understanding of Birgivī as Salafī or Māturīdī is far from comprehensively explaining the situation. This paper seeks to evidence the argument that Birgivī did not adopt Salafī Understanding but he adopted BukhārāḤanafīs, alias Faqīh Ḥanafīs(Jurist Hanafīs), which remains far from Islamic Theology, rather than Mutakallim Ḥanafīs(Theologian Hanafīs), which is represented by Māturīdīs., Demir, Abdullah. "İmam Birgivî Selefî mi yoksa Mâtürîdî mi?". Balıkesirli Bir İslam Âlimi İmam Birgivî Ed. Mehmet Bayyiğit v.dğr. 2: 286-315. Balıkesir: Balıkesir Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültür Yayınları, 2019.

The comparative research investigates differences between the United States and Azerbaijan’s applications of strategic communications to counter terrorist recruiting. The key differences lie in cultural and religious narratives as well as target audiences. The U.S. Constitution formally protects freedom of speech and freedom of religion, and the anti-terrorism strategic communications of the U.S. government do not generally target a domestic audience. Azerbaijan formally and informally protects historically established religious traditions, insofar as those traditions guarantee non-violence. This requires regulation of religious freedom by Azerbaijani policy makers. These differences are due not only to the religious dissimilarity between the countries but also to institutional legacies. Whereas the United States has prioritized the freedom of expression in its organization of strategic communications, the government of Azerbaijan has constructed narratives of multiculturalism countering religious radicalization. The lessons from how U.S. institutions emphasize freedom of expression in their strategic communications to counter terrorist recruiting may help Azerbaijan boost the effectiveness of its domestic propaganda. This research uses concepts from counterterrorism, communications, political science, history, and sociology, and draws from academic literature, policy documents, and media materials in English, Azerbaijani, and Russian. http://archive.org/details/developmentofstr1094559673 Outstanding Thesis Colonel, Azerbaijan Army Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

This article reveals the tradition in Salafi Islamic boarding school as a unindegineous Islamic istitution in Indonesia. This institution applies Wahabi school, do a purification movement, al-raj’u ila al-Qur’an wa al-Sunah, and exclusivity. The Salafi tradition is grouped into four concepts of thought: Syari’at, Bid’ah, Khurafat and Tahayul. It is intended to straighten the Muslim way of thinking in order to be good Muslims. Meanwhile the knowledge traditions are: in Fiqh, the books that are discussed are:al-Wajiz written by Syeikh abdul Adhim al-Badawi, Mulakhash fiqh by Syekh Fauzan, Sifat Shalat Nabi by Syeikh al-Bani, kitab Bulughul Maram. They all refuse everything that has no rules in Islamic law and opposite to the Islamic believe. The Salafi-Wahabi knowledge tradition that is always emphasize to the text authority and limits the idea’s role will cause the belief that al-Quran and hadis are perfect since they covers all life aspects of man. So, they made simplification that all religions that are not stated in al-Quran and hadis are believed as bid’ah. Meanwhile the doer is believed as a person who needs to be guidanced into the right way, by reminding or violence.

This paper discusses the concept of death, resurrection and shrine visitation from an Islamic point of view. It is divided into two integral parts. In the first part, we examine the Islamic eschatological concepts of death, resurrection, and the Day of Judgment. The second part deals with one of the most disputed topics in Islamic thought, those of graves and shrines and the cult of saints. We will be arguing that in spite of the fact that Muslims are not allowed (from a fundamentalist point of view) to construct ornamented tombs or shrines, the cult of saints is widespread in many parts of the Muslim world. We contend that this phenomenon stems from cultural rather than religious factors. In many cases, Muslims were unable to divest themselves of cultural aspects that interfered or were incompatible with their religious beliefs. We assert that the cult of saints is more common in Shia- than Sunni-dominated countries. In response to the ongoing recent attacks on shrines, the researchers suggest dialogue among Muslim sects.

Pendidikan Islam yang sejatinya menjadi wadah keilmuan cenderung lebih merepresentasikan gerakan keagamaan yang menaunginya. Kondisi ini membawa madrasah dan sekolah Islam sebagai instrumen untuk memperkuat eksistensi dan ideologi masing-masing. Kecenderungan ini bersamaan dengan demokratisasi yang dijalankan sejak reformasi 1998, di mana gerakan keagamaan memperoleh ruang dan momentum. Studi ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis dan memetakan kecenderungan dinamika pendidikan Islam di Lombok yang direpresentasikan oleh tiga gerakan keagamaan, masing-masing Nahdlatul Wathan, Muhammadiyah dan Salafi. Sesuai fokus kajian, dipandang relevan metode kualitatif dengan pendekatan sosiologis dijadikan sebagai cognitive framework dalam analisis hasil penelitian. Studi ini mem-buktikan bahwa hubungan kelompok keagamaan dengan pendidikan bersifat dialektis. Keragaman gerakan keagamaan menentukan corak ideologis pendidikan Islam. Sebaliknya, pendidikan Islam berkontribusi dalam memperkuat perbedaan dan jarak antar kelompok keagamaan. Abstract: Religious Movement and Ideological Afiliation of Islamic Education in Lombok . Islamic education as scientific means tend to represent more as Islamic movement that supervise them. This problem bring madrasah and Islamic education as the instrument to strengthening their existence and ideology respectively. The fenomena is a long with a democratication which began since reformation era in 1998, wherein Islamic movement gained space and momentum. The aim of this paper is to analyse and map the dynamics of Islamic education in Lombok represented by such three religious movements, as Nahdlatul Wathan, Muhammadiyah and Salafi. This study utilizes qualitative methode with a sociological approach as cognitive framework. This paper argues that the relationship between the Islamic groups with Islamic education is dialectis. The diversity of religious movements determines the ideological pattern of Islamic Education. Conversely, Islamic education contributes to strengthening differences and distance between among denominations. Kata Kunci: Nahdlatul Wathan, Muhammadiyah, Salafi, pendidikan Islam, Lombok

Hakimiyet arzusu/temayülü beşerî bir özelliktir. İnsanoğlu, yeryüzüne geldiği andan itibaren, hâkimiyetini tesis etmek için diğer insanlara boyun eğdirme çabası içerisinde olmuştur. İslam coğrafyası, medeniyetin ve semavî dinlerin beşiği olması hasebiyle bu çekişmelere daha fazla maruz kalmıştır. İslam'ın zuhûrundan sonra, bu bölgelerde hâkimiyet kuran Fars, Roma ve Bizans gibi imparatorluklara karşı mücadelede Müslümanların önemli bir rolü olmuştur. Güçlü oldukları asırlarda Müslümanların hâkimiyeti Avrupa ve Çin'e kadar uzanmıştır. Müslüman nüfuz, bu bölgelerdeki etkisini zamanla kaybetmiş, bugün Ortadoğu olarak isimlendirilen bölgede ise hâkimiyetini koruyabilmiştir. İslam âlemi, özellikle İslam imparatorluğunun zayıflamasından, Osmanlı saltanatının devrilmesinden, hilafetlerinin ortadan kaldırılmasından ve bu bölgede çağdaş medeniyetin damarları mesabesinde olan petrol, doğalgaz ve diğer zenginlik kaynaklarının keşfedilmesinden sonra, dünyayı hükümranlığı altına almak isteyen Batılı ulusal devletlerin ilgi odağı haline gelmiştir. Bu merhalede İslamî hareketler olarak isimlendirilen bir takım oluşumlar ortaya çıkmış ve Ortadoğu'daki müslüman devletlerin siyasî gidişatında, uluslararası ilişkilerin seyrinde etkili olmuştur. Bu hareketlerin ortaya çıkmasında birçok faktör etkili olmuştur. Bu hareketlerin tarihi köklerinin ve zemininin varlığına ilaveten kaybedilen hilafeti geri getirmek, sömürgeci Batıya karşı koymak; ulusal devletlerin, ideolojik ve siyasi çekişmelerin ortaya çıkması, savaşlar başta olmak üzere birçok beşeri gelişmeden kaynaklanan göçler bu faktörlerden bazılarıdır. İslam toplumunda geçmişte meydana gelen bazı tarihî olaylar, var olan siyasî ve dinî yapı ve bu yapıdan kaynaklanan mevcut durum, dinî anlayış düzeyinde mezhepsel bölünmüşlük, kabilevi denilebilecek toplumsal yapı ve bütün bunlardan kaynaklanan fikrî çekişmelerden kaynaklanan hususlar ve yaşanan iç çatışmalar da bu hareketlerin ortaya çıkışını etkileyen diğer bazı önemli faktörlerdir. Ulusal ve uluslararası siyasi ve ekonomik denklemde yer almak ve bu denklemin şekillenmesinde etkili olma amacından hareketle ortaya çıkan bu oluşumların stratejilerinin temeli İslam âlemine hâkim olma ana hedefi üzerinde bina edilmiştir. Söz konusu hedef doğrultusunda gerçekleştirdikleri mücadeleyle, kurulu dünya düzenine karşı koymuşlardır. Amerika Birleşik Devletlerinin, yöntem ve kaynakları farklı bu İslamî hareketlerle ilişkisini soğuk savaş dönemiyle açıklamak mümkündür. Amerika onları bazen Sovyetler Birliğine bazen de diğer ülkelere karşı savaşmak için kullanmıştır. Özellikle Komünist blokun çöküp kapitalist blokun tek başına kalmasından ve Amerika'nın önderliğinde yenidünya düzeninin ortaya çıkmasından sonra, aralarında var olan dostluk düşmanlığa dönüşmüştür. el-Kâide'nin ortaya çıkmasının sebebi, Amerika'nın dünya ekonomisi üzerinde tek süper güç olma çabası karşısında, Rusya ve Çin'in önderliğinde bir muhalefet ve direniş cephesinin ortaya çıkmasından sonra, bu mücadelenin radikal İslamî hareketlerle savaş şekline dönüşmesidir. Ortadoğudaki bölgesel güçler arasında vekâlet savaşına dönüşmesi için iki cephe arasında bu hareketleri ulusal ve bölgesel hedefler noktasında birleştirdikten sonra Arap, Türk ve İran üçgenindeki ilişkiler, sünnîlik ve şiîlik adı altında nüfuz ve menfaat üzerine kurulmuştur. Bundan dolayı söz konusu üçgende selefîlik, ılımlı islamcılık ve şiîlikten beslenen ve onlara dayanan bazı hareketler ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu durumdan faydalanarak ortaya çıkan DAIŞ, bu mücadelede devletleri ve bölgeyi dengelemede önemli bir unsur olmuştur. Daha sonra DAIŞ, `İslâmî Devlet`e dönüşmüş ve hilafet ilan etmiştir. Sonuç olarak da dış güçlerin bölgeye müdahalesi için bir araç ve bir bahane olmuştur.Anahtar KelimelerYenidünya Düzeni, İslamî Hareketler, Amerika, Ortadoğu, Daiş, el-Kaide,Selefî. The phenomenon of universalism is an important characteristic of human being. From the beginning of the world, human beings have been in conflict with each other in order to dominate others and force them to obey. Islamic world has experienced this conflict more because of its geographical location in which early civilization and divine religions emerged. After the emergence of Islam, Muslims have played an important role to fight against Persian, Roman and Byzantium empires, which used to dominate geographical territory of Islamic world. Muslims have expanded their hegemony to Europe in the West, and China in the East. After the decline of Islamic power in these regions, now so-called Islamic world covers Middle Eastern part of Asia. After the decline of Ottoman Empire, demolishing of caliphate and emergence of petroleum and underground resources, this territory has been the center of interest of Western world which wants to take control of the region. Thus, as a reaction to this, so-called Islamic movements have appeared in the Islamic world. There are many reasons for the emergence of these movements such as migration, to bring the caliphate back, to resist Western imperialism, and national, ideological and political conflicts in the Islamic states, and so on. Furthermore, historical, internal, political, tribal, racial, religious, sectarian, and operational conflicts have also led to the emergence of these movements. However, some of these movements have been used as an excuse by the Western to control the Islamic world. Islamic movements have also aimed to lead the Islamic world. They have reacted to the world powers. The relations between the United States and Islamic movements could be explained in the light of cold war. The US has used some of these movements as oppose to the Soviet Union and other powers. However, after the demise of communist block, the capitalist block has remained the only world power under the leading of US, and thus the good relationship between some Islamic movements and the US has turned to hostility. While, the US supported such groups as al-Qaeda against Russia in order to be the supreme power of the world, later the subsistence of Islamic movements have been turned to the phrase of 'fight with Radical Islamic movements' by the world powers such as US, Russia, China. Thus, these movements have been useful tools for the regional and international powers. This power relation has lead to such conflicts between Shia and Sunni which has three dimensions, Arab, Turk and Iran. For this reason, in this triangle environment, different Salafi, Wasati and Shia based movements have appeared. Taking advantage of these conflicts, ISIS has been an important tool regional and international powers to control Muslim territories. Later, ISIS has turned into Islamic State (IS) and declared the caliphate. As a result, ISIS has become a proof and an excuse for the external powers to control over the region.KeywordsNew world order, İslamic Movements, United States, ISIS, al-Qaeda, Salafi 190

Sebagai model pendidikan Islam tertua di Indonesia, pondok pesantren (pontren) mempunyai peran strategis dalam pelestarian ajaran Islam, terutama terlihat dalam transmisi tradisi bermazhab melalui kegiatan pembelajaran fikih dengan kurikulum dan referensi sejumlah kitab-kitab klasik yang bersifat doktrinal dan monoton. Hasil penelitian terhadap 12 (dua belas) pontren di Kalimantan Selatan dengan pendekatan studi kasus melalui metode wawancara mendalam, observasi, dan dokumentasi menunjukkan kuatnya tradisi bermadzhab dalam fikih yang ter- institusionalisasi dalam kurikulum dan sistem pembelajaran fikih. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa di dalam pembelajaran fikih, baik yang diselenggarakan melalui sistem klasikal atau nonklasikal, bandongan/wetonan, ceramah dan atau diskusi, pelembagaan mazhab terlihat pada bahan ajar/kitab fikih yang digunakan dan konsep serta paradigma guru tentang mazhab. Hal tersebut berimplikasi pada terciptanya alumni yang eksklusif dalam memahami dan menyikapi perbedaan pendapat.Abstract: the Paradigm of Islamic Legal School Adherents in Pondok Pesantren (Islamic boarding school) of South Kalimantan. As the oldest model of Islamic education in Indonesia, pondok pesantren has strategic role in the preservation of the thought of Islam, especially noticeable in transmission of the tradition follow mazhab through learning activities with curriculum and several classic books as references in doctrinal and monotonous approach. Result of study in twelve (12) pontren in South Kalimantan in case study approach through indepth interviews, observation, and documentation methods showed strong tradition in follow madzhab institutionalized in the curriculum and learning systems of fiqh. The study also showed that in the study of fiqh, both held by a classical (bandongan/ wetonan) or non-classical system (lecture or discussion), the institutionalization of mazhab appear on teaching materials/book of fiqh used, concepts and paradigms of teachers on mazhab. These conditions may lead to boosting the creation of exclusive alumni in understanding and addressing differences of opinion amongst Islamic legal schools.Kata Kunci: hukum Islam, fikih, madzhab, pondok pesantren, salafi, khalafi

This study is about the role of Salafi Pesantrens (Islamic boarding schools) in Salafi da’wa in Indonesia. A Salafi pesantren is a pesantren that teaches Salafism which mostly derives from the works of Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, the founder of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia. Salafi pesantrens started to emerge in the late 1980s and were established by fresh graduates from Saudi Arabia and Yemen, and supported by alumni of the Institute for the Study of Islam and Arabic (LIPIA) in Jakarta. Aiming at the reproduction of ‘ulama, Salafi pesantrens not only teach their students Salafism, but also accustom them to practice the Salafi manhaj (path) in their daily life. ‘Ulamas are knowledgeable persons in religion to whom people usually go for consult on religious matters. In this study, I focus on three pesantrens: al-Nur al-Atsari in Ciamis, Assunah in Cirebon (both in West Java) and al-Furqan in Gresik, East Java. They have been chosen because they represent different currents of Salafism in Indonesia. I analyse various aspects of these educational institutions: historical development, community’s responses, educational programs, curriculum, methods of learning, students’ lives and activities, networks and fundraising. To collect the data, I carried out fieldwork for nineteen months in two periods, observing pesantren community’s life, taking part in various activities, and interviewing teachers and students, and local religious leaders. During my fieldwork, I found that in the early period of their development, Salafi pesantrens encountered strong resistance from local community, particularly its religious leaders. There are two reasons behind this resistance: doctrine and attitude. Salafis usually criticize local religious traditions because they consider them religious innovations that have no roots in Islam. Moreover, local people view Salafis as arrogant and exclusive because they limit their social interactions among themselves only, and do not want to interact with villagers. However, the Salafis have passed this difficult phase, and currently the local community has become more familiar with the presence of Salafis around them. Salafi pesantrens are connected to their counterparts in the Middle East. This connection can be observed in two aspects: financial support and the adoption of curriculum. Some Salafi pesantrens receive large sums of money from Salafi institutions: the Jam’iyyat Ihya’ al-Turath al-Islami in Kuwait, and the Sheikh ‘Eid Charity Association in Qatar. They usually spent the money for construction of buildings, such as classrooms, student dormitories and mosques. Moreover, they also have adopted curricula from Yemen and Saudi Arabia in religious subjects. To maintain this linkage, Salafis often request fatwas from Salafi sheikhs in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, and send their students to study with them. I conclude that Salafi pesantrens play a significant role in the dissemination of Salafism. In addition to teaching Salafism to their students, the Salafis preach Salafism to the local community through many means, including organizing religious lessons in mosques around them and establishing Salafi da’wa radio stations. The use of radio channels is intended to reach a wider audience the Salafi ustadhs cannot reach physically.

This study is about the role of Salafi Pesantrens (Islamic boarding schools) in Salafi da’wa in Indonesia. A Salafi pesantren is a pesantren that teaches Salafism which mostly derives from the works of Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, the founder of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia. Salafi pesantrens started to emerge in the late 1980s and were established by fresh graduates from Saudi Arabia and Yemen, and supported by alumni of the Institute for the Study of Islam and Arabic (LIPIA) in Jakarta. Aiming at the reproduction of ‘ulama, Salafi pesantrens not only teach their students Salafism, but also accustom them to practice the Salafi manhaj (path) in their daily life. ‘Ulamas are knowledgeable persons in religion to whom people usually go for consult on religious matters. In this study, I focus on three pesantrens: al-Nur al-Atsari in Ciamis, Assunah in Cirebon (both in West Java) and al-Furqan in Gresik, East Java. They have been chosen because they represent different currents of Salafism in Indonesia. I analyse various aspects of these educational institutions: historical development, community’s responses, educational programs, curriculum, methods of learning, students’ lives and activities, networks and fundraising. To collect the data, I carried out fieldwork for nineteen months in two periods, observing pesantren community’s life, taking part in various activities, and interviewing teachers and students, and local religious leaders. During my fieldwork, I found that in the early period of their development, Salafi pesantrens encountered strong resistance from local community, particularly its religious leaders. There are two reasons behind this resistance: doctrine and attitude. Salafis usually criticize local religious traditions because they consider them religious innovations that have no roots in Islam. Moreover, local people view Salafis as arrogant and exclusive because they limit their social interactions among themselves only, and do not want to interact with villagers. However, the Salafis have passed this difficult phase, and currently the local community has become more familiar with the presence of Salafis around them. Salafi pesantrens are connected to their counterparts in the Middle East. This connection can be observed in two aspects: financial support and the adoption of curriculum. Some Salafi pesantrens receive large sums of money from Salafi institutions: the Jam’iyyat Ihya’ al-Turath al-Islami in Kuwait, and the Sheikh ‘Eid Charity Association in Qatar. They usually spent the money for construction of buildings, such as classrooms, student dormitories and mosques. Moreover, they also have adopted curricula from Yemen and Saudi Arabia in religious subjects. To maintain this linkage, Salafis often request fatwas from Salafi sheikhs in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, and send their students to study with them. I conclude that Salafi pesantrens play a significant role in the dissemination of Salafism. In addition to teaching Salafism to their students, the Salafis preach Salafism to the local community through many means, including organizing religious lessons in mosques around them and establishing Salafi da’wa radio stations. The use of radio channels is intended to reach a wider audience the Salafi ustadhs cannot reach physically.

89-103 Статья посвящена изучению имамов как сословия на материале Республики Адыгея. Большое значение имеет рассмотрение политики государства по формированию лояльных имамов, инте- грированных в Духовные управления. Однако ставка только на тех имамов, которые работают в ДУМах, не отвечает вызовам, стоящим перед духовным сословием на Северном Кавказе в начале XXI в. В 1990-х гг. сложилась целая группа имамов, придерживающихся салафизма, не интегрированных в ДУМы, но имеющих большой авторитет у единоверцев. Автор приводит данные о количественном составе имамов в Адыгее, предлагает их классификацию. Подчеркивается, что авторитет имамов в регионе для мусульман небезусловен. На Северном Кавказе претерпевает динамику пред- ставление о возрасте и о самой категории "старшие мужчины". Для религиозной молодежи большим авторитетом будут религиозные деятели, возраст которых неважен, зато важны знания и лидерские качества, которыми могут обладать и ровесники "молодых мусуль- ман". Для небольшой части молодых мусульман авторитетами являются не имамы в своей мечети, а исламские ученые, которые могут находиться за тысячи километров от них, так называемые "электронные имамы". Paper examines the Imams as class in the Republic of Adygea. Author draws attention that the state is making great efforts regarding the formation of a new generation of loyal Imams. However, the State supports only on those imams who work in Muftiates. Imams in the North Caucasus can be divided into three groups. The first and second are incorporated into the official Muftiate. The first group - so called traditional Imams, they as a rule did not receive special education, and they are mainly engaged in appreciation of ritual practices. The second group - young (30-35) imams, who were educated abroad, usually in Egypt, Turkey and the UAE. Some imams in the Adygea have descendants of Muhajirs arriving home from Syria, Kosovo and Turkey in the 1990. The third group - the Salafi imams, are beyond the control of the Muftiates. This group is very influential in Daghestan. The author emphasizes that the authority of the Imams is not absolute. Now in the North Caucasus representation of the age is in dynamics. For religious youth are highly respected religious leaders, whose age is not important. For the part of young Muslim Islamic scholars and those who may be thousands of miles away from them, so-called "electronic Imams" has more authority than Imam in the local mosque. Deserves special attention the phenomenon of youth Jamaat. The influx of young people these Jamaat rather expresses their protest against the modern orders of the North Caucasus.

Islam as a religion has a doctrine full final, complete, comprehensive and universal, so that the texts that became the guiding principle is universally viewed as well. In the real level, especially in need of interpretation, often leading to problems of its own because each group has a flow that allows the results are different interpretations. This is like the Salafi group based its interpretation on groups considered heretical Islamic sects other, so that a constraint when a dialogue about the development of tolerance values. Despite the rejection of the dialogue is actually contrary to the Qur'an itself. Key words: Salafi, tolerance, interpretation, heretical innovation

Bu tez çalışmasında araştırılan konu işlevselci yaklaşımın kritiğidir. Tezde, sosyal hareketler bağlamında yeni dini hareketlerin oluşum ve gelişimlerini, özelde de Arnavutluk'ta komünist rejimin yıkılmasının ardından Selefi hareketin gelişimini açıklamaya çalışan işlevselciliğin geçerliliği ve noksanlıkları incelenmiştir. İkinci Dünya Savaşı'ndan sonra ortaya çıkan yeni dini akımlar hakkında farklı tipolojiler yapılmasına rağmen birçok dini akımın düşünce ve dünyaya bakış açılarını anlama konusunda sosyal bilimciler eksik kalmıştır. Yeni din hareketler bağlamında Arnavutluk'ta 1991 yılından sonra oluşmaya başlayan, 1997'ye kadar önemli gelişmeler kaydeden ve 1997'den sonra durağanlaşan ancak güçlü bir şekilde hala varlığını sürdürebilen Selefi hareket incelenmiştir. Çalışmada Arnavutluk'ta kısa bir süre içerisinde Selefi hareketin gelişiminin, hem medya ve siyaset hem de geleneksel İslam tarafından dışlanmasına rağmen hala taraftar bulmasının altında yatan faktörleri tespit etmek ve sosyolojik bir açıklama getirmek hedeflenmiştir. The functionalism approach?s critical is studied in this thesis. Generally we studied social movements and new religions formation and developments, and in particulary afterwards the collapse of communist regime in Albania we studied how functionalism approach can explain the development of Salafi movement which emerged in the last years. Is the functionalism approach?s effective and insufficient in sociological analysis or not? Despite of implement different typology to the new religion movements which emerged after the Second World War, the views and world opinions of many religious currents have been missing out on reflection and comprehension them. When the Western world became rapidly secularized the church's authority was losing. In the context of spread new religious movements in the West we studied the Salafi Movement in Albania which has become emergence after 199l years and until 1997 years succeeded a positive progress, and after 1997 years fell in hesitation. But for all that Salafi movement can strongly carry on its living in present time. The shortage development of Salafi Movement in Albania following in conflict to many government agencies, traditional and nacional religious, and media?s exclusion and discrimination. But after all we intended to study in this thesis why the Salafi Movement has successed in many adherent today? 117

ENS, IEP Paris, Centre of International Studies (université de Cambridge, Royaume-Uni) Ludmila du Bouchet, élève de l'ENS Paris, prépare une thèse de doctorat (PhD) en relations internationales à l'université de Cambridge, sous la direction de Tarak Barkawi. On se propose ici de considérer les processus internes par lesquels certains États, décrits comme faibles, périphériques ou nouvellement formés, s'adaptent aux changements majeurs survenus dans le système international, en se conc...

Many of the people who have been arrested around the world during the past two years suspected of being members of al-Qa'ida or affiliated organizations, have taken pride in belonging to the so-called Salafi movement. The designation may cause some confusion in view of the fact that the term 'Salafi' is also known, in older academic parlance, to denote aschool of thought associated with 'modernist' reformers such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838-1897) and Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905). These reformers, if ever mentioned at all, are likely to be shunned by the contemporary Salafist. Today, 'Salafism' is more often used in reference to a quite different brand of Islamic thought and practice, a brand that is practically identical to what has otherwise been known as 'Wahhabism', i.e. the form of Sunni Islam that constitutes the 'state religion' of Saudi Arabia.

International audience; L'article décrit les grandes étapes au XXe siècle de l'islam en Chine et son évolution depuis le début des années quatre-vingt.