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抽提小鼠R5杂交瘤细胞的mRNA，逆转录成cDNA，扩增出R5单抗的轻重链基因.分析克隆到的轻重链基因的序列信息，得到互补决定区(CDR)序列信息.构建真核表达质粒并在真核细胞中表达.采用互补决定区移植（CDR-grafting）的方法人源化鼠源单抗R5基因.先从人种系(germline)抗体基因片段中选出和克隆到的小鼠R5抗体基因具有相同互补决定区正则结构类型(CDR canonical structure class)的片段，合成寡核苷酸并采用PCR重叠延伸(overlap extension)的方法得到人源化的VL和VH，并采用双酶切方法分别克隆入昆虫杆状病毒表达栽体pAc-k-CH3中, 经测序确定序列正确.大抽后的质粒和线性杆状病毒DNA共转Sf9昆虫细胞，表达得到的抗体用ELISA能检测到和抗原的结合活性.轻重链基因的成功克隆和人源化表达质粒的构建及表达为下一步改善人源化R5单抗的特性打下了基础，并向R5单抗的抗肿瘤临床应用迈进了一步，具有重要的意义.

The article applies the global costs calculation method to the energy assessment of selected solutions for the technical equipping of buildings, dependant on their purpose and function. Representative archetypes, the life span of which were assumed to be 30-years, were used to estimate the performance of the minimum requirements according to the building regulations valid in 2013, current general standards, as well as low energy building and passive house standards. The subjects of the analysis were three residential buildings, for which the variability of the cladding and ventilation needs was assumed. In all analysed cases the application of four systems of energy supply to the building was also assumed. The optimal level of primary energy index value, dependant on the source of heat, was established by means of the global cost method. This level was then compared with the requirements presently valid in Poland. The analysis also allowed for the determination of the growth in investment costs, that must be considered in order to achieve the energy needed for heating and ventilation at the level of 40 kWh/m2/a or 15 kWh/m2/a. The analysis presents a comparison of the subsidized loans for energy-efficient houses offered by the Polish Government. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ten New York canals are evaluated as an integrated transport investment covering 1817-1880. A newly estimated willingness-to-pay (WTP) of canal users augments toll revenues as a benefits stream, and all effects are rendered in real terms. Net present value is positive for a range of real discount rates from 4 to 10 percent. A Monte Carlo simulation of uncertain WTP and discount rates shows median real net present value of US$26 million, and a zero probability of negative values. Segal is shown to have grossly overstated benefits of the Erie Canal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we extend the home-attachment model to a setting with multiple (more than two) jurisdictions and consider non-cooperative policy making for provision of different types of metropolitan public goods in the presence of a common labor market. Migration and working place choices are independent. We show that the optimal redistributive policy implemented by a central authority always yields equalization of private consumption levels across jurisdictions. This result holds whether or not policy makers are able to anticipate migration responses to their policy choices. In the decentralized leadership games, jurisdictions make choices that fully internalize externalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Regional Studies is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

A great deal of regional research has focused on the innovation-competitiveness-growth chain, which is implicit in territorial innovation models ( TIMs). TIMs literature has neglected or subordinated social and ecological regional conditions. This research adopts a broader perspective by: ( i) studying an interscalar intergovernmental network aimed at meeting tridimensional sustainable development ( SD) goals; and ( ii) showing why this arrangement is successful. The network members are the regional government and provincial councils, which act as network promoters, and the municipalities. We model the network as a platform for integrating both pre-existing idiosyncratic resources and emergent resources/benefits that come from rich and regular interactions (in the shape of learning, enjoyment, reputation, identification, and attitude towards citizen participation); resources integration leads to network member satisfaction. This view is supported by data concerning a network in a Spanish autonomous community (region), Castile- La Mancha. We see this study as a first step towards more systematic research on what might be termed 'territorial sustainability models'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Regional Studies is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Regional Studies is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Regional Studies is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Elbows are highly stressed components and are critical to the integrity of the pipework systems and important to the safety of plants. In this paper, a local collapse solution for elbow end welds has been developed and subsequently used in defect assessments. A creep-fatigue crack growth assessment of the elbow end weld has been carried out assuming a defect initiated in the weld under the loading conditions of internal pressure, system moment, high temperature and welding residual stress. For the elbow end weld, the limiting defect calculation has been conducted using R6 procedures and the creep-fatigue crack growth assessments have been performed using R5. Furthermore, appropriate combinations of creep deformation and creep crack growth used for the R5 assessment are detailed in the paper. A surface breaking circumferential semi-elliptical defect postulated on the external surface has been assessed. After presenting the detailed assessment result, conclusions are drawn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Boiler tube to tubeplate welds are often seen in the power generation industry. In the nuclear power industry, especially in Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactors, the welds are exposed to long term creep temperature and are subjected to fatigue cycles due to start-up and shutdown. The creep-fatigue crack initiation life assessment for the weld is required for the purposes of ensuring of safe operation and life extension. This paper presents the detailed assessment methodologies to perform a creep-fatigue crack initiation assessment using the latest R5 volume 2/3 (Issue 3 Revision 002, 2014) for the boiler superheater header tubeplate to tube Type 316 welds. The key changes of the revised R5 procedure are also outlined in the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How the homeostatic drive for sleep accumulates over time and is released remains poorly understood. In Drosophila , we previously identified the R5 ellipsoid body (EB) neurons as putative sleep drive neurons 1 and recently described a mechanism by which astrocytes signal to these cells to convey sleep need. 2 Here, we examine the mechanisms acting downstream of the R5 neurons to promote sleep. EM connectome data demonstrate that R5 neurons project to EPG neurons. 3 Broad thermogenetic activation of EPG neurons promotes sleep, whereas inhibiting these cells reduces homeostatic sleep rebound. Perforated patch-clamp recordings reveal that EPG neurons exhibit elevated spontaneous firing following sleep deprivation, which likely depends on an increase in extrinsic excitatory inputs. Our data suggest that cholinergic R5 neurons participate in the homeostatic regulation of sleep, and epistasis experiments indicate that the R5 neurons act upstream of EPG neurons to promote sleep. Finally, we show that the physical and functional connectivity between the R5 and EPG neurons increases with greater sleep need. Importantly, dual patch-clamp recordings demonstrate that activating R5 neurons induces cholinergic-dependent excitatory postsynaptic responses in EPG neurons. Moreover, sleep loss triggers an increase in the amplitude of these responses, as well as in the proportion of EPG neurons that respond. Together, our data support a model whereby sleep drive strengthens the functional connectivity between R5 and EPG neurons, triggering sleep when a sufficient number of EPG neurons are activated. This process could enable the proper timing of the accumulation and release of sleep drive. • Broad activation of EPG compass neurons promotes sleep in Drosophila • EPG activity increases with sleep need and facilitates homeostatic sleep rebound • R5 sleep drive neurons act upstream of EPG neurons • Sleep loss strengthens R5/EPG connectivity to enhance transmission of sleep drive The circuit mechanisms underlying the homeostatic regulation of sleep remain enigmatic. Ho et al. find that sleep deprivation induces plastic changes in a homeostatic sleep circuit, which potentiates signaling to a downstream sleep-promoting circuit. They propose that this process mediates transmission of homeostatic sleep drive in Drosophila. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We estimate the effect of corruption on business activity in Brazilian municipalities. We employ a new measure of corruption based on data from random audits of municipal governments. Our results suggest that higher levels of corruption are generally associated with reductions in the number of business establishments. Furthermore, we find that these effects become larger over time, suggesting that corruption is particularly detrimental over the long-run. However, we also find that the effect of corruption on business activity can be insignificant or even positive conditional on institutional quality being very poor. This is consistent with the 'grease the wheels' hypothesis, which argues that corruption provides entrepreneurs with means to avoid burdensome regulations and taxes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the effect of ethnic diversity on municipal spending, taxes, and employment, as well as on municipal spending in various subcategories. Previous work has found that diversity is associated with decreased productive spending but increased overall spending and employment. The goal of this paper is to investigate whether these opposing effects are found for two different levels of diversity. The first considers broad ethnic groups like non-Hispanic white, black, and Hispanic. The second considers more focused diversity, the various subgroups making up the white category. We find that greater broad diversity increases municipal spending and taxes, spending on all of the specific productive goods, and sometimes on protective or redistributive services. Greater focused diversity, on the other hand, decreases municipal spending and spending on one redistributive service but increases spending on another. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earmarked federal grants are ubiquitous and significant. Traditional fiscal federalism is unable to explain these grants' widespread utilization. Recent arguments focusing on the potential benefits of centralized earmarking in reducing incentives for the creation of soft budgets at subcentral government levels merit formalization. I show that universal earmarking improves the efficiency of a federation in which regional governments are able to commit to provision of all regional public goods. However, efficient earmarking need not be universal: It should only involve private consumption and fiscal budgets for public goods subject to decentralized fiscal commitments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of the paper is to assess the performance of urban local governments in India taking the physical levels of services provided by them as the 'outputs' and the expenditures on resources to provide these services as 'inputs' in an integrated framework and pinpoint some possible sources of mis-utilization of resources. We use nonparametric two-stage data envelopment analysis technique to derive the efficiency scores, with a subsequent analysis of slacks associated with the optimization exercise which quantifies the extent of mis-utilization of resources. The main findings suggest that the city governments can provide the same levels of services by using resources lesser by 27 % of what they currently use. We also find that the extent of unproductive spending and under-provision of services are more pronounced in smaller cities. Mis-utilization of resources in factors like establishment and laborcost is more pronounced as the establishment expenditures and contractual payments in the laborcost component involve more leakages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A random effects stochastic frontier variable cost function is estimated for the Erie Canal and nine interconnected lateral canals in New York, covering the period 1837-1881. Variable costs are 50 % above least cost for the Erie and 42 % above across all the 10 canals. Inefficiency does not vary over time in response to numerous changes in canal administrative structures and personnel or the advent of railroads. The canal system was plagued by documented waste, fraud and mismanagement throughout its history. A privatized, price capped Erie Canal was proposed in 1817, but rejected on political grounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Regional Studies is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Regional Studies is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The obesity epidemic has renewed policy interest in provision of physical activity-enhancing park facilities. Public health researchers have noted variability in physical activity levels associated with different types of facilities. We assess the hedonic valuation of different types of park facilities. For homes located ¼ mile from the nearest park, the hedonic value of a 1/10 mile improvement in proximity ranges from an 1.3 % increase in home price in African American neighborhoods to a 0.3 % price reduction in 'average' neighborhoods. Similar variation occurs across the home price distribution, park facilities, and neighborhood characteristics. Park funding implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Regional Studies is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper compares the regulatory structures that have developed in local bus regulation over the past 20 years in local public transport in Sweden and England outside London, and their impacts. The paper will attempt to assess how far there are similarities in these structures and whether there is evidence of any form of convergence. It does so with a review of the relevant legislation and structures, and their effects, based on the published and grey literature in the two countries. It uses a theory of the regulatory cycle (based on Needham, 1983) to theorise the relative regulatory positions of the two countries. It pays particular attention to the development of types of cooperative or partnership contract between the public and private sectors in local bus transport in the two countries, and assesses the similarities and differences between these two contracts. It concludes that, whilst the two countries may be at different points on the regulatory cycle, and therefore that in regulatory terms these partnership contracts are the result of very different pressures, in fact they are resulting in some similarities, though not in any way a regulatory convergence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Spatial Economic Analysis is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The general theory of regulation and then 10 theories related to safety regulation are summarized, explaining why regulation is or is not beneficial, or why negative externalities like building fires might increase. As an example, evidence from regulation and planning to enhance fire safety in Turin, Italy, is included, which shows apparent regulatory failure due to public choice and knowledge problems. Regulators there apparently failed to meet their public interest objective: the “control of safety conditions to prevent fires” and to “minimize the causes of fire.” Data perusal suggests that (a) the income effect, (b) public choice theories of bureaucracy and perverse incentives, (c) the “knowledge problem” theory, and (d) population density to a lesser degree best explain and predict the regulatory outcome. The results tend to favor government failure models, rather than theories that say (e) government provision works even if inefficiently or as a placebo, (f) that regulation is irrelevant, or (g) explanations that surmise that racial composition, (h) immigration of poor and ignorant people, (i) technical problems with electricity (wiring and materials), or (j) moral hazard cause more fires. Thus, planning theory should endeavor to better incorporate government failure theories into its models. These theories at times provide better explanatory and predictive power than traditional market failure models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This aim of this study was to determine the extent of any convergence in house prices across China, using a regional panel data set. The results showed little evidence of convergence across the regions, although there is evidence of a ripple effect starting in Shanghai, Guangzhou and Beijing, although only the former two regions are affected by the distance from them to the respective cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background The CRF08_ BC strain is one of the most predominant circulating Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 ( HIV-1) strains in the Chinese pandemic. A simian-human immunodeficiency virus ( SHIV) encoding HIV-1 CRF08_ BC env is highly desirable to evaluate candidate AIDS vaccines in non-human primates. Methods SHIV- KBQJ-12, which carries the envelope glycoprotein from QJ001, an infectious molecular clone of HIV-1 CRF08_ BC, was generated. The replication capacity of SHIV- KBQJ-12 was determined both in human and rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta) peripheral blood mononuclear cells ( PBMCs) and in Chinese rhesus macaques. Results SHIV- KBQJ-12 replicated efficiently in human and macaque PBMCs and displayed a preference for CCR5 as an entry coreceptor. Productive infection of two macaques by intravenous inoculation with SHIV- KBQJ-12 was confirmed. Conclusions SHIV- KBQJ-12 is an R5-tropic chimeric virus that can establish productive infection both in vitro and in vivo in Chinese rhesus macaques and will be useful to assess candidate HIV-1 CRF08_ BC vaccines in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Regional Studies is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The present paper applies Lucas's theory of endogenous growth and Stiglitz's theory of local public goods to build an econometric model consisting of five simultaneous equations to study China's fiscal decentralization effects on regional economic growth. The model is estimated by two-stage least squares using a set of panel data on 31 Chinese provinces during 1996-2005. The estimated results show that China's fiscal decentralization increased the local governments' expenditure on physical infrastructure and education, which led to the rising local physical capital stock and human capital levels, respectively, and then resulted in the growth of regional economies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Regional Studies is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Painter J. Regional biopolitics,Regional Studies. This paper seeks to bring ideas about biopolitics and its associated political technologies to bear on the variety of regional geographies that affect the practices of governing populations today. After outlining some of the ways in which populations and their characteristics feature as matters of governmental concern, the paper then briefly summarizes Michel Foucault's account of biopolitics and its association with the formation of national population and nation-states. While there are good reasons why discussions of biopolitics have tended to emphasize the national scale, a full account of biopolitical practices would also attend to the complex spatialities of populations and government. Drawing on Stephen Legg's scalar account of the relationship between population, biopolitics and government, the paper considers the tentative emergence of what might be termed regional biopolitics in contemporary Europe. Recent changes in workforce skills policy in the United Kingdom provide a case study to examine how a typical biopolitical concern (the skill levels of the population) relates to the rise and subsequent fall of regional governance in England. Painter J. 区域生态政治学. 区域研究. 本文寻求引入生态政治学思想及相关的政治技术，来影响对当今人口管治实践产生着影响的一系列区域地理研究。本文首先罗列人口及其特征成为政府关注的事情的一些途径，而后简要总结米歇尔·福柯对生态政治学的分析及其与国家人口和民族国家形成的关系。尽管生态政治学倾向于强调国家尺度有充分的理由，但对生态政治实践的详尽讨论也要考虑到人口和政府的复杂空间性。基于斯蒂芬·莱格对于人口、生态政治和国家之间关系的尺度分析，本文探讨在当今欧洲正在出现的、或许可以称之为区域生态政治学的东西。最后，使用最近英国劳动力技能政策变化这个案例，来揭示典型的生态政治学关注（人口的技能水平）如何与英国区域管治的起落相关。 生态政治学 劳动力市场 人口 区域管治 尺度 技能 Painter J. La biopolitique régionale,Regional Studies. Cet article cherche à faire peser des questions à l'égard de la biopolitique et des technologies politiques connexes sur la diversité des géographies régionales qui influent aujourd'hui sur la gouvernance. Une fois esquissé quelques-unes des façons dont les populations et leurs traits figurent en tant que questions qui préoccupent l'administration, l'article résume brièvement le compte-rendu de Michel Foucault au sujet de la biopolitique et de son lien avec l'établissement des populations nationales et des États-nations. Alors qu'il y a de bonnes raisons pourquoi des discussions sur la biopolitique ont eu tendance à focaliser l'échelle nationale, un compte-rendu détaillé des pratiques biopolitiques aborderait aussi les spatialités des populations et de l'administration. Puisant dans le compte-rendu scalaire de Stephen Legg à propos du rapport entre les populations, la biopolitique et l'administration, cet article aborde les premiers pas vers la biopolitique régionale dans l'Europe contemporaine. Au Royaume-Uni, des modifications apportées récemment à la politique en faveur des compétences professionnelles fournissent une étude de cas pour examiner comment une question biopolitique type (les niveaux de compétences de la population) se rapporte à l'essor et au déclin de la gouvernance en Angleterre. Biopolitique Marché du travail Population Gouvernance régionale Échelle Compétences Painter J. Regionale Biopolitik,Regional Studies. In diesem Beitrag werden Ideen über Biopolitik und die zugehörigen politischen Technologien im Zusammenhang mit den verschiedenartigen regionalen Geografien, die sich heute auf die Praktiken beim Regieren von Bevölkerungen auswirken, vorgestellt. Nach Beschreibung einiger Beispiele dafür, auf welche Weise Bevölkerungen und ihre Merkmale für Regierungen von Interesse sind, wird Michel Foucaults Beschreibung der Biopolitik und ihrer Verknüpfung mit der Bildung von nationalen Bevölkerungen und Nationalstaaten kurz zusammengefasst. Obwohl es gute Gründe dafür gibt, dass bei einer Erörterung der Biopolitik in der Regel der nationale Maßstab betont wird, würde eine vollständige Aufstellung der biopolitischen Praktiken auch den komplexen Räumlichkeiten von Bevölkerungen und Regierungen Rechnung tragen. Ausgehend von Stephen Leggs skalarer Darstellung der Beziehung zwischen Bevölkerung, Biopolitik und Regierung wird in diesem Beitrag das zögerliche Entstehen einer Entwicklung untersucht, die sich als regionale Biopolitik im modernen Europa bezeichnen ließe. Die jüngsten Änderungen bei der britischen Politik zur Weiterbildung von Arbeitskräften bieten eine Fallstudie zur Untersuchung der Frage, wie ein typisch biopolitischer Aspekt (der Ausbildungsstand der Bevölkerung) mit dem Aufstieg und anschließenden Niedergang der regionalen Regierungsführung in England zusammenhängt. Biopolitik Arbeitsmarkt Bevölkerung Regionale Regierungsführung Maßstab Qualifikationen Painter J. Biopolítica regional,Regional Studies. El objetivo de este artículo es aportar ideas sobre la biopolítica y sus tecnologías políticas relacionadas que aborden las diferentes geografías regionales que afectan a las prácticas de gobierno de la población de hoy día. Tras explicar algunos de las maneras en las que las poblaciones y sus características representan un interés para el Gobierno, en este artículo resumimos brevemente el relato de Michel Foucault sobre la biopolítica y su relación con la formación de poblaciones y estados nacionales. Aunque existen buenas razones para explicar por qué en los debates se suele hacer hincapié en la biopolítica a escala nacional, un relato completo de las prácticas biopolíticas también serviría para tener en cuenta las espacialidades complejas de poblaciones y gobierno. Basándonos en la descripción escalar de Stephen Legg de la relación entre población, biopolítica y gobierno, en este artículo consideramos la paulatina aparición de lo que podríamos llamar biopolítica regional en la Europa actual. Los recientes cambios en la política británica sobre las cualificaciones de la mano de obra sirven de estudio de caso para examinar de qué modo un problema típico de biopolítica (los niveles de capacitación de la población) se relaciona con el aumento y la posterior caída del gobierno regional en Inglaterra. Biopolítica Mercado de trabajo Población Gobierno regional Escala Habilidades [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Medeiros E. Euro–Meso–Macro: the new regions in Iberian and European space,Regional Studies. The European integration process, which has been supported by European Cohesion Policy since the end of the 1980s, is witnessing the establishment of an increasingly large number of the so-called Euroregions and similar structures, mainly as a result of experiments and projects carried out under the INTERREG community initiative, in all its strands (cross-border, transnational and interregional cooperation), in a quest to search for better adequate socioeconomic development and multilevel governance solutions. This article explores the emergence of these new governance spaces in Europe and, in particular, in the Portuguese–Spanish border area, and it aims to assess their contribution of injecting new tailor-made regional/local development strategies and also to provide a conceptual clarification of these spaces, which became more relevant with the advent of the Macro-Regions that have come into being since 2007. Medeiros E. 欧洲-中观-宏观：利比里亚与欧洲空间的新区域，区域研究。80年代末期以来欧洲融合政策所促进的欧洲整合过程见证了逐渐扩大的欧洲区域以及相似结构的建立，这主要是INTERREG社区创意实验及项目的社会经济发展及多层面管制措施的结果。本文考察了欧洲新管治空间尤其是葡萄牙与西班牙临界地区的出现，而且文章试图评估为区域以及地方政府量身打造的区域/地方发展策略的新贡献，并提供对上述自2007年来逐渐成型的宏观区域背景下空间的概念性区分。 欧洲区域 宏观区域 领域合作 领域管治 领域合作的欧洲组团 INTERREG Medeiros E. Les régions européennes-mésoéconomiques-macroéconomiques: les nouvelles régions de l'espace ibérique et européen,Regional Studies. Le processus d'intégration europeéenne, soutenu par la politique européenne en faveur de la cohésion depuis la fin des années 1980, témoigne de l'établissement d'un nombre de plus en plus important de prétendues eurorégions et de telles structures, principalement suite à une série d'expériences et de projets menés sous l'égide de l'initiative communautaire INTERREG, dans tous ses domaines (coopération transfrontalière, transnationale et interrégionale), à la recherche de meilleures solutions suffisantes quant au développement socioéconomique et à la gouvernance à plusieurs niveaux. Cet article examine la naissance de ces nouveaux espaces de gouvernance en Europe et, notamment, dans la zone frontalière espagnolo-portugaise, et cherche à évaluer ce qu'ils ont apporté en matière de stratégies d'aménagement du territoire faites sur mesure, et à éclaircir d'un point de vue conceptuel ces espaces, qui sont devenus plus importants au fur et à mesure de l'apparition des régions macroéconomiques depuis 2007. Eurorégion Région macroéconomique Coopération territoriale Gouvernance territoriale Groupement européen de coopération territoriale INTERREG Medeiros E. Euro–Meso–Makro: die neuen Regionen im iberischen und europäischen Raum,Regional Studies. Der Prozess der europäischen Integration, der seit Ende der achtziger Jahre durch die europäische Kohäsionspolitik unterstützt wird, ist von der Gründung einer immer höheren Zahl von sogenannten Euroregionen und ähnlichen Strukturen geprägt, die vor allem auf Experimente und Projekte zurückgehen, welche im Rahmen der Gemeinschaftsinitiative INTERREG auf sämtlichen Ebenen (grenzübergreifende, transnationale und interregionale Zusammenarbeit) durchgeführt wurden, um bessere und angemessenere Lösungen für sozioökonomische Entwicklung und Regierungsführung auf mehreren Ebenen zu finden. In diesem Beitrag wird das Entstehen dieser neuen Regierungsräume in Europa und insbesondere im portugiesisch-spanischen Grenzgebiet untersucht, wobei versucht wird, ihren Beitrag bei der Injektion von neuen, maßgeschneiderten regionalen bzw. lokalen Entwicklungsstrategien zu bewerten und eine konzeptuelle Klärung dieser Räume vorzunehmen, die mit dem Entstehen der Makroregionen seit 2007 relevanter geworden sind. Euroregion Makroregion Territoriale Zusammenarbeit Territoriale Regierungsführung Europäischer Verbund für territoriale Zusammenarbeit (EVTZ) INTERREG Medeiros E. Euro, meso y macro: las nuevas regiones en el espacio ibérico y europeo,Regional Studies. El proceso de la integración europea, que ha sido respaldado por la política europea de cohesión desde finales de los ochenta, es testigo del establecimiento de un número cada vez mayor de las llamadas eurorregiones y estructuras similares, principalmente como resultado de los experimentos y proyectos llevados a cabo en el marco de la iniciativa comunitaria INTERREG, en todos sus ámbitos (cooperación transfronteriza, transnacional e interregional), en un intento de buscar un desarrollo socioeconómico más adecuado y mejores soluciones de gobierno de varios niveles. En este artículo analizamos el surgimiento de estos nuevos espacios gubernamentales en Europa y, en particular, en la zona fronteriza luso-española, con la finalidad de evaluar qué contribución hacen estos espacios mediante la inyección de nuevas estrategias de desarrollo regional/local a medida, y ofrecer también una clarificación conceptual de estos espacios, que se han hecho más relevantes con la aparición de las macrorregiones desde 2007. Eurorregión Macrorregión Cooperación territorial Gobernanza territorial Agrupación europea de cooperación territorial (AECT) INTERREG [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: R5 is an assessment procedure for the high temperature response of structures and R5 Volume 7 specifies the creep crack growth assessment for low alloy welds. In power plants, almost all welds operating in creeping regime have been post weld heat treated (PWHT). However, low levels of welding residual stresses may still exist. It is known that the welding residual stresses in weldments can be difficult to estimate, as their magnitude and distribution depend on materials, geometry, weld procedure and heat treatment. For high temperature low alloy steel, CrMoV, butt welds, R5 Volume 7 suggests that a bending welding residual stress of 60 MPa should be assumed for a circumferential defect following a post weld heat treatment. For conservatism, the relaxation of this low level of the welding residual stress in a service component operating at high temperatures for a long period time has been discounted in R5. As the actual welding residual stresses can be difficult to estimate, it is necessary to carry out a detailed investigation for the effects of the welding residual stresses on the creep crack growth and a number of associated crack growth parameters. In this paper, for a typical low alloy steel butt weld in ½Cr½Mo¼V (‘½CMV’) pipework with 2¼Cr1Mo weld metal under a given set of internal pressure, temperature and system moment, a series of creep crack growth analyses have been conducted using the R5 Volume 7 assessment procedure, assuming the welding residual stresses of 10 MPa–100 MPa and three different crack initiation times. A postulated service-initiated internal circumferential defect (semi-elliptical surface-breaking surface defect) of 2.3 mm deep by 15 mm long has been used. The investigation results are presented by a series of graphs which show the effects of the welding residual stresses and different crack initiation times on the creep crack growth for the weld studied. After a detailed discussion, conclusions can be drawn. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

MasonC. and PierrakisY. Venture capital, the regions and public policy: the United Kingdom since the post-2000 technology crash,Regional Studies. The geography of venture capital in the United Kingdom has been shaped since the year 2000 by a significant increase in public sector venture capital funds. Venture capital investments are now less concentrated in the South East. However, investment activity in the Midlands and North is dominated by the public sector. Deal sizes in these regions are small. Venture capital, measured by the total amount invested, remains over-concentrated in London and the South East where private sector investors continue to dominate. This paper concludes by questioning whether this increased dependence of Northern regions on public sector venture capital matters. MasonC. and PierrakisY. 风险资本，区域及公共政策：2000 年技术危机之后的英国，区域研究。英国风险资本的地理学成形于 2000 年，由公共部门风险资本基金的增加引起。风险投资目前在东南部分布较少。然而，米德兰与英国北部的投资活动由公共部门所主导。上述区域内的成交率较低。以投资总量衡量的风险投资过于集中于伦敦地区，而私有部门投资持续主导了英国东南部地区。文章结尾就北部地区对于公共部门风险投资的依赖性是否会产生影响提出了质疑。 风险资本 区域 区域政策 中小型企业 MasonC. et PierrakisY. Le capital-risque, les régions et la politique publique: le Royaume-Uni depuis le krach technologique de l'après-2000,Regional Studies. La géographie du capital-risque au Royaume-Uni a été influencée depuis l'an 2000 par une augmentation sensible du capital-risque dans le secteur public. De nos jours, les investissements sous forme de capital-risque sont moins concentrés dans le Sud-Est. Cependant, c'est le secteur public qui explique dans une large mesure l'investissement dans les Midlands et dans le Nord, le montant des opérations dans ces régions-là s'avérant faible. Le capital-risque, en termes du montant global investi, reste surconcentré à Londres et dans le Sud-Est où les investisseurs du secteur privé ne cesse de prédominer. Pour conclure, on met en doute l'importance de la dépendance accrue du Nord du capital-risque du secteur public. Capital-risque Régions Politique régionale Entreprises petites et moyennes MasonC. und PierrakisY. Beteiligungskapital, die Regionen und öffentliche Politik: Großbritannien seit dem Technologie-Crash nach dem Jahr 2000,Regional Studies. Die Geografie von Beteiligungskapital in Großbritannien ist seit dem Jahr 2000 von einer signifikanten Erhöhung der Beteiligungskapitalfonds des öffentlichen Sektors geprägt. Im Südosten sind Investitionen von Beteiligungskapital inzwischen weniger konzentriert. In den Midlands und im Norden hingegen wird die Investitionsaktivität vom öffentlichen Sektor dominiert. Die Umfang der Geschäfte fällt in diesen Regionen gering aus. Gemessen am investierten Gesamtbetrag bleibt das Beteiligungskapital in London und im Südosten überkonzentriert, wo Investoren aus dem Privatsektor weiterhin dominieren. Der Beitrag schließt mit der Frage, ob diese erhöhte Abhängigkeit der nördlichen Regionen von Beteiligungskapital des öffentlichen Sektors von Belang ist. Beteiligungskapital Regionen Regionalpolitik Kleine und mittelständische Unternehmen MasonC. y PierrakisY. Capital de riesgo, las regiones y la política pública: el Reino Unido desde el final de la crisis tecnológica de 2000,Regional Studies. La geografía del capital de riesgo en el Reino Unido se caracteriza desde el año 2000 por un aumento significativo en los fondos de capital de riesgo del sector público. Las inversiones del capital de riesgo están ahora menos concentradas en el sureste del país. Sin embargo, la actividad inversora en el centro y norte está dominada por el sector público. Las inversiones en estas regiones son pequeñas. Al cuantificar el capital de riesgo en función de la cantidad total invertida, observamos que todavía está demasiado concentrado en Londres y el sureste del país donde siguen dominando los inversores del sector privado. Concluimos este artículo cuestionando si es importante esta creciente dependencia de las regiones del norte del capital de riesgo del sector público. Capital de riesgo Regiones Política regional Pequeñas y medianas empresas [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article looks at the case of the French technopole known as 'Sophia Antipolis'. After a brief description of the history and main dimensions of Sophia Antipolis, we look at the everyday life of social relations in the technopole. We argue that the everyday life of social relations in Sophia Antipolis, such as community life and living choices of the workers, are poorly developed and this may affect negatively the economic life of the technopole. Finally, in the conclusion, we compare Silicon Valley's model with Sophia Antipolis and we highlight similarities and differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discussions of economic growth require an examination of the role of cities. It is widely claimed that cities exist because they facilitate economic growth and development. Spatial concentrations reduce transactions costs. There are additional benefits gained as positive spillover effects are realized. The latter is especially important for the exchange of ideas. Creativity comes from new arrangements of thoughts and ideas. The thoughts of others facilitate new combinations of ideas. It is argued here that propitious spatial arrangements make both sets of benefits possible. These arrangements involve choices from a very large combinatorial set. The choice problem is too complex to entrust to models or planning agencies. Rather, flexible land markets are required. This paper is based on the author's presidential address delivered at the February 2012 meetings of the Western Regional Science Association in Kauai, Hawaii. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper highlights that the race-to-top result shown by Wellisch (J. Urban Econ. 37:290-310, ) and Kunce and Shogren (J. Environ. Econ. Manage. 50:212-224, ) may be exacerbated by inter-jurisdictional commuting, leading to increased NIMBY behavior (Not-In-My-Back-Yard) among metropolitan jurisdictions. Local governments try to push polluting economic activities to the neighboring jurisdictions, while commuting guarantees their residents' labor income. Commuting generates a leakage of the local production benefits of pollution as non-resident commuters take the wages to their home jurisdictions. Jurisdictions may thus face a prisoners' dilemma, in which they all push for pollution levels that are too low (race-to-the-top). Fiercer competition in the common labor market due to a larger number of jurisdictions intensifies this race-to-the-top in environmental regulation; whereas transboundary pollution, local ownership of firms, pollution taxes, and payroll taxes reduce the incentive for overly restrictive pollution policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For more than a century, parents in Denmark could enroll their children into privately operated 'free schools.' Results from this study indicate an increase in native Danes' propensity to enroll their children in free schools as the share of children with immigrant background becomes larger in their municipality of residence. The effect is most pronounced in small, and medium-sized municipalities, while it seems absent in larger municipalities. The study explores changes in the immigrant population in Danish municipalities 1992-2004, a period marked by a substantial influx of refugees, where a state-sponsored placement policy restricted their initial choice of residence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AhlfeldtG. M. and MaennigW. External productivity and utility effects of city airports,Regional Studies. This paper uses a micro-level data set for residential and commercial property transactions to investigate external utility and productivity effects for three (city) airports in Berlin, Germany, in a spatial hedonic analysis. It finds strong evidence of adverse noise effects on property prices and a discontinuity at approximately 55 dB. Marginal price effects decrease significantly in the presence of alternative noise sources, which can lead to biased estimates if the interaction effect is not accounted for appropriately. Given that there is less evidence of positive accessibility effects, the result questions the justification for locating airports in city centres. AhlfeldtG. M. and MaennigW. 外部性以及城市机场设施效应，区域研究。 本文使用居住以及商业财产转移的微观层面的数据在空间享乐分析中考察了德国柏林三个机场的外部设施以及财产效应。研究发现，噪音效应对于房产价格产生负面影响，以及在约 55 分贝处的不连续性。在存在替代噪音源的情况下，边缘价格效应显著减少，在没有恰当地考虑互动效应的情况下，会导致有偏差的预测。假设正面可达性效应证据不足，将机场设于城市中心的正当性将会受到质疑。 可达性 机场噪音 商业地产 居住地产 房产价格 柏林 AhlfeldtG. M. et MaennigW. Les effets de productivité et d'utilité externes des city-airports,Regional Studies. À partir d'une analyse hédonique géographique, cet article cherche à employer un ensemble de microdonnées auprès des transactions sur les marchés immobiliers résidentiel et commercial, afin d'examiner les effets d'utilité et de productivité externes pour troiscity-airportssitués à Berlin, en Allemagne. Il s'avère des preuves solides des nuisances sonores des avions sur le prix du foncier, et d'une discontinuité à 55dB environ. Les effets de prix marginaux diminuent sensiblement en présence d'autres sources de nuisances sonores, ce qui pourrait amener à des estimations partiales si on ne tient pas compte de l'effet d'interaction comme il faut. Vu que rares sont les preuves des effets d'accessibilité positifs, les résultats mettent en doute la logique de construire des aéroports en pleine ville. Accessibilité Nuisances sonores des avions Immobilier commercial Immobilier résidentiel Prix du foncier Berlin AhlfeldtG. M. und MaennigW. Externe Produktivitäts- und Nutzeneffekte von City-Airports,Regional Studies. Dieser Beitrag verwendet Mikro-Daten aus der Kaufpreissammlung Berlins, um am Beispiel der drei Berliner (City-)Flughäfen auf deren potentielle externe Produktivitäts- und Nutzeneffekte von Stadt-Flughäfen zu testen. Wir finden signifikant negative Effekte des Fluglärms auf die Immobilienpreise, welche bei unter ca. 55 dB ihre Signifikanz verlieren. Die preismindernden Effekte des Fluglärms verringern sich signifikant, wenn andere Lärmquellen existieren. Eine Nichtberücksichtigung dieses Zusammenhangs kann zu verzerrten Schätzern führen. Vor dem Hintergrund nur begrenzter Evidenz von lokalen Erreichbarkeits- bzw. Anbindungseffekten durch Flughäfen hinterfragen unsere Ergebnisse die Sinnhaftigkeit von Flughäfen in innerstädtischen Lagen. Erreichbarkeit Anbindung Fluglärm Gewerbeimmobilien Wohnimmobilien Immobilienpreise Berlin AhlfeldtG. M. y MaennigW. Productividad externa y efectos de utilidad en aeropuertos urbanos,Regional Studies. Mediante un análisis hedonista espacial, en este artículo utilizamos un grupo de datos a nivel micro sobre transacciones de propiedades residenciales y comerciales para investigar los efectos de la utilidad externa y la productividad de tres aeropuertos urbanos de Berlín, Alemania. Observamos importantes indicios de efectos negativos del ruido en los precios de la vivienda, que pierden su relevancia a partir de valores por debajo de aproximadamente 55 dB. Los efectos marginales en el precio disminuyen de modo significativo si existen otras fuentes de ruido, lo que puede llevar a cálculos sesgados si el efecto de interacción no se tiene en cuenta apropiadamente. Dado que hay pocas evidencias de efectos positivos de accesibilidad, el resultado cuestiona la justificación para ubicar aeropuertos en centros urbanos. Accesibilidad Ruido de aviones Propiedades comerciales Propiedades residenciales Precios de la propiedad inmobiliaria Berlín [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

FabreE. and SwendenW. Territorial politics and the statewide party,Regional Studies. The literature on political parties has been affected by a national bias. However, the multilevel nature of party organizations deserves one's attention because parties have responded as well as contributed to the rise in regional authority across most Western democracies. This paper considers statewide parties from a double perspective: as organizations subject to a range of pressures in a multilevel environment, and as actors influencing multilevel political systems. It concludes with a call for stronger links between traditional areas of party and policy research and multilevel party research and for more comparative data collection on multilevel parties and policy positions. FabreE. and SwendenW. 地域政治与全国性政党，区域研究。有关政党的文献受到国家层级的偏见所影响，但多重层级的政党组织本身却值得受到观照，因为政党在大多数的西方民主制度中，需回应并导致区域统治政体的产生。本文从两个面向考量全国性政党：这些政党做为承受来自多重层级环境压力的组织，同时做为影响多重层级政治系统的行动者。结论部分，本文呼吁在政党及政策研究的传统领域和多重层级政党研究之间建构更强的连结，并对多重层级政党与政策立场进行更多的比较性资料搜集。 地域政治 区域 政党 政党组织 FabreE. et SwendenW. La politique territoriale et les partis politiques nationauxRegional Studies. La littérature sur les partis politiques a été influencée par le préjugé national de la discipline. La structure multiniveaux des partis politiques mérite cependant une certaine attention parce que les partis politiques ont répondu et contribué à l'essor du pouvoir régional dans la plupart des démocraties occidentales. Cet article cherche à approcher les partis politiques nationaux sous deux aspects différents: en tant qu' organisations soumises à une série de pressions dans un milieu multiniveaux, et en tant qu'acteurs qui influencent des systèmes politiques multiniveaux. Pour conclure, on milite en faveur de liens plus forts entre les aspects traditionnels de la recherche sur les partis et les politiques et la recherche sur la politique territoriale dans les Etats multiniveaux, et en faveur de la collecte de données plus comparatives sur les partis politiques et leurs positions. Politique territoriale Régions Partis politiques Organisation politique FabreE. und SwendenW. Raumpolitik und die Partei auf Staatsebene,Regional Studies. Die Literatur über politische Parteien unterliegt einer nationalen Verzerrung. Allerdings verdient die mehrstufige Beschaffenheit von Parteiorganisationen Beachtung, denn die Parteien haben auf den Aufstieg der regionalen Autorität in den meisten westlichen Demokratien reagiert und auch selbst dazu beigetragen. In diesem Beitrag werden Parteien auf Staatsebene aus einer doppelten Perspektive untersucht: als Organisationen, die in einer mehrstufigen Umgebung den verschiedensten Arten von Druck ausgesetzt sind, und als Akteure, die Einfluss auf mehrstufige politische Systeme ausüben. Der Beitrag endet mit einem Appell für stärkere Verknüpfungen zwischen den traditionellen Bereichen der Partei- und Politikforschung einerseits und der mehrstufigen Parteiforschung andererseits und mit der Forderung nach einer verstärkten Erfassung von vergleichenden Daten über mehrstufige Partei- und Grundsatzpositionen. Raumpolitik Regionen Politische Parteien Parteiorganisation FabreE. y SwendenW. Políticas territoriales y los partidos de ámbito estatal (PAES),Regional Studies. La literatura sobre los partidos políticos está sujeta a un sesgo nacional. Sin embargo, la naturaleza multinivel de las organizaciones partidistas merece atención porque los partidos han respondido y contribuido al aumento de la autoridad regional en la mayoría de las democracias occidentales. En este artículo consideramos los partidos de ámbito estatal desde una perspectiva doble: como organizaciones sujetas a una amplia gama de presiones en un entorno de multinivel, y como protagonistas que influyen en los sistemas políticos multinivel. Concluimos que se deberían establecer vínculos más sólidos entre las áreas tradicionales de la investigación de partidos y políticas por un lado y la investigación de partidos multinivel por otro, y que es necesario recabar más datos comparativos sobre los partidos multinivel y sus posiciones políticas. Política territorial Regiones Partidos políticos Organización de partidos [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

VanlangenakkerI., MaddensB. and PutG.-J. Career patterns in multilevel states: an analysis of the Belgian regions,Regional Studies. An analysis of transfers of members of parliament (MPs) between national and regional parliaments in Belgium confirms that career patterns in multilevel political systems do not conform to a rigid hierarchical model. These patterns are instead highly diverse and fit the integrated model best. The regional parliament exerts the stronger magnetic pull on the politicians. The hypothesis that the transfers to the regional parliament would increase with regional competences was partially confirmed. Furthermore, transfers to regional parliaments are not higher in regions with a strong regionalist current. A comparison with Scotland (UK) and Catalonia (Spain) suggests that the development of a separate career circuit depends mostly on institutional factors. VanlangenakkerI., MaddensB. and PutG.-J. 多层级国家中的职涯模式：比利时的区域分析，区域研究。在比利时的国家与区域层级议会之间调任的议会成员分析，确认了多层级政治系统中的职涯模式并不依循僵固的阶层性模型。反之，这些模式高度分歧，并且最符合整合性的模型。区域议会对政治家发挥较强的磁吸效应。转任区域议会的情形随着区域竞争力而增加的假说部分被证实。此外，转任区域议会的情形在区域主义盛行的区域中并不会更高。苏格兰和加泰隆尼亚（西班牙）的比较研究指出，分离的职业回路发展主要取决于制度因素。 职涯模式 议会成员（MPs） 级别跳跃 议会 VanlangenakkerI., MaddensB. et PutG.-J. Les profils de carrière dans les états à plusieurs niveaux: une analyse des régions belges,Regional Studies. Une analyse des transferts des députés entre le parlement national et les parlements régionaux en Belgique confirme que les profils de carrière dans les sytèmes politiques à plusieurs niveaux ne correspondent pas à un seul modèle hiérarchique. En revanche, ces profils sont extrêmement variés et correspondent le mieux au modèle intégré. Le parlement régional peut déclencher une attraction magnétique plus forte sur les hommes politiques. L'hypothèse selon laquelle les transferts aux parlements régionaux augmentent au fur et à mesure des compétences regionales est partiellement confirmée. Qui plus est, les transferts aux parlements régionaux ne sont pas plus importants dans les régions dont la tendance au régionalisme est plus forte. Un comparaison avec l'Écosse et la Catalonie (en Espagne) laisse supposer que le développement d'un parcours professionnel séparé dépend dans une large mesure des facteurs institutionnels. Profils de carrière Députés Changement de niveau Parlement VanlangenakkerI., MaddensB. und PutG.-J. Karrieremuster in Mehrebenenstaaten: eine Analyse der belgischen Regionen,Regional Studies. Durch eine Analyse der Versetzungen von Abgeordneten zwischen nationalen und regionalen Parlamenten in Belgien bestätigt sich die Annahme, dass die Karrieremuster in politischen Mehrebenensystemen keinem starren hierarchischen Modell folgen. Stattdessen fallen diese Muster hochgradig unterschiedlich aus und passen am besten zum integrierten Modell. Das regionale Parlament übt auf die Politiker die stärkere magnetische Anziehungskraft aus. Die Hypothese, dass die Anzahl der Versetzungen in Regionalparlamente bei wachsenden regionalen Kompetenzen zunimmt, wurde teilweise bestätigt. Darüber hinaus fallen die Versetzungen in die Regionalparlamente von Regionen mit starker regionalistischer Strömung nicht zahlreicher aus. Aus einem Vergleich mit Schottland und Katalonien (Spanien) geht hervor, dass die Entwicklung eines separaten Karrierewegs vor allem von institutionellen Faktoren abhängt. Karrieremuster Parlamentsmitglieder Ebenenwechsel Parlament VanlangenakkerI., MaddensB. y PutG.-J. Modelos de carreras profesionales en estados con varios niveles: un análisis en las regiones belgas,Regional Studies. Mediante un análisis de las transferencias de miembros del parlamento entre parlamentos nacionales y regionales en Bélgica se confirma que los modelos de carreras profesionales en sistemas políticos de varios niveles no siguen una estructura jerárquica rígida. Más bien estos modelos son muy diversos y encajan mejor con la estructura integrada. El parlamento regional ejerce una mayor atracción magnética en los políticos. Se confirmó parcialmente la hipótesis de que las transferencias al parlamento regional aumentan con las competencias regionales. Además, no hay más transferencias a parlamentos regionales en regiones con una fuerte corriente regionalista. Comparando con los casos de Escocia y Cataluña observamos que el desarrollo de una carrera profesional por separado depende en gran medida de factores institucionales. Modelos profesionales Miembros del parlamento Salto de nivel Parlamento [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]