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Non-PR, IFPRI1; CRP2; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; Cross-cutting gender theme; Capacity Strengthening, EPTD; PIM, CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM), India’s agricultural systems are increasingly affected by the adverse effects of climate change. While the Government of India has put together an impressive set of programs to address climate change impacts on agriculture, substantial shortcomings of these programs have been identified, especially in reaching women farmers. Women’s increased vulnerability to climate change and reduced access to climate smart agricultural practices can be attributed to limited land ownership, poor access to credit, reduced access to information and formal extension, and time pressures from multiple domestic and productive demands on their time. We undertake an extensive policy review of India’s agriculture and climate policies and program, and supplement that with a series of focus group discussions with women and men farmers in Gujarat to discuss constraints and potential entry points for better reaching women farmers with climate smart agriculture practices. Village cooperatives and self-help groups can be key intermediary organizations that can support women’s access at the local, state and country level.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; GCAN; Gender and Social Inequality; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; CRP7; Feed the Future Initiative; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS), Agriculture is strongly affected by environmental factors, including variability in temperature and precipitation, which in turn shape the livelihoods farmers derive. In this context, the intensity of engagement in agriculture is directly influenced by temperature and rainfall patterns (ILO 2018). Both extreme weather shocks (that is, heat waves, droughts, and floods) and weather variability (that is, changes in temperature and rainfall patterns) can significantly disrupt participation in agriculture and related sectors, particularly when farmers’ capacity to cope with and adapt to these shocks is low. This policy note summarizes the results of a study designed to quantify the impact of climate variability and extreme weather shocks on the intensity of individuals’ participation in the agricultural sector in Africa, where intra-annual weather variability is high, and dependence on rainfed agriculture is significant. The study specifically focused on changes in the number of weekly hours worked in response to weather variability and climate extremes, and explored both the impact on women’s participation and their potential to mitigate the negative effects of these shocks.

Non-PR, IFPRI1, EPTD, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), Lake Beseka is a shallow, saline, endorheic lake in the East African Rift Valley of Ethiopia that has dramatically grown in size due to large-scale irrigation development in its catchment area. Recent artificial connections of the lake with the Awash River system to contain lake size have led to a series of changes and impacts on different water users, but are not reflected in lake and Awash River governance and institutions. Understanding who are the key actors affecting Lake Beseka and strengthening their linkages can help identify solutions that sustainably contain or reduce the lake’s size, improve its water quality, and address costs to nearby and downstream populations as well as the environment. Thus, this study analyzed qualitative data collected from net-mapping – a network analysis that identifies actors or stakeholders as well as linkages and relative power positions among stakeholders. The resulting network reflects the complexity of the water governance system including upstream actors who affect the size and quality of the lake as well as downstream actors who suffer from adverse consequences. The Awash Basin Development Authority, Metehara Sugar Factory, regional bureaus, and federal ministries were identified as the most influential actors affecting how Lake Beseka is used and managed. Actors most affected by the lake expansion and quality problems such as downstream communities currently have no role in the governance of the lake. Metehara Municipality, woreda offices, research institutes, and farmers were considered to have moderate influence. Stakeholders who participated in the net-mapping workshops identified flooding, salinity, water-related conflict, and health effects as the four main challenges of the lake. The study suggests that developing multi-stakeholder partnerships or platforms across most influential and most affected actors could support a more comprehensive understanding of the multiple challenges Lake Beseka is posing. It could al

Non-PR, IFPRI1; CRP5; REACH; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply, EPTD, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), We investigate whether a large-scale watershed program promoting sustainable land management (SLM) in Ethiopia increases adoption of SLM and its benefits on plots owned by women in male-headed households compared to plots owned by their spouses, jointly owned plots as well as plots of female headed households (FHH). The analysis is based on a survey of 500 households and 2900 plots conducted in the Abbay basin of Ethiopia where the SLM program was implemented between 2012 and 2017. Our findings show that the SLM program significantly increased adoption of SLM practices (soil bunds, stone terraces, mulching) in male-headed households but that adoption was centered on jointly owned plots and male-owned plots, with no significant adoption on women-owned plots. The results also show that women in male-headed households are more constrained to participate in SLM programs compared to their counterparts in FHH. Results further show that although FHH were less likely than male-headed households to adopt SLM in watersheds with no SLM interventions, the SLM program significantly increased adoption of soil bunds on plots in FHH. SLM adoption and impacts can likely be further strengthened if a focus on removing women’s constraints is added.

PR, IFPRI3; ISI; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply, EPTD, The 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim at jointly improving economic, social, and environmental outcomes for human prosperity and planetary health. However, designing national economic policies that support advancement across multiple Sustainable Development Goals is hindered by the complexities of multi-sector economies and often conflicting policies. To address this, we introduce a national-scale design framework that can enable policymakers to sift through complex, non-linear, multi-sector policy spaces to identify efficient policy portfolios that balance economic, social, and environmental goals. The framework combines economy-wide sustainability simulation and artificial intelligence-driven multiobjective, multi-SDG policy search and machine learning. The framework can support multi-sector, multi-actor policy deliberation to screen efficient policy portfolios. We demonstrate the utility of the framework for a case study of Egypt by identifying policy portfolios that achieve efficient mixes of poverty and inequality reduction, economic growth, and climate change mitigation. The results show that integrated policy strategies can help achieve sustainable development while balancing adverse economic, social, and political impacts of reforms.

Non-PR, IFPRI5; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply, DSGD; EPTD, It will come as no surprise to much of Pakistan’s population that their country ranks among the lowest for disaster risk management for water security in Asia, according to the Asian Water Development Outlook (AWDO). Following the extreme heatwave of May – the city of Jacobabad hit 51 degrees C on May 14 – Pakistanis are now experiencing the most extreme flooding of their lifetime. These were two systemic, interlinked extreme events, with the hotter air earlier in the year holding more moisture and melting glaciers foreshadowing the floods.

Non-PR, IFPRI3; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme; GCAN; ISI, EPTD, CGIAR Gender Platform

PR, IFPRI3; CRP5; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; G Cross-cutting gender theme; Feed the Future Innovation Laboratory for Small-Scale Irrigation; IFPRIOA; ISI, EPTD, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), Evidence on the potential for agricultural intensification to improve nutrition has grown considerably. While small-scale irrigation is a key factor driving agricultural intensification in sub-Saharan Africa, its impact on nutrition has not yet been thoroughly explored. In this study, we assess the impact of adoption of small-scale irrigation in Ethiopia and Tanzania on household and women's dietary diversity, as well as children's nutrition. We use two rounds of primary data collected from irrigators and nonirrigators in Ethiopia and Tanzania. We used a panel fixed effects econometric approach to control for observed household, women and children specific characteristics as well as observed and unobserved time-invariant confounding factors. The results show that among Ethiopian households who reported having faced drought, women in irrigating households have higher Women's Dietary Diversity Score (WDDS) compared to women in nonirrigating households. In Tanzania, women in irrigating households have higher WDDS compared to nonirrigators and the impact of irrigation on WDDS more than doubles among households facing drought. In addition, among Tanzanian households who reported having faced a drought shock, irrigating households have higher Household Dietary Diversity Score compared to nonirrigators. Children in irrigating households in Ethiopia have weight-for-height z-scores (WHZ) that are 0.87 SDs higher, on average, than WHZ of children in nonirrigating households. In Tanzania, irrigation leads to higher WHZ-scores in children under-five among households who reported having experienced a drought in the 5 years preceding the survey. The study shows small-scale irrigation has a strong effect on households' economic access to food and on nutritional outcomes of women and children.

Non-PR, 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; IFPRI5, EPTD, Safe and secure access to drinking water and sanitation are human rights that are vital to social, economic, and environmental wellbeing. While interpretations of these rights often focus on domestic water access – for example, whether someone has sufficient drinking water – there is increasing recognition that water for health, food security and nutrition, and basic livelihood needs are inextricably linked. A progressive approach to the human rights to water needs to consider interlinked priorities around food and livelihoods.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; GCAN; CRP7; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; Feed the Future Initiative, EPTD, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), In addition to identifying gender gaps and other challenges and opportunities for entrepreneurship in agricultural growth and development, this brief focuses on potential for improvement in the key areas of (1) seed systems, (2) finance and market access, and (3) production and value chains. While gender norms and challenges are inherently context-specific, the underlying intention of this evidence brief is to provide an overview of research findings from low- and middle-income countries, to address key questions and challenges that can be generalized across contexts, and to offer suggestions of promising approaches and best practices.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; GCAN; CSISA; CRP2; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme; Capacity Strengthening, EPTD; PIM, CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM); CGIAR Gender Platform, Ensuring privacy of respondents in phone surveys is especially challenging compared to face-to-face interviews. While the use of phone surveys has become more common in development research, there is little information on how the conduct of phone surveys affects responses. Using phone survey data from India and Nepal, we test the impact of speakerphone use on bias in responses by women and men. We find that 65% of women respondents in India, and 61% of women and 59% of men respondents in Nepal had their phone on speaker during the survey. Speakerphone use is lower when women are matched with the same enumerators in the second round. Speaker use was associated with lower reported agency by women over their own income and the income of their spouse, while it is opposite for men. Our findings have important implication for the collection, design, and analysis of phone survey data.

PR, IFPRI4; DCA; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply, EPTD, Globally, the energy sector accounts for almost three-quarters of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and is thus responsible for the majority of adverse climate change impacts on rural livelihoods, including growing water, energy, and food insecurity and environmental degradation. According to a recent report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, annual investments of US$2.4 trillion (2010 dollars) in energy systems are needed to limit global warming to 1.5°C. Such investments would support decarbonizing the largest polluters and improving energy efficiency. More and cheaper clean energy technologies and greater energy efficiency are equally critical for accelerating access to energy in underserved rural areas in ways that promote ecosystem health and inclusivity.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; DCA; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; Feed the Future Innovation Laboratory for Small-Scale Irrigation, PHND; EPTD, Small-scale irrigation has significant potential to increase crop productivity in Mali, in particular given growing climate change impacts on the country and region. While large-scale development is substantial, small, private irrigation remains limited, affecting food and particularly nutrition security as small-scale technologies are more likely to be used for high-value vegetable crops. To better understand the challenges and opportunities in the diffusion of small-scale irrigation technologies, two workshops were organized in 2021 at the national and regional levels, respectively, to consider national and local factors supporting the diffusion of small-scale irrigation technologies. Key constraints identified were a lack of linkages between intermediary organizations in the small-scale irrigation diffusion process, such as commodity associations, financial institutions and technology vendors with government agencies in charge of irrigation, limiting the sharing of consistent and effective information across entities; the lack of a clear policy framework and long-term guidance for private individual irrigation; an associated lack of targeted technology development including limited adaptation to different local contexts, missing financial products linked to irrigation technology, and inadequate capacity building of farmers through extension services and demonstration sites. Workshop participants suggested a dedicated platform for more effective information exchange across the key actors identified in the events, improved capacity building on private irrigation, and a supportive policy and financial environment to ensure growth and sustainability of small-scale irrigation development in the country.

PR, Capacity Strengthening; IFPRI3; Feed the Future Innovation Laboratory for Small-Scale Irrigation; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; CRP5; IFPRIOA; ISI, DSGD; EPTD, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), Credit constraint is often considered as one of the key barriers to the adoption of modern agricultural technologies and low agricultural productivity in low- and middle-income countries. Past research and much of the policy discourse associate agricultural credit constraints with supply-side factors, such as limited access to credit sources or high costs of borrowing. However, demand-side factors, such as risk-aversion and financial illiteracy among borrowers could also affect credit-rationing of smallholder agricultural households. This study investigates the nature of credit constraints, factors affecting credit constraint status, and the effects of credit constraints on adoption and intensity of use of three modern agricultural technologies – small-scale irrigation, chemical fertilizer, and improved seeds. The paper also assesses whether credit constraints are gender-differentiated. Primary survey data were collected from sample farmers in Ethiopia and Tanzania, and Tobit and two-step hurdle econometric models were used to analyze these data. Results show that demand-side credit constraints are as important as supply-side factors in conditioning smallholders’ access to credit in both countries. We also find that credit is a binding constraint for the decision to adopt technologies and input use intensity in Tanzania but not statistically significant in Ethiopia. Results suggest that women are more likely to be credit constrained (from both the supply and demand sides) than men in both study countries. Based on these findings, we suggest that policies should focus on addressing both supply- and demand-side credit constraints to credit access, including through targeted interventions to reduce risk, such as crop insurance, and to strengthen the gender sensitivity of credit policies.

PR, 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; IFPRI3, EPTD, Ensuring resilient food systems and sustainable healthy diets for all requires much higher water use, however, water resources are finite, geographically dispersed, volatile under climate change, and required for other vital functions including ecosystems and the services they provide. Good governance for resilient water resources is a necessary precursor to deciding on solutions, sourcing finance, and delivering infrastructure. Six attributes that together provide a foundation for good governance to reduce future water risks to food systems are proposed. These attributes dovetail in their dual focus on incorporating adaptive learning and new knowledge, and adopting the types of governance systems required for water resilient food systems. The attributes are also founded in the need to greater recognise the role natural, healthy ecosystems play in food systems. The attributes are listed below and are grounded in scientific evidence and the diverse collective experience and expertise of stakeholders working across the science-policy interface: Adopting interconnected systems thinking that embraces the complexity of how we produce, distribute, and add value to food including harnessing the experience and expertise of stakeholders s; adopting multi-level inclusive governance and supporting inclusive participation; enabling continual innovation, new knowledge and learning, and information dissemination; incorporating diversity and redundancy for resilience to shocks; ensuring system preparedness to shocks; and planning for the long term. This will require food and water systems to pro-actively work together toward a socially and environmentally just space that considers the water and food needs of people, the ecosystems that underpin our food systems, and broader energy and equity concerns.

Non-PR, IFPRI5; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply, EPTD, The program NEXUS Gains addresses key challenges of transforming water, energy, food and ecosystem (WEFE) systems in transboundary bread-basket basins in East and Southern Africa (Blue Nile and Limpopo basins), Central (Aral Sea basin) and South Asia (Ganges and Indus basin) in a changing world. The program particularly explores water resource management options to understand WEFE system interdependencies, trade-offs and synergies and develop more sustainable development pathways for all members society. The presentation will discuss alternative interventions to increase water productivity different sectors (irrigation, forestry, industries) across scales ranging from farm to watershed to river basin scales. Therefore, particular attention will be given to integrated water storage management in human built and natural infrastructure in South Asia and East Africa. The implications for hydrological process and water resources dynamics and wider environmental, social and economic systems are analyzed and related policy implications are discussed considering also climate change.

PR, IFPRI3; ISI; DCA; CRP5; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), Some agricultural practices, such as irrigation, have the potential to buffer seasonal dietary gaps and through increased production and consumption improve diets, particularly of the rural poor relying on subsistence farming but also for rural and urban households purchasing irrigated produce on local markets. The study aimed to evaluate the effect of seasonality and irrigation on women's diet in rural Ethiopia. Using a longitudinal study design, three rounds of surveys were conducted among women of reproductive age (15–49 years). Data on socioeconomic status, food consumption and haemoglobin concentration was collected. Energy and nutrient intakes were estimated using an interviewer-administered multiple-pass 24-h recall. Women's dietary diversity score (WDDS), the proportion of women meeting the minimum dietary diversity for women (MDDW), haemoglobin concentration, the prevalence of anaemia and energy and nutrients intakes were compared between irrigators and nonirrigators and by season. Associations between MDDW/WDDS and irrigation status were assessed using fixed-effect models, after adjusting for covariates. WDDS was low (3–4 out of 10 food groups) and exhibited high seasonal variability (p < 0.05). Diets were predominantly cereal-based, with little consumption of nutrient-dense foods like fruits and animal source foods. High seasonal variability in energy, protein, vitamin C, calcium, iron and zinc intakes were observed (p < 0.01). Irrigators were more likely to meet the MDDW than women from non-irrigating households (p < 0.05). No cases of malaria were reported from the three rounds of screening. There is a high seasonal variation in women's diet, but this could be partly offset by irrigation practices.

PR, IFPRI3; ISI; DCA; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply, EPTD, The United Nations Food Systems Summit aimed to chart a path toward transforming food systems toward achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Despite the essentiality of water for food systems, however, the Summit has not sufficiently considered the role of water for food systems transformation. This focus is even more important due to rapidly worsening climate change and its pervasive impacts on food systems that are mediated through water. To avoid that water “breaks” food systems, key food systems actors should 1) Strengthen efforts to retain water-dependent ecosystems, their functions and services; 2) Improve agricultural water management; 3) Reduce water and food losses beyond the farmgate; 4) Coordinate water with nutrition and health interventions; 5) Increase the environmental sustainability of food systems; 6) Explicitly address social inequities; and 7) Improve data quality and monitoring for water-food system linkages.

PR, IFPRI3; CRP5; Feed the Future Innovation Laboratory for Small-Scale Irrigation; ISI; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies, EPTD, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), Irrigation has significant potential to enhance productivity, resilience to climatic risks and nutrition security in Sub-Saharan Africa. While the focus has historically been on large-scale dam-based schemes, farmer-managed small-scale irrigation (SSI) has gained increased attention in recent years. Using data from Ethiopia, Tanzania and Ghana, we first examine patterns of adoption of different SSI technologies. Next, we employ hierarchical modelling to examine which variables are associated with observed adoption patterns and cluster effects that explain variation in irrigation adoption. We document significant cross-country variation in adoption patterns and find a positive association between plot-level use of SSI and the intensity of agricultural labor and inorganic fertilizers applied on the plot. Community-level intra-cluster correlation (ICC) is the highest in Tanzania, where gravity-fed irrigation is most common while farm-level ICC is the highest in Ethiopia where motorized technologies are more common. These results suggest the need for localized investments to ease locale-specific potential constraints. For example, easing possible liquidity constraints to acquiring motorized technologies can be more effective in Ethiopia while the construction of dams and improved conveyance systems, as well as the strengthening of community-based irrigation management (e.g., through Water User Associations (WUAs)) can be more effective in Tanzania. Further research is needed to understand pathways for selected plot-level characteristics that affect use of SSI including status of plot ownership and the gender of the plot manager.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; GCAN; Feed the Future Initiative; CRP7; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply, EPTD, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), It is widely recognized that periods of crisis affect men and women differently, mediated by their access to resources and information, as well as social and institutional structures that may systematically disadvantage women from being able to access relief, institutional support, and rehabilitation. To capture the gendered impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns, we conducted phone surveys in seven countries spread across Asia and Africa. The study was designed as a longitudinal panel study with five rounds of data collection in Ghana, Nepal, Nigeria, and Senegal, and three rounds of data collection in Kenya, Niger, and Uganda. Both men and women were administered the same survey, with some modifications made across countries to adapt to local contexts. This report gives an overview of our findings covering several topics including income loss, coping strategies, labor and time use, food and water insecurity and child education outcomes. We find widespread reports of income loss, which declined over time, but increased again as countries experienced a resurgence in COVID-19 cases and fatality. We find that households first depleted savings when faced with income loss and over time, use of savings reduced while other measures began to be adopted. Women reported greater food and water insecurity compared to men, including worrying about insufficient food and eating less than usual. This is particularly worrying since a large proportion of women also did not have adequately diverse diets. Moderate to severe water insecurity was reported in many of the countries, and as with food insecurity, women were more likely to report issues with accessing water for drinking and other household activities. In some countries, additional modules were added to capture country specific issues of policy relevance, such agriculture extension, mental health, and child marriage. The results make it clear that proactive investments will be needed, including social safety nets, fav

PR, IFPRI3; ISI; CRP5; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; ROAD Wif2, EPTD, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), COVID-19 has revived focus on improving equitable access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and health services in developing countries. Most public programming tends to rely on economic indicators to identify and target vulnerable groups. Can expanded targeting criteria that include social status help to improve not only targeting, but also equity in access to WASH and health services?

Non-PR, IFPRI5; Cross-cutting gender theme; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply, Natural Resources and Resilience (NRR); Transformation Strategies, The evidence on the potential for agricultural interventions to contribute to improved nutrition has grown considerably over the past decade. Numerous studies have explored both positive and negative effects of agriculture on nutrition and health. The Innovation Lab for Small Scale Irrigation has helped to fill the evidence gap on small-scale irrigation and nutrition linkages. The studies, implemented by the International Food Policy Research Institute and national partners, examine the potential of smallscale irrigation as a nutrition-sensitive investment. Through this work, more development partners are recognizing the interconnections and beginning to design irrigation investments to intentionally improve nutritional and health outcomes.