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In this article, I probe an example of high-technology medicine as a case study in the problems of the regulation of advancing technology. Specifically, I address the implications of pharmacogenomics--an emerging form of population-based health care intervention--for public policies designed to eliminate racial disparities in health. Using the case of BiDil, a historical precursor to pharmacogenetic technology, I offer a framework for further studies of high-technology medicine in which policy analysis is part of a social review based on the justice standard of ex ante mutual advantage. It is the contention in this article that the most just and reasonable deployment of pharmacogenomics is as a compensatory tool to alleviate health disparities. KEY WORDS: health policy, pharmacogenetics, racial disparities, social justice, Introduction Does the selective use of advanced medical technology to benefit one group over the other contradict the goals of justice? This question spurs the efforts of bioethicists, scholars of [...]

This article argues that Black autobiographers emphasize group consciousness in their narratives because of their common experience of unmitigated sufferings and psychological traumas occasioned by racial oppression, racism and exploitation. The commonality of Black experience manifested itself most importantly in the European and Arabic slave trades, slavery, oppression as well as in White colonization of Africa. Keywords Group consciousness * Black * Autobiographical narratives

The present study examines the experiences of 36 Black male students, in focus group interviews, enrolled at Harvard University; Michigan State University; University of California, Berkeley; University of Illinois; and the University of Michigan. Two themes emerged: (a) anti-Black male stereotyping and marginality (or Black misandry), which caused (b) extreme hypersurveillance and control. Respondents experienced racial microaggressions in three domains: (a) campus-academic, (b) campus-social, and (c) campus-public spaces. Black males are stereotyped and placed under increased surveillance by community and local policing tactics on and off campus. Across these domains, Black males were defined as being 'out of place' and 'fitting the description' of illegitimate nonmembers of the campus community. Students reported psychological stress responses symptomatic of racial battle fatigue (e.g., frustration, shock, anger, disappointment, resentment, anxiety, helplessness, hopelessness, and fear). There was unanimous agreement in the subjective reports that the college environment was more hostile toward African American males than other groups. Keywords: Black/African American males; race-related stress; stereotypes; racism (gendered); college campus; racial microaggressions

The effects of racial segregation and political threat with reference to whites and African-American on police force size are studied. Findings reveal that whites' threat is more than one-third of the effect of African-American on police force size.

Occupational inequality by sex and race play an important role in elections in the U.S. at county-level.

Do African Americans, Hispanics, and non-Hispanic whites differ in their explanations of the socioeconomic divide separating blacks and whites in the United States? Have such explanations changed over time? To answer these questions, I use data from the 1977 to 2004 General Social Surveys (GSS) to map race/ethnic differences in support for, trends in, and the determinants of seven 'modes of explanation' for blacks' disadvantage. Trends over time indicate the continuation of a long-standing decline in non-Hispanic whites' use of an ability-based (innate inferiority) explanation. Non-Hispanic whites 'beliefs in a purely motivational and a purely educational explanation are increasing, however, along with the view that none of the explanations offered in the GSS explain blacks' disadvantage. African Americans and Hispanics also evidence increases in a purely motivational explanation, but they differ from non-Hispanic whites in demonstrating clear declines in structural beliefs--especially the perception that discrimination explains blacks' lower socioeconomic status. These conservative shifts in blacks' and Hispanics' beliefs result in greater similarity with non-Hispanic whites over time. Notably, however, significant 'static' race/ethnic group differences remain: non-Hispanic whites score highest, and blacks lowest, on a purely motivational explanation, while African Americans are more likely than both non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics to endorse a discrimination-based explanation. I conclude by discussing the implications of these findings for racial policy support.

Racial microaggressions are brief and commonplace daily verbal behavioral or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults toward people of color. Perpetrators of microaggressions are often unaware that they engage in such communications when they interact with racial/ethnic minorities. A taxonomy of racial microaggressions in everyday life was created through a review of the social psychological literature on aversive racism, from formulations regarding the manifestation and impact of everyday racism, and from reading numerous personal narratives of counselors (both White and those of color) on their racial/cultural awakening. Microaggressions seem to appear in three forms: microassault, microinsult, and microinvalidation. Almost all interracial encounters are prone to microaggressions; this article uses the White counselor--client of color counseling dyad to illustrate how they impair the development of a therapeutic alliance. Suggestions regarding education and training and research in the helping professions are discussed. Keywords: microaggression, microassault, microinsult, microinvalidation, attributional ambiguity

Perceived racial microaggressions by White supervisors were examined through a qualitative analysis of 10 self-identified Black doctoral supervisees in counseling and clinical psychology. Results indicated 7 microaggression themes directed toward this group: (a) invalidating racial-cultural issues, (b) making stereotypic assumptions about Black clients, (c) making stereotypic assumptions about Black supervisees, (d) reluctance to give performance feedback for fear of being viewed as racist, (e) focusing primarily on clinical weaknesses, (f) blaming clients of color for problems stemming from oppression, and (g) offering culturally insensitive treatment recommendations. The impact of these racial microaggressions was found to be detrimental to Black trainees, the supervisory relationship, and, indirectly, to clients of color. Implications of the findings are discussed. Keywords: Blacks, counselor supervision, racial microaggressions, subtle racism, trainees

This research examines the individual-level and contextual correlates of punitive attitudes in the United States. Prior research suggests that the demographic composition and economic conditions of geographic areas influence public support for punitive policies. Yet, these findings rest on assumptions about individual perceptions of minority groups as threatening. This work builds on the threat framework by measuring the concept of "perceived threat" and examining the association between aggregate social conditions, perceived threat and punitive sentiments. Analysis of newly collected data suggests that individual perceptions of African Americans as threatening to economic resources is a strong predictor of punitive attitudes. In addition, respondents residing in areas with higher unemployment rates and places that experienced a recent increase in the size of the African American population are more punitive. The latter effect is largely mediated by perceptions of African Americans as threatening to material resources for white respondents. The results agree with racial threat perspectives on social control, but we go beyond extant research by unpacking the micro-level processes that are central to the threat hypothesis., This research draws on group threat theory (Blalock 1967; Blumer 1958) to investigate the individual-level and contextual correlates of punitive attitudes. Group threat theory posits that prejudice and inter-group hostility […]

Objectives. We analyzed the relations of two 1990 dimensions of racial residential segregation (isolation and concentration) with 1998 injection drug use prevalence among Black adult residents of 93 large US metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs). Methods. We estimated injection drug use prevalence among Black adults in each MSA by analyzing 3 databases documenting injection drug users' encounters with the health care system. Multiple linear regression methods were used to investigate the relationship of isolation and concentration to the natural logarithm of Black adult injection drug use prevalence, controlling for possible confounders. Results. The median injection drug use prevalence was 1983 per 100000 Black adults (interquartile range: 1422 to 2759 per 100000). The median isolation index was 0.48 (range: 0.05 to 0.84): in half the MSAs studied, the average Black resident inhabited a census tract where 48% or more of the residents were Black. The multiple regression model indicates that an increase of 0.50 in the isolation index was associated with a 23% increase in injection drug use prevalence among Black adults. Concentration was unrelated to the outcome. Conclusions. Residential isolation is positively related to Black injection drug use prevalence in MSAs. Research into the pathways linking isolation to injection drug use is needed. (Am J Public Health. 2007;97:344-352. doi:10.2105/AJPH. 2005.074542)

Objectives. We sought to determine whether differences in the prevalences of 5 specific pregnancy complications or differences in case fatality rates for those complications explained the disproportionate risk of pregnancy-related mortality for Black women compared with White women in the United States. Methods. We used national data sets to calculate prevalence and case-fatality rates among Black and White women for preeclampsia, eclampsia, abruptio placentae, placenta previa, and postpartum hemorrhage for the years 1988 to 1999. Results. Black women did not have significantly greater prevalence rates than White women. However, Black women with these conditions were 2 to 3 times more likely to die from them than were White women. Conclusions. Higher pregnancy-related mortality among Black women from preeclampsia, eclampsia, abruptio placentae, placenta previa, and postpartum hemorrhage is largely attributable to higher case-fatality rates. Reductions in case-fatality rates may be made by defining more precisely the mechanisms that affect complication severity and risk of death, including complex interactions of biology and health services, and then applying this knowledge in designing interventions that improve pregnancy-related outcomes. (Am J Public Health. 2007; 97:247-251. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.072975)

Though less affluent black and white boys and men adhere to similar gendered norms and aspirations and begin with similar labor market potential, they are often sorted into very different and unequal educational and labor market trajectories. Using national-level descriptive data and key qualitative studies of institutional processes, this article contrasts less affluent black and white men's educational, labor market, and criminal justice system experiences and elucidates the processes of differentiation that reproduce those unequal patterns. In each institutional arena, less affluent black males pay a disproportionate price for enacting masculinity norms in comparison to white males. White boys and men are also presented with more desirable labor market options (and second-chance opportunities when they need help) that are denied their black male counterparts. This article suggests that only a complex strategy, which requires less affluent black men to resist more constructively while citizen groups hold institutions more publicly accountable, can enhance the labor market trajectories of black men. Keywords: masculinity; employment; networks; schoolwork; racial disparity; incarceration

Considerations of how socioeconomic outcomes are racialized within discrete class categories have been neglected in assessing the race/class determinants of life-chance opportunities of African Americans. This article addresses this shortcoming. Specifically, it synthesizes findings from recent sociological research concerning how segregation in two institutional spheres, residence and employment, produce racialization at two class levels--among the impoverished and the middle class. The article documents that segregation plays a significant role in producing racial inequality at both class levels, though it exerts different influences across class categories: at the impoverished level, segregation in the residential sphere, and at the middle-class level, segregation in the employment sphere, emerge as critical underpinnings of African Americans' inferior life-chance opportunities. The implications of the findings for using traditional Weberian and Marxist modes of class analyses in assessing the life-chance opportunities for African Americans as well as how the findings contribute to the resolution of the race/class debate are discussed. Keywords: race; segregation; residence; employment; African Americans

Racial discrimination in the nation's housing markets and patterns of residential segregation have contributed to labor market inequalities and economic disparities generally. Housing values are suppressed in minority communities, undercutting wealth accumulation by nonwhite families. Job growth in suburban communities coupled with the concentration of public housing in central city communities restricts minority access to jobs. A range of institutionalized practices by housing providers and public policies by government agencies at all levels have nurtured and exacerbated racial inequalities grounded in traditional stereotypes. But a number of policy options are available to ameliorate these inequities. Eschewing individualistic explanations of racial inequality that point to personal deficiencies and cultural characteristics of minority communities, these policy recommendations--premised on a structural perspective--offer promise for reducing racial inequities in housing and related economic disparities. Keywords: segregation; steering; exclusionary zoning; discrimination

Numerous commentators have concluded that the Civil Rights Act was effective in promoting increased access to quality jobs for racial minorities. Many have worried as well that the pace of change has been too slow or stalled, particularly after 1980. Few have directly discussed under what conditions we might expect equal employment opportunity (EEO) to flourish. Explanations of status inequalities in the workplace have primarily relied on theories of social conflict and discrimination. Organizational perspectives on stratification, while not completely absent from previous research, remain a road less traveled. In this paper we present trends in race-sex inequality in U.S. workplaces since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and describe the organizational practices and discrimination processes that are likely to maintain status inequalities in the workplace and those which might be catalysts of change. Keywords: race; sex; workplace; segregation; inequality

This study investigates the geography of racial disparities in low birthweight in New York City by focusing on racial residential segregation and its effect on the risk of low birthweight among African-American infants and mothers. This cross-sectional multilevel analysis uses birth records at the individual level (n = 96,882) and racial isolation indices at the census tract or neighborhood level (n = 2095) to measure their independent and cross-level effects on low birthweight. This study found that residential segregation and neighborhood poverty operate at different scales to increase the risk of low birthweight. At the neighborhood scale residential segregation is positively and significantly associated with low birthweight, after controlling for individual-level risk factors and neighborhood poverty. Residential segregation explains neighborhood variation in low birthweight means and race effects across census tracts, which cannot be accounted for by neighborhood poverty alone. At the individual scale-increasing levels of residential segregation does not significantly reduce or exacerbate individual-level risk factors for low birthweight; whereas increasing levels of neighborhood poverty significantly eliminates the race effect and reduces the protective effect of being foreign-born on low birthweight, after controlling for other individual-level risk factors and residential segregation. These findings are contradictory to previous health research that shows protective mechanisms associated with ethnic density in local areas. It is likely that structural factors underlying residential segregation, i.e., racial isolation, impose additional stressors on African-American women that may offset or disguise positive attributes associated with ethnic density. However, as poverty is concentrated within these neighborhoods, differences between races in low birthweight cease to exist. This study demonstrates that residential segregation and neighborhood poverty are important determinants of racial disparity in low birthweight in New York City. Keywords: Racial disparities; Birthweight; Residential segregation; Multilevel modelling; African-American; USA

A telephone survey of Michigan residents provided statistics about the economic conditions and undesirable behavior of white Americans and asked respondents to estimate the corresponding statistics for blacks. Data from white respondents showed that the greater the perceived racial difference (PRD) in rates of undesirable behavior, the more blacks were seen as not trying to better themselves and the less blacks were viewed as experiencing discrimination. The greater the PRD in economic status, especially controlling for education, the more respondents saw racial discrimination as continuing. Controlling for the PRD in Undesirable Behavior, however, the PRD in economic status had little effect on the belief that blacks do not make effort. Implications of these results for status generalization processes are discussed. Because respondents underestimated all racial differences, accurate knowledge of racial statistics might increase both the belief that discrimination continues and the belief that blacks fail to make an effort.

The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth is used to characterize siblings of middle class and poor African-Americans and whites, testing for racial differences in the probability of having a sibling on the other side of the socioeconomic divide. The results have shown that African-Americans are less likely than whites to have siblings that cross important social class lines in ways that are beneficial and the racial differences in the composition of kin networks might indicate another dimension of racial stratification.

The role of academic performance in shaping the progress of students of different genders and racial-ethnic groups through the sequence of high school course in maths is described. More attention to racial-ethnic inequality in math among male students is suggested as low returns were seen for male students.

Racial discrimination in the US appears to relate to poor mental health amongst African Americans but little research was done to identify the mechanisms through which social support operates in its context. Three competing models of social support were tested to understand the connection between racial discrimination, social support, and psychological adjustment.

The theory of ability misperception posits that employers will offer greater rewards to whites than nonwhites for similar levels of prior experience (Proposition 1) but that racial/ethnic differences in the return to additional tenure or seniority with the current employer will be smaller (Proposition 2). To advance the existing empirical literature, this paper evaluates the validity of these propositions by using data on black, Latino, and white workers drawn from the Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality. The analysis is conducted separately for women and men and controls for a wider range of workplace setting descriptors than was used in previous studies. Our results offer support for Proposition 1 and for Proposition 2. We find that nonwhites, regardless of job setting, receive relatively poor returns to prior workplace experience (the lone exception is Latinas). Second, nonwhites typically receive greater wage gains for accumulating additional tenure than whites. JEL Classification: J31, J71, 1. Overview There is an extensive literature documenting the lower wages of black and Latino workers relative to white workers in the United States. The explanations for these racial and [...]

The purpose of the current investigation was to examine the influence of socially held stereotypes with the presence of discrimination in intercollegiate athletics by investigating whether sport-related racial stereotypes influenced promotability ratings of applicants differing by race and qualification levels. This was achieved by way of an experiment with undergraduate students. Results demonstrated that White raters relied on sport-related and racial stereotypes when evaluating and selecting the most promotable applicant for a head coaching position. Findings have important implications for practices within sport organizations as a disproportionate number of decision-makers are White and therefore may also make personnel decisions based on such beliefs.

This qualitative phenomenological study explores perceived discrimination among African American women and men living in Topeka, Kansas. Focus groups and in-depth interviews with 15 African American women and men examined their experiences with perceived discrimination. The theoretical framework guiding this study is predicated under the assumption of symbolic racism. Four major themes emerged during data analysis (1) shopping experiences, (2) law enforcement contact, (3) employment, and (4) Black in Topeka. The essential, invariant structure of discrimination as experienced by African Americans was identified as fear, frustration, depression, and anger. The research paints a portrait of the everyday struggles that participants experience in this community due to discrimination.

Number of discursive devices used by employers when talking about employment market issues for migrants in Australia is explored based on data obtained from a research project, which sought to understand barriers to employment for 'visibly different' refugees and new migrants. Analysis reveals that employers use a number of rhetorical strategies, embedded within broader racist discourses, to deflect attention from their own possible culpability in discriminating against those from migrant and refugee backgrounds.

African Americans have engaged in an ongoing struggle for liberation from slavery, discrimination and racial oppression for which they have used violence as a tactic or strategy. Violent revolt is understood as a means to achieve the goals of retribution and vengeance, as well as a way to force the oppressor to respect Black humanity.

Accumulating research suggests that racism may be a major determinant of health. Here we report associations between self-reported experience of racial discrimination and health in New Zealand. Data from the 2002/2003 New Zealand Health Survey, a cross-sectional survey involving face-to-face interviews with 12,500 people, were analysed. Five items were included to capture racial discrimination in two dimensions: experience of ethnically motivated attack (physical or verbal), or unfair treatment because of ethnicity (by a health professional, in work or when gaining housing). Ethnicity was classified using self-identification to one of four ethnic groups: Maori, Pacific, Asian and European/Other peoples. Logistic regression, accounting for the survey design, age, sex, ethnicity and deprivation, was used to estimate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Maori reported the highest prevalence of 'ever' experiencing any of the forms of racial discrimination (34%), followed by similar levels among Asian (28%) and Pacific peoples (25%). Maori were almost 10 times more likely to experience multiple types of discrimination compared to European/Others (4.5% vs. 0.5%). Reported experience of racial discrimination was associated with each of the measures of health examined. Experience of any one of the five types of discrimination was significantly associated with poor or fair self-rated health; lower physical functioning; lower mental health; smoking; and cardiovascular disease. There was strong evidence of a dose-response relationship between the number of reported types of discrimination and each health measure. These results highlight the need for racism to be considered in efforts to eliminate ethnic inequalities in health. Keywords: Ethnicity; New Zealand; Racism; Discrimination; Health; Maori

This study investigates the association between self-reported physical and mental health and both perceived racial discrimination and skin color in African American men and women. We used data from the longitudinal coronary artery risk development in young adults study (CARDIA) in African American men and women (n = 1722) in the USA. We assessed self-reported mental and physical health status and depressive symptoms at the Year 15 (2000-2001) follow-up examination using the Medical Outcomes Study Short Form (SF-12) and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale. Skin color was measured at the Year 7 examination (1992-1993). To assess racial discrimination, we used a summary score (range 0-21) for 7 questions on experiencing racial discrimination: at school, getting a job, getting housing, at work, at home, getting medical care, on the street or in a public setting. Self-reported racial discrimination was more common in men than in women (78.1% versus 73.0%, p Keywords: Racial discrimination; Racism; Skin color; Physical health; Mental health; African Americans; Gender; USA

Proactive policing strategies produce a range of harms to African Americans in poor urban communities. We know little, however, about how aggressive policing is experienced across gender by adolescents in these neighborhoods. The authors argue that important insights can be gained by examining the perspectives of African American youths and draw from in-depth interviews with youths in St. Louis, Missouri, to investigate how gender shapes interactions with the police. The comparative analysis reveals important gendered facets of African American adolescents' experiences with and expectations of law enforcement. Young men described being treated routinely as suspects regardless of their involvement in delinquency and also reported police violence. Young women typically described being stopped for curfew violations but also expressed concerns about police sexual misconduct. This study highlights the differential harms of urban policing for African American young women and men and highlights the need for systematic attention to the intersections of race and gender in research on criminal justice practices. Keywords: policing; African Americans; gender discrimination; racial discrimination

A survey was conducted to compare the differing perceptions of racism reported by White, African American and Whit-African American multiracial students at an urban campus of a Southern university. Perceived racial disadvantage reported by the multiracial students studied could be simply attributed to the fact that these students are physically different from the African Americans and Whites and genetic composition or physical appearance, rather than social role and cultural attributes determine group identity for some persons.

The proposal of Afro-Brazilian social movements in 2001 for the establishment of quotas for admission of Afro-Brazilians to public universities was met with a response that identifying Afro-Brazilians is difficult since there is no racial discrimination in Brazil. This imagined racial democracy seriously limits realistic discussion of racism and racial identity since it prevents acknowledgement of dysfunctional race relations.

Brazilian society has not developed and implemented concrete proposals to eliminate racism in Brazil, even though statistical date reveal the unjust inequality between Afro-Brazilians and whites in the Brazilian labor market. An important reason for this apathy is that Brazilians are socialized by the mass media which convince consumers that Afro-Brazilians are not ordinary citizens and therefore, not equal to others in the society.

The population projections by the US Census bureau show that the fraction of white Americans will fall around to 50% by 2050, which will signal the end of numerical majority white American population, and this will be associated with growth of other multiracial population. This indicates that white population, over time will have to give way to darker Americas in all walks of life but only if African-Americans work hard to improve their profile in the society and build a smart, competitive America.

Nearly 25-30% African Americans are stuck in poverty and do not form main portion of the society and this is attributed to disinterest shown by the African-American leadership in dealing with this same issue. This was very much evident when Hurricane Katrina struck and left thousands of poor homeless and this clearly indicates segregation of African-American from mainstream population.

Changes in the residential segregation of racial minorities in Canada's three largest metropolitan areas are examined. The results reveal that conventional expectations concerning patterns of residential spatial assimilation by racial minority immigrants are likely to be altered under conditions of persistent high levels of immigration.

Eighty-nine black women's racial and gender identities were examined within an intersectional framework that emphasized their unique integration of these identities. Quantitative analyses indicated that the intersected black-woman identity was more important than the individual identities of woman and black person. Further, interference in the black identity (but not interference in the woman identity) was related to lower self-esteem and depression. Qualitative analyses of rewards and difficulties experienced as black women identified four themes: stereotyping and discrimination, personal esteem, isolation from others, and opportunities and resources. Black women who mentioned any reward reported higher self-esteem than those who did not. The value of an intersectional framework for thinking about black women's identities is discussed. Keywords Black women * Identity interference * Identity conflict * Well-being * Identity importance * Social identity * Race * Gender

This study examines the coping responses of individuals reporting experiences of racial/ethnic discrimination (N= 156). Racial/ethnic differences in contextual appraisals and coping strategies were reported in response to discrimination. African and Asian American participants reporting experiences of discrimination were more likely to perceive the situation as a challenge. African Americans reporting experiences of discrimination were more likely to report seeking support and guidance when compared to Asian and European Americans. Contextual appraisals did not predict the use of coping strategies in response to experiences of discrimination. Emotional discharge and past experiences of discrimination were positively associated with re-experiencing symptoms. Cognitive avoidance coping strategies were associated with avoidance symptoms. Clinical implications of the findings are explored.

Discriminatory experiences have been found to be related to poor mental health outcomes and negative life chances among marginalized communities in the United States. However, little is known about the impact of perceived discrimination on the Latino population. The present article reviews and critiques existing empirical evidence linking perceived discrimination to life chances and mental health outcomes among Latinos. The gaps in the literature reveal that most of the discrimination research was conducted in the 1980s and early 1990s, focused on Mexicans, and excluded other Latino/Hispanic populations, such as Dominicans and Puerto Ricans. The findings of this study will help to inform the understanding of the discriminatory experiences of Latinos in the United States. Keywords: perceived discrimination; mental health outcomes; skin color; phenotype; life chances; Latinos

This research examines the multiple effects of racial diversity on group decision making. Participants deliberated on the trial of a Black defendant as members of racially homogeneous or heterogeneous mock juries. Half of the groups were exposed to pretrial jury selection questions about racism and half were not. Deliberation analyses supported the prediction that diverse groups would exchange a wider range of information than all-White groups. This finding was not wholly attributable to the performance of Black participants, as Whites cited more case facts, made fewer errors, and were more amenable to discussion of racism when in diverse versus all-White groups. Even before discussion, Whites in diverse groups were more lenient toward the Black defendant, demonstrating that the effects of diversity do not occur solely through information exchange. The influence of jury selection questions extended previous findings that blatant racial issues at trial increase leniency toward a Black defendant. Keywords: racial diversity, group composition, decision making, jury deliberations, jury selection

This article compares the experiences of U.S.-born white women, Asian men, and Asian women immigrant engineers in Silicon Valley. It focuses on two particular characteristics of the region's economic structure: the norm of job-hopping and the centrality of networks to high-skilled workers' career livelihoods. While these characteristics might be assumed to exacerbate ethnic and gender inequality, the specific history of these groups' entrance into Silicon Valley's hi-tech industry enabled them to use these characteristics to their advantage in circumventing bias. The comparison of white women's strategies to Asian immigrant men's and women's strategies highlights the interaction between the structure of opportunities, group histories, and network resources. Keywords: gender inequality; engineers; flexible specialization; Asian immigrants; Silicon Valley

Like many large cities pursuing preferential procurement programs, the City of Chicago was sued by an association of local contractors and tried in court for discriminating against white males in construction. Unlike many large cities, Chicago prevailed in court: the City defeated the legal challenge. This study examines the Chicago-area construction industry, the expanding role of minorities in that industry, and some of the conditions that allowed the City to triumph in federal court when preferential procurement was challenged. The discriminatory nature of the local industry is documented. Also documented is the extraordinary expansion of minority--particularly Hispanic--presence in Chicago construction. White male dominance appears to be vulnerable to challenge in this traditional bastion of the entrenched old-boy network. JEL CODES: J15, J71, L74

We demonstrated racial differences in the relationship between migration, location, and predicted wages for young male workers who have changed employers. An Oaxaca decomposition allowed a measuring of the contributions of migration, occupation change, site features, and human capital to the racial wage gap. Migration decreases black white wage differences, and wage compensation for site attributes favors white householders. Constraints on occupation choice and migration dampen the ability of blacks to improve wages. Because most job changes occur in the first ten years of a career, these results on young workers give important general insights into the origins and persistence of racial wage gaps.

This study employs a resource mobilization model to explain racial differences in congregation-based political activism. The fewer resources (i.e., members, income, clergy leadership, civic ties) that black congregations possess relative to white congregations largely accounts for racial differences in congregation-based lobbying and protest politics--forms of political activism that exact relatively high resource costs upon political activists. That is, black congregations become more heavily involved than white congregations in lobbying and protest politics when they have a resource capacity similar to that of white congregations. Despite their relatively few resources, black congregations are, on average, more likely than are white congregations to involve themselves in voter registration efforts. This finding has much to do with the heightened social-political expectations of African American congregants concomitant with the relatively low resource cost of voter registration programs., Introduction This study assesses the applicability of resource mobilization theory to explain racial differences in the level and type of political activism in which a national representative sample of predominantly […]

Pervasive health disparities continue to exist among racial/ethnic minority groups, but the factors related to these disparities have not been fully elucidated. We undertook this prospective cohort study to determine the independent contributions of socioeconomic status (SES), health behaviors, and health insurance in explaining racial/ethnic disparities in mortality and health declines. Our study period was 1992-1998, and our study population consists of a US nationally representative sample of 6286 non-Hispanic whites (W), 1391 non-Hispanic blacks (B), 405 Hispanics interviewed in English (H/E), and 318 Hispanics interviewed in Spanish (H/S), ages 51-61 in 1992 in the Health and Retirement Study. The main outcome measures were death; major decline in self-reported overall health (SROH); and combined outcome of death or major decline in SROH. Crude mortality rates over the 6-year study period for W, B, H/E and H/S were 5.8%, 10.6%, 5.8%, and 4.4%, respectively. Rates of major decline in SROH were 14.6%, 23.2%, 22.1% and 39.4%, for W, B, H/E and H/S, respectively. Higher mortality rates for B versus W were mostly explained by worse baseline health. For major decline in SROH, education, income, and net worth independently explained more of the disparities for all three minority groups as compared to health behaviors and insurance, reducing the effect for B and H/E to non-significance, while leaving a significant elevated odds ratio for H/S. Without addressing the as-yet undetermined and pernicious effects of lower SES, public health initiatives that promote changing individual health behaviors and increasing rates of insurance coverage among blacks and Hispanics will not eliminate racial/ethnic health disparities. Keywords: Racial/ethnic health disparities; Hispanics; Socioeconomic status; Health behaviors; Insurance; Self-reported health declines; USA; Cohort study

In this study we draw upon data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Freshmen, a representative survey of nearly 4,000 men and women entering college in the autumn of 1999, to consider the effects of housing and school segregation during childhood on academic performance in college. We show that black and Latino college students, even those enrolled in the nation's most selective academic institutions, display large differences in background and experiences that are strongly conditioned by racial segregation. Those coming of age in a segregated environment were less prepared academically and socially for college life, and were more exposed to violence and social disorder while growing up. After documenting these differences, we estimate regression models to predict academic performance as a function of the minority composition of the neighbourhoods and schools where respondents lived ages 6-18, controlling for a variety of individual and family characteristics as well as the correlates of segregation. Keywords: Segregation; higher education; minority students; academic performance.

Introduction A large portion of the early childhood literature in the area of cultural, racial, and linguistic diversity addresses the practices of institutions for young children, immigrant/refugee parents' understandings of [...]

Byline: Kaushik Basu (1) Keywords: C72; D74; D80; Z10 Abstract: This paper demonstrates how our sense of identity can emerge out of mere markers of social distinction that may have no innate significance, but, nevertheless, spread to various aspects of our lives and be the root of conflict. The basis of such conflicts could arise from the use of race to form conditional judgments about people's behavior. Moreover, there are contexts where racial conflict is inevitable even though, if individuals had common knowledge of one another's preferences, there would be no conflict. It is argued that this kind of conflict, where many individuals have no innate aggressive preference, is widespread and understanding the process that gives rise to such conflict is the key to crafting effective policy that contains it. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Economics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA Article History: Registration Date: 15/06/2005 Accepted Date: 08/02/2005 Online Date: 21/10/2005