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Rationale: Previous work found the lung microbiome in healthy subjects infected with HIV was similar to that in uninfected subjects. We hypothesized the lung microbiome from subjects infected with HIV with more advanced disease would differ from that of an uninfected control population.Objectives: To measure the lung microbiome in an HIV-infected population with advanced disease.Methods: 16s RNA gene sequencing was performed on acellular bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from 30 subjects infected with HIV with advanced disease (baseline mean CD4 count, 262 cells/mm3) before and up to 3 years after starting highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and compared with 22 uninfected control subjects.Measurements and Main Results: The lung microbiome in subjects infected with HIV with advanced disease demonstrated decreased alpha diversity (richness and diversity) and greater beta diversity compared with uninfected BAL. Differences improved with HAART, but still persisted up to 3 years after starting thera...

It remains a mystery why HIV-associated end-organ pathologies persist in the era of combined antiretroviral therapy (ART). One possible mechanism is the continued production of HIV-encoded proteins in latently HIV-infected T cells and macrophages. The proapoptotic protein HIV-Nef persists in the blood of ART-treated patients within extracellular vesicles (EVs) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Here we demonstrate that HIV-Nef is present in cells and EVs isolated from BAL of patients on ART. We hypothesize that HIV-Nef persistence in the lung induces endothelial apoptosis leading to endothelial dysfunction and further pulmonary vascular pathologies. The presence of HIV-Nef in patients with HIV correlates with the surface expression of the proapoptotic endothelial-monocyte-activating polypeptide II (EMAPII), which was implicated in progression of pulmonary emphysema via mechanisms involving endothelial cell death. HIV-Nef protein induces EMAPII surface expression in human embryonic kidney 293T cells, T cells, and human and mouse lung endothelial cells. HIV-Nef packages itself into EVs and increases the amount of EVs secreted from Nef-expressing T cells and Nef-transfected human embryonic kidney 293T cells. EVs from BAL of HIV+ patients and Nef-transfected cells induce apoptosis in lung microvascular endothelial cells by upregulating EMAPII surface expression in a PAK2-dependent fashion. Transgenic expression of HIV-Nef in vascular endothelial-cadherin+ endothelial cells leads to lung rarefaction, characterized by reduced alveoli and overall increase in lung inspiratory capacity. These changes occur concomitantly with lung endothelial cell apoptosis. Together, these data suggest that HIV-Nef induces endothelial cell apoptosis via an EMAPII-dependent mechanism that is sufficient to cause pulmonary vascular pathologies even in the absence of inflammation.

Responses to Marx's Capital: From Rudolf Hilferding to Isaak Illich Rubin is a collection of primary sources, translated from German and Russian, dealing with the reception of the economic works of Karl Marx from the First to the Third International.

Responses to Marx's Capital: From Rudolf Hilferding to Isaak Illich Rubin is a collection of primary sources, translated from German and Russian, dealing with the reception of the economic works of Karl Marx from the First to the Third International.

Responses to Marx's Capital: From Rudolf Hilferding to Isaak Illich Rubin is a collection of primary sources, translated from German and Russian, dealing with the reception of the economic works of Karl Marx from the First to the Third International.

In his criticism of Witnesses to Permanent Revolution Lars Lih argues that, except for Trotsky, all the other authors included in our volume were proponents of a bourgeois-democratic revolution in permanence. The problem with this idea is that it misses the whole point of the debate, which was precisely to what extent bourgeois (peasant) and socialist (proletarian) elements would be combined in the coming revolution. Philosophically, it displays a lack of dialectics in attempting to force the law of identity (either a socialist or a bourgeois democratic revolution) upon a historical event which was basically a combination of two diffferent historical phenomena: a jacquerie and a urban-based working-class revolution. Fil: Day, Richard B.. University Of Toronto; Canadá Fil: Gaido, Daniel Fernando. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Córdoba. Centro de Investigaciones y Estudio sobre Cultura y Sociedad; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba; Argentina

Background\ud Domestic combustion of biomass fuels, such as wood, charcoal, crop residue and dung causes Household Air Pollution (HAP). These inhaled particulates affect more than half of the world’s population, causing respiratory problems such as infection and inflammatory lung disease. We examined whether the presence of black carbon in alveolar macrophages was associated with alterations in the lung microbiome in a Malawi population. \ud \ud Methods\ud Bronchoalveolar lavage samples from 44 healthy adults were sequenced using 16S rDNA amplification to assess microbial diversity, richness and relative taxa abundance. Individuals were classified as high or low particulate exposure as determined by questionnaire and the percentage of black carbon within their alveolar macrophages.\ud \ud Results\ud Subjects in the low and high particulate groups did not differ in terms of source of fuels used for cooking or lighting. There was no difference in alpha or beta diversity by particulate group. Neisseria and Streptococcus were significantly more abundant in samples from high particulate exposed individuals, and Tropheryma was found less abundant. Petrobacter abundance was higher in people using biomass fuel for household cooking and lighting, compared with exclusive use of electricity.\ud \ud Conclusions\ud Healthy adults in Malawi exposed to higher levels of particulates have higher abundances of potentially pathogenic bacteria (Streptococcus, Neisseria) within their lung microbiome. Domestic biomass fuel use was associated with an uncommon environmental bacterium (Petrobacter) associated with oil-rich niches.

The following paper proposes a viewpoint regarding the working assumptions, theology and practice for an “incarnational” psychology or “Christian psychology,” particularly with regard to psychotherapy. This essay is primarily meant to be an affirmation and guide for those Christian psychologists and others working in the allied professions. However, both veteran theorists and newcomers to such inquiry will benefit from this essay. Discussion begins with the dynamic of surrendering and receiving a personal relationship with Jesus Christ. The understanding of the unique person as soul: in mind, body, life and spirit is discussed. In addition, the working of the incarnate Holy Spirit is elaborated for both therapist and patient in the regenerative and therapeutic process. Psychopathology is reframed in reference to the Judeo-Christian revelation of sin and evil. In addition, truth, falsity and psychopathology are considered in light of the essentially regenerated man/woman or “new creation” in Christ. Some practical examples for psychotherapeutic intervention are offered, including the unique role of the Christian psychologist and his or her relationship with both patient and Christ. Seven major assumptions of “incarnational” or Christian psychology, which diverge from purely secular (psychological) theory and practice, are presented. Lastly, Christian psychology is distinguished from both “integrated” psychology and theology; and Biblical counseling.

Patients infected with HIV frequently have a CD8+ lymphocytic alveolitis consisting of HIV-specific CD8+CD57− cytotoxic T lymphocytes. However, in late stage disease, there is expansion of a CD8+CD57+ population with suppressive properties. We examined role of lymphocyte apoptosis in the expansion of the CD8+CD57+ lymphocytes in late stage HIV in the lung and blood compartment in human subjects. Fas was expressed on virtually all lung lymphocytes from HIV-infected and normal subjects. Fas ligand expression was increased in HIV infection in both CD8+CD57+ and CD8+CD57− lymphocytes, though a significantly greater percentage of CD8+CD57+ cells expressed this marker. CD8+CD57+ lymphocytes in normal and HIV-infected subjects underwent more apoptosis than CD8+CD57− cells. However, in late stage HIV infection, the percentage of CD8+CD57+ cells undergoing apoptosis declined. These data demonstrate that under normal conditions CD8+CD57+ cells appear destined to undergo programmed cell death. Expansion of suppressive CD8+CD57+ cells in the lungs of HIV-infected subjects with advanced disease may be due to the failure of this normal regulatory process.

This chapter briefly surveys the political and economic issues posed by the debate over globalization and then reformulates them with reference to the problematic relation between markets and ethics in the history of philosophy. Beginning with Aristotle, and then proceeding to Adam Smith, Immanuel Kant, and G.W.F. Hegel, the chapter argues that markets always and everywhere presuppose normative consensus, with the implication that any notion of autonomous globalizing markets is an abstraction that threatens the human right to life and dignity.

This chapter considers interpretations of the globalization process along a continuum ranging from "realist" emphasis upon sovereignty in the inter-state system to "idealist" projections of cosmopolitan citizenship and even global government. The work of Jürgen Habermas is taken to be the most comprehensive via media between the "extreme" positions. In The Postnational Constellation, Habermas relates morality to ethics in explaining the potential for, but also the current limitations upon, cosmopolitan projects. The example of the European Union demonstrates the possibility for politics to "catch up" with globalizing markets.

We tested the hypothesis that human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults have a specific defect in anti-pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide (Pn-specific) immunoglobulin (Ig) in fluid obtained from the lower respiratory tract. Higher levels of total IgG and IgM were present in bronchoalveolar lavage samples from HIV-infected subjects than in those from HIV-uninfected subjects. Pn-specific IgG and IgM in bronchoalveolar lavage samples were not significantly different between HIV-infected and -uninfected subjects. After pneumococcal infection, HIV-infected patients had higher bronchoalveolar lavage levels of Pn-specific IgG than HIV-infected patients without recent infection (geometric means, 387 vs. 30 ng/mL, P=.001).

The lung is a common site of disease in HIV infection. Virus has been detected in BAL fluid (BALF) and saliva. However, the relationship between viral loads detected at different levels of the respiratory tract is unknown.We measured simultaneous HIV viral loads in parotid saliva (PS), bronchial fluid (BF), BALF, and plasma by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction in 20 HIV-infected individuals.HIV was detected in 53% of BALF samples, 15% of BF samples, 5% of PS samples, and 88% of plasma samples. Viral loads in plasma and BALF samples were positively correlated. There were significantly higher levels of HIV viral load in both plasma and BALF in subjects with CD4 counts of200 cells/ microL compared to those with higher counts. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) was associated with lower BALF and plasma viral loads, and the effect in BALF was independent of the plasma viral load. Interestingly, smoking also was associated with lower levels of both BAL and BF viral loads, independent of the plasma viral load.These data demonstrate that while HIV can be detected in the respiratory tract, the viral load is influenced by both local factors (ie, level of the respiratory tree and cigarette smoking) and systemic factors (ie, ART and peripheral CD4 count).

Anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) antibodies are frequently used to treat inflammatory diseases. However, these drugs also have immunosuppressive effects. We report on three patients who developed disseminated histoplasmosis on therapy with TNF-alpha inhibitors. In vitro assays were used to characterize the role of these agents in host defense against Histoplasma capsulatum. Intracellular proliferation of H. capsulatum was measured in alveolar macrophages and peripheral monocytes of normal volunteers in the presence and absence of the TNF-alpha antibody, infliximab. Both infliximab and control antibody enhanced fungal growth in monocytes and alveolar macrophages, suggesting this was a nonspecific antibody response. Despite similar intracellular fungal loads in the presence of both antibodies, lymphocyte proliferation in response to blood monocytes and alveolar macrophages infected with H. capsulatum was inhibited by the addition of physiologic doses of infliximab, whereas control antibody had no effect. The production of H. capsulatum-induced interferon-gamma and TNF-alpha was assessed in 5-day cultures containing lymphocytes and alveolar macrophages or monocytes. Interferon-gamma secretion was significantly reduced in the presence of infliximab. In summary, patients receiving anti-TNF-alpha therapy are at risk for developing disseminated histoplasmosis. This may be due to a defect in the TH1 arm of cellular immunity.

This chapter presents the Agenda and the Resolutions adopted at the Session of Members of the General Meeting of the Bolkhov Organisation of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RKP (B)) of Orel Province concerning the tasks facing the communists of the Town and the Country. The meeting was chaired by Comrade Sleptsov, and was attended by the deputy chairman Simakov, secretary Zinoviev, and 51 members. Keywords: Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RKP (B)), Orel Province

This chapter explains E.A. Preobrazhensky's Chapters from the Book The ABC of Communism (Co-authored with N.I. Bukharin). Topics covered in the E.A. Preobrazhensky's Chapters are the national question and communism, the programme of communists and the military question, the proletarian court, the school and communism, religion and communism, the organisation of agriculture, the organisation of distribution, the organisation of banks and monetary circulation, finances in the proletarian state, and the communists' programme on the housing question. Keywords:agriculture; communist party; E.A. Preobrazhensky; military question; national question; proletarian court; proletarian state; religion; The ABC of Communism

This chapter talks about the articles published in the newspaper Pravda in September-December 1920. It includes the articles of 'The Average Communist', the article of 'The Social Basis of the October Revolution', and the article of 'A Straw for the Drowning White Guards'. The psychological isolation of average Communists from the leading partygroups, and the isolation of leading groups from the proletarian masses - these are unquestionable facts. There are several causes. Besides what was said at the outset, it is necessary to point to the inattention of responsible comrades to the education of rank-and-file Communists, the difference in living conditions, the penetration into leading posts (mainly in the soviets) of careerist elements who are intrinsically alien to us, and the beginnings of psychological degeneration among a certain part of the old Communists. Keywords:average communists; newspaper Pravda ; october revolution; Soviet power; White-Guard press

This chapter talks about two speeches given at the First All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. In the first, the speaker says that they are on the eve of a turning point in the Russian Revolution and, perhaps, they will soon and definitively have to say that the Russian Revolution has ended, that the Russian Revolution has given the maximum that it can give. Perhaps the tragedy is the Revolution, perhaps the people have come to the final summation and they will go no further. In the second, the speaker proposes a resolution on the question of the struggle against anti-Semitism, the wager on the Jews. According to the speaker, only the most decisive measures can bring the misguided people, who are currently following dark demagogues, back to a proper path. The resolutions proposed to the Congress are listed in the chapter. Keywords:All-Russian Congress; anti-Semitism; Jews; Russian Revolution; soldiers; workers

This chapter presents a report submitted by the Gendarmerie-Administration of Perm Province to the director of the Department of Police, N.P. Zuev, on determination of E.A. Preobrazhensky's authorship of the letters that were seized in the Ekaterinburg post and telegraph-office, and on his arrest. Keywords:E.A. Preobrazhensky; Gendarmerie-Administration

This chapter describes the address given by the Representative of the VTsIk E.A. Preobrazhensky at a Session of the Plenum of the Ufa Provincial Committee of the RKP(B) Concerning the Work of the Provincial Committee in Conditions of the Conflict Between the Centre and the Bashkir Republic. It includes the report of the Presidium of the Provincial Committee, and the Department for Work among the Nationalities. Keywords:Bashkir Republic; E.A. Preobrazhensky; nationalities; Presidium; Provincial Committee

This chapter presents the author's comments on two articles from the Bolshevik newspaper, Ural'skii rabochii . The first article, 'On the Present Moment', revolves around the question whether there will be a repetition of the October Revolution in the near future on a grander scale, or will there be a final consolidation of the Stolypin constitution? According to the author, the industrial expansion is a temporary improvement against the background of a deep depression that will not end until the agrarian question is resolved in a sense favourable to the peasantry. Commenting on the second article 'The Task of the Moment', the author outlines why we must pay special attention to organisational work precisely now, and why we must place it in the foreground of our work among proletarians. He feels that the main task of the moment in the sphere of the trade-union movement lies in winning new possibilities. Keywords:Bolshevik newspaper; depression; October Revolution; proletarians; Russia; Stolypin constitution; trade-union movement; Ural'skii rabochii

This chapter relates the author's experiences with Yakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov or Ya.M. Sverdlov, whom he often turned to for directions while serving in the Congress. Yakov Mikhailovich showed amazing tact and skill in his negotiations with the Left S-Rs, despite the resistance and hysterics of bawlers and windbags from that Party. According to the author, Ya.M. Sverdlov's most prominent characteristics were: 1) his excellent knowledge of how to approach people, and his ability to quickly determine what they might contribute to the matter at hand; 2) his ability to ascertain what was most essential in people while, and not overlook all the peculiarities and concrete details of their character; 3) his extremely tactful abstention from meddling in those fields of work where he did not consider himself to be an expert; and 4) his remarkable ability to guide the necessary resolutions through meetings, conferences, congresses and so on. Keywords:Congress of Soviets; Left S-Rs; Soviet Russia; Ya.M. Sverdlov

According to Comrade Preobrazhensky, the opening day of the Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets, will forever be indelibly imprinted in the memory of all participants. The All-Russian Congress of Soviets welcomed the Great October Revolution, promised support for Soviet power from the workers of the Old and New Worlds, and when they departed amid burning applause, they carried away in their spirit the inaudible music of deepest feeling for the brotherhood of peoples, which the bourgeois world did not and could not know. The Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets had gathered under good omens. The proletariat of Austria and Hungary have embarked on a path of revolutionary struggle. They were beginning to build, whereas the West had only begun to break things down. Preobrazhensky hopes that the time will soon come when the first congress of workers' and soldiers' deputies from the republics of Europe will gather in Petrograd. Keywords:bourgeois; Comrade Preobrazhensky; Great October Revolution; newspaper Pravda ; proletariat; revolution; Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets

This chapter discusses the articles on 'The Urals Counter-Revolution', Published in the Newspaper Pravda , by E. Preobrazhensky. At the call of the regional military commissariat, the workers of the Urals factories sent their best forces to the front against the Czechoslovaks. When almost the entire local organisation of Communists, numbering three hundred persons, had left Nev'yansk factory under arms, the automobile-company, which had evacuated to the factory from Luga and had always opposed the local soviet, began a counter- revolutionary uprising. In addition to Nev'yansk, the soviets were dispersed in Verkh-Neivinsk and also in Polevsk factory, where a gang of frontline soldiers even dug trenches at the approach of Soviet forces. Keywords:Communists; Czechoslovaks; Nev'yansk; Pravda ; Soviet forces; The Urals Counter-Revolution

This chapter presents a letter, which is from the Presidium of the Ural Oblast Committee of Communes to V.I.Lenin concerning the critical position of sections of the Red Army on the eastern front and the possibility of surrender of Perm to the White Guards. Keywords:Lenin; Perm; Presidium; Red Army; White Guards

This chapter begins with the fact that anarchists are continuously repeating in their brochures, newspapers and speeches that they oppose any and all coercion along with any state-power as an organ of violence. The anarchists' struggle against the proletarian state, at a time when this state has yet to complete its work of suppressing the resistance of the exploiters, has the inevitable effect, whatever their intention, of making them allies of the counter-revolutionaries. In the economic sphere, matters are even worse. The ultimate economic ideal of anarchism is simply a petty-bourgeois variant of capitalist commodity-economy and represents a step backwards even by comparison with developed capitalism. In order to clarify differences between the communist and anarchist programmes for the economic reconstruction of society, the chapter briefly sketches the tasks of communism in the realm of production and distribution. Keywords:anarchism; anarchist economy; autocratic-landlord state; communism; communist economy; proletarian state

This chapter discusses two newspaper articles. The first article titled, 'Quo Vadis', discusses that while the question of civilisations salvation remains a question of the elements struggling to that end, we do have a cause that is capable of justifying all the sacrifices, and able to inspire great enthusiasm. That means we know what is good and what is criminal, what we are creating and what we are destroying. There is no evil without good, even though the good in such circumstances is always too meagre. The second article, titled 'Our Defencists', talks about basic theses of the defencists, and whether they are right. The only guilty party in the present war is the capitalist mode of production with its inherent drive for expansion, which had to lead to a general clash between the capitalist nations and thus to find the means for the existence and development of the other. Keywords:capitalism; civilisations salvation; defencists; newspaper articles; Zabaikal'skoeobozrenie

This chapter presents two excerpts of speeches, one by A.Ya. Arosev and the other by E.A. Preobrazhenskyan. In his speech, Comrade Arosev says that Marxists have no fetishes - and nothing frightens them. They are never afraid of compromises if the place and time require them. They do not reject a socialist war, but need three to five months to organise a new socialist army. Referring to this speech, Comrade Preobrazhensky questions whether it is possible that the compromise with the Junkers during the October Revolution taught Comrade Arosev nothing about how to proceed during the struggle against Kaledin, and so on. According to him, peace is precisely a permit for German capital as far as Vladivostok. If they were to strike at the parts, then it was necessary to strike at Germany immediately. Keywords:Comrade Arosev; Comrade Preobrazhensky; Germany; Moscow City-Wide Conference; October Revolution; peace; RSDRP(B); war

This chapter presents the report submitted by the Yenisei Provincial Gendarmerie-Administration to the Director of the Police- Department G.G. Mollov on the Impossibility of Determining the Author of a Letter Addressed to the Exile I.S. Shvarts. Keywords:G.G. Mollov; Gendarmerie; I.S. Shvarts; Yenisei

This chapter discusses two newspaper articles published in Zabaikal'skii rabochii . The first, titled 'On our Party's Programme', talks about labour-power. The Social-Democratic Party demands in its programme a number of measures to protect the worker during the labour-process and endeavours to extend the worker's life. The Party seeks the complete emancipation of labour from the power of capital. It seeks to hand over all the factories, plants and shops to the state, a future one in which supreme power will belong to the proletariat. The second article titled 'Dual Power, Dual Soul and Cowardice', explores what type of power do we have, dual power or single power; what do the liberal groups who are sending their telegrams to the Provisional Government want, and what do they fear. The single power that they dream about is not a political unity of powers, but one of the bourgeoisie in ruling the country. Keywords:bourgeois revolution; dual power; labour-process; newspaper articles; proletariat; Provisional Government; Russia; Social-Democratic Party

This chapter presents Preobrazhensky's articles 45 and 46 Published in the Newspaper Pravda at the Beginning of June 1919. Six communes and 52 artels are registered with the district land-department. Of this number, 39 artel-communes have been subsidized by the land-department. Despite the fact that Karachev district is not, for the most part, a producing district, and that the majority of its parishes are poor, it is not mainly the poor peasants who are joining the commune, but the middle-peasantry. All of the communards, while not being party-members, are, nevertheless, the most committed supporters of Soviet power. They voluntarily give over all of their surpluses to food-organisations and conceal nothing. The chapter discusses the population and behaviour of communes. Keywords:commune; Karachev; Pravda ; Preobrazhensky; soviet power

This chapter talks about E.A. Preobrazhensky's Pamphlet Peasant-Russia and Socialism (Towards a Review of our agrarian programme). There are certain naive Socialist-Revolutionaries who suggest that our Party, by issuing the Decree on Land at the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, renounced any intention of putting forth its own agrarian programme and limited itself to supporting the S-R version of socialisation of the land. Not only the Socialist-Revolutionaries, but even many of our own party-comrades, do not clearly understand how, in the final analysis, matters will stand with our agrarian programme. Keywords:agrarian programme; congress; Russian Revolution; socialism; Socialist-Revolutionaries

This chapter describes the resolution taken by the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RKP(B) concerning the case of Oskar Blum. On 28 June 1920, the commission, consisting of comrades Preobrazhensky, Latsis and Kursky, which was appointed by the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RKP, addresses the question of whether there is any need to review the Blum case, after considering all the proceedings in the Blum case by the revolutionary tribunal under the VTsIK, together with the accompanying documents, and having also questioned comrades Bukharin and Radek and the Latvian comrades. Keywords:Oskar Blum; Politburo; Preobrazhensky; revolutionary tribunal; RKP

This chapter presents reports for 10-16 May 1919 from the Plenipotentiary of the VTsIK and responsible representative of the central committee of the RKP(B) to Orel Province E.A. Preobrazhensky to the central committee of the RKP(B) on assisting the local authority in mobilisation of the population for the struggle against Denikin. The first report deals with the activities done by the central committee from 10th May 1919 to 13th May 1919, which includes an arrangement of meeting, discussion with students, assigning the students to the districts and the investigation. The second regular report deals with the activities done by the Central-Committee Plenipotentiary Preobrazhensky from 13th to 16th May 1919. Keywords:central committee; Denikin; Orel province; Plenipotentiary Preobrazhensky